Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp): Proportional (P) Controller

• Definition: A high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs Functionality: Lead-Lag Compensator Using an Op-Amp
and typically a single-ended output. • A P-controller provides an output that is proportional to the error signal. A Lead-Lag Compensator is used in control systems to improve both
• Structure: Usually consists of three stages: • The output is given by: u(t)=Kp*e(t)where: transient and steady-state performance by adjusting the phase and gain
1. Differential Input Stage – Provides high input impedance and common- o u(t) = control output characteristics of the system. It combines the features of Lead and Lag
mode rejection. o Kp = proportional gain compensators:
2. Gain Stage – Enhances voltage gain. o e(t) = error (difference between setpoint and process variable) • Lead Compensation: Improves system stability and transient response by
3. Output Stage – Provides low output impedance for driving loads. Advantages: adding phase lead (increases phase margin).
• Functionality: Simple and easy to implement. • Lag Compensation: Reduces steady-state error by increasing low-frequency
o Can operate in different configurations (inverting, non-inverting, Provides a quick response to changes in the system. gain.
integrator, differentiator, etc.). Disadvantages:
o Often includes internal compensation for stability. 1. Transfer Function of a Lead-Lag Compensator
Cannot eliminate steady-state error.
o Provides high gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance.. The general transfer function of a lead-lag compensator is:
May cause oscillations if Kp is too high.
Internal Structure of an Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) G(s)=K(s+z1)/(s+p1)⋅(s+p2)/(s+z2)
Applications:
An Op-Amp consists of three main stages: where:
• Used where steady-state error is not critical (e.g., heater control, voltage
1. Differential Input Stage: • z1 → Lead compensation (adds phase lead),
regulation).
o Made of a differential amplifier using a pair of transistors (BJTs or • z2 → Lag compensation (reduces steady-state error),
MOSFETs). • K→ Gain factor.
2. Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller
o Provides high input impedance. For a practical lead-lag compensator:
Functionality:
o Ensures common-mode rejection to eliminate noise. • The lead component satisfies z1<p1 (higher frequency behavior).
• A PI-controller combines proportional and integral actions to eliminate
2. Gain Stage: • The lag component satisfies z2>p2(lower frequency behavior).
steady-state error.
o An intermediate high-gain amplifier stage (typically a common-emitter
• The output equation is: u(t)=Kpe(t)+Ki∫e(t)dt where:
or common-source amplifier).
o Ki = integral gain
o Increases the voltage gain significantly.
Advantages:
o Provides impedance matching between input and output stages.
Eliminates steady-state error.
3. Output Stage:
Provides better stability than a P-controller.
o Typically a push-pull amplifier (Class AB configuration).

o Provides low output impedance for driving loads.

Disadvantages:
o Ensures better power efficiency and linearity.
Slower response than a P-controller.
Key Characteristics of an Op-Amp Can cause overshoot if not tuned properly.
1. Output Offset Voltage (Vo) Applications:
• The voltage at the output when both inputs are at zero volts. • Used in temperature control, speed control of motors, and power systems.
• Ideally, it should be zero, but due to mismatches in transistor characteristics,

a small offset voltage appears.

2. Circuit Design Using an Op-Amp 1. Feedback Amplifiers 3. Wein Bridge Oscillator

A lead-lag compensator can be implemented using an active filter with an A feedback amplifier is an amplifier that uses a portion of its output signal as A Wein Bridge Oscillator is a low-frequency sine wave oscillator that uses an RC
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp). The circuit consists of: feedback to its input, modifying its gain and response. Feedback can be: bridge network for feedback.
1. Lead Network: A resistor-capacitor (RC) network to introduce phase lead. • Negative Feedback (reduces gain, increases stability, reduces distortion) Operation
2. Lag Network: Another RC network to introduce phase lag. • Positive Feedback (increases gain, can lead to oscillations) • The bridge network consists of R1, C1, R2, and C2, forming a lead-lag

3. Op-Amp in Inverting/Non-Inverting Configuration: To control gain and Types of Feedback in Amplifiers network.
impedance characteristics. 1. Voltage Series Feedback (Series-Shunt) • The amplifier provides positive feedback through the bridge.

o Feedback voltage is in series with the input. • The circuit oscillates at frequency:

