NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

DEFINITION AND NATURE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY:

The word "geomorphology" was first coined and used between the 1870s and 1880s