3. Transfer Function of the Circuit o Input impedance increases, output impedance decreases. f=1/2πRC
The transfer function of the lead-lag compensator using an op-amp is: o Used in op-amp voltage followers. Advantages
G(s)=K⋅(1+sT1)/(1+sT2)⋅(1+sT3)/(1+sT4) 2. Voltage Shunt Feedback (Shunt-Shunt) Produces low-distortion sine waves.
where: o Feedback voltage is in parallel (shunt) with input. Stable frequency with RC selection.
• T1=R1C1 (Lead time constant), o Reduces input impedance. Applications
• T2=R2C2(Lag time constant), o Used in transistor-based voltage amplifiers. • Audio signal generation.
• K is the gain factor of the op-amp. 3. Current Series Feedback (Series-Series) • Function generators.
The lead network creates a zero that provides phase lead, while the lag o Feedback current is in series with input. • Testing and calibration equipment.
network introduces a pole at a lower frequency, reducing steady-state error. o Increases input impedance.

o Used in current amplifiers. 4. Phase Shift Oscillator

4. Design Considerations 4. Current Shunt Feedback (Shunt-Series) A Phase Shift Oscillator generates a sine wave using RC networks that create a
• Choosing R1,C1 (Lead Network): o Feedback current is in parallel with input. total 180° phase shift, combined with an additional 180° phase shift from an
o The lead compensator should provide a phase advance at the desired o Reduces input impedance, increases output impedance. inverting amplifier.
crossover frequency. o Used in current-controlled devices. Operation
o Typically, choose z1=1/(R1C1) • Three RC stages provide 60° phase shift each, totaling 180°.
• Choosing R2,C2 (Lag Network): 2. Oscillator Design • An inverting amplifier (Op-Amp or transistor) provides the additional 180°.
o The lag compensator should provide increased low-frequency gain to An oscillator is a circuit that generates a continuous AC signal without requiring an • The circuit oscillates at:
reduce steady-state error. external input. It relies on positive feedback to sustain oscillations. f=1/2πRCsquare root of 6
o Typically, choose z2=1/(R2C2) Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillation Advantages
For sustained oscillations, a circuit must satisfy: Simple design (only resistors, capacitors, and an op-amp).
5. Applications 1. Loop Gain Condition: Aβ=1 where A is the amplifier gain, and β is the
Works at low frequencies.
• Motor speed control (DC motors, servo motors). feedback factor.
Applications
• Automatic control systems (temperature, voltage regulators). 2. Phase Shift Condition:
• Audio oscillators.
• Robotics and aerospace (autopilots, drones). o The total phase shift around the loop must be 0° or 360°.
• Waveform generators.
• Communication systems (signal conditioning).
• Instrumentation and sensors.
1. Introduction to MOSFET • Can be minimized using offset nulling techniques.

A Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a voltage- 3. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller 2. Input Bias Current (IB)
controlled transistor used for switching and amplification in digital and analog Functionality: • The average of the DC currents entering both input terminals of the Op-Amp.

circuits. It operates by controlling the flow of current between the source and • A PID-controller combines P, I, and D actions to improve stability, eliminate • Defined as: − are the input currents at the non-inverting and inverting

drain terminals using an applied voltage at the gate terminal. steady-state error, and enhance response time. terminals.
Basic Structure of MOSFET • The output equation is: u(t)=Kpe(t)+Ki∫e(t)dt+Kdde(t)/dt where: • Affects precision circuits like sensors and instrumentation amplifiers.

• Source (S): The terminal from which charge carriers enter. o Kd= derivative gain 3. Input Offset Current (Io)
• Drain (D): The terminal where charge carriers exit. Advantages: • The difference between the bias currents at the inverting and non-inverting

• Gate (G): Controls the current flow by applying voltage. Provides fast response and minimizes overshoot. inputs.
• Body (B) / Substrate: The semiconductor base on which the MOSFET is built. Eliminates steady-state error. • Ideally should be zero, but mismatches in transistor characteristics cause a

• Oxide Layer: An insulating layer (SiO₂) that separates the gate from the small offset current.
Reduces oscillations and improves stability.
channel. Disadvantages: • Affects precision applications and is minimized by design improvements.

2. Types of MOSFETs 4. Slew Rate (SR)

Complex to tune (requires selecting proper Kp,Ki,Kdvalues).
MOSFETs are classified into two main types: • The maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time.
Sensitive to noise in derivative action.
1. Enhancement Mode MOSFET • Measured in V/µs (volts per microsecond).
Applications:
o Normally OFF at VGS=0V • Given by: SR=dVout/dt
• Used in robotics, industrial automation, autopilot systems, and process
o Requires a gate voltage (VGS) to turn ON. • Limits how fast the Op-Amp can respond to a rapidly changing input signal.
control.
o Used in digital circuits and switching applications. • Higher slew rate is required for high-speed applications (e.g., audio

2. Depletion Mode MOSFET amplifiers, video processing).

o Normally ON at VGS=0V. 5. Frequency Response of an Op-Amp
o Requires a gate voltage (VGS) to turn OFF. • Op-Amps do not provide infinite gain at all frequencies.

o Used in RF circuits and analog applications. • The gain decreases as frequency increases due to internal capacitances.

Each of these types can be either N-Channel or P-Channel MOSFETs. • Open-loop frequency response:

N-Channel vs. P-Channel MOSFETs o The gain decreases at a rate of -20 dB/decade after the gain-bandwidth

Feature N-Channel MOSFET P-Channel MOSFET product (GBW) limit.

o Dominant pole compensation is used to stabilize the Op-Amp.
Charge Carriers Electrons (fast) Holes (slow)
• Closed-loop frequency response:
Drain-Source
Positive Negative o The bandwidth increases but the gain decreases in negative feedback
Current (ID)
configurations.
Gate Threshold Positive for enhancement, Negative for enhancement,
o The product of gain and bandwidth remains approximately constant.
Voltage (VGS) negative for depletion positive for depletion
• Key points in frequency response:
Switching Speed Faster Slower o Unity-gain bandwidth: The frequency where the gain becomes 1 (0 dB).
Power Efficiency High Low o Phase margin: A measure of stability, should be positive to avoid
3. MOSFET I-V Characteristics oscillations.

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a MOSFET are divided into three

1. Square Wave Generator Comparison: Square Wave vs. Triangular Wave Generators regions:
A square wave generator produces a waveform that alternates between two Feature Square Wave Generator Triangular Wave Generator (a) Cutoff Region (VGS<Vth)
levels, forming a 50% duty cycle. It can be designed using an astable multivibrator Waveform Sharp transitions Smooth linear slopes • The MOSFET is OFF, and no current flows (ID≈0I_D \approx 0ID≈0).

using an Op-Amp. • The gate-to-source voltage (VGSV_{GS}VGS) is less than the threshold
Circuit Square wave generator +
Working Principle Op-Amp, resistor, capacitor voltage (Vth).
Components integrator
• The Op-Amp acts as a comparator. (b) Triode Region (Linear Region)
Linearly rising and falling
• The capacitor C1 charges and discharges through R1, switching the output Output Shape Alternates between • MOSFET operates as a variable resistor.
waveform
state. • Current equation:

• The output toggles between positive and negative saturation voltage (+Vsat
Digital clocks, PWM, ID=μnCoxW/L[(VGS−Vth)VDS−VDS^2/2]
Applications Signal processing, modulation
and −Vsat) oscillators • Used in analog amplification and low-power applications.

Frequency Formula (c) Saturation Region (Active Region)

f=1/2R1C1ln(3) • MOSFET acts as a constant current source.

where R1and C1 determine the frequency. • Current equation:

Applications ID=1/2μnCoxW/L(VGS−Vth)^2
Clock pulses for digital circuits. • Condition: VDS>(VGS−Vth)

Timing circuits. • Used in digital switching and amplifiers.

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) circuits. 4. I-V Characteristic Curves

(a) Drain Current (ID) vs. Drain-Source Voltage (VDS)
• Shows the transition between linear, saturation, and cutoff regions.
2. Triangular Wave Generator
• Initially, current increases linearly (triode region) and then levels off
A triangular wave generator can be designed using a square wave generator
followed by an integrator. (saturation region).
Working Principle (b) Drain Current (IDI_DID) vs. Gate-Source Voltage (VGSV_{GS}VGS)
• Follows a quadratic relationship in saturation.
• The square wave generator provides a constant amplitude pulse.
• Current starts increasing onceVGS>Vth.
• The integrator converts the square wave into a triangular wave by integrating

the voltage. 5. Applications of MOSFET

Frequency Formula Switching Applications: Used in microcontrollers, power electronics, and
f=1/4RC digital logic circuits.
where r and Cdetermine the frequency. Amplifiers: MOSFETs are widely used in RF and audio amplifiers.
Applications Power Electronics: Used in SMPS (Switched-Mode Power Supplies) and motor
Audio signal processing. control.
Waveform synthesis. Computers and Processors: Core component in CMOS technology
Modulation circuits. (Complementary MOS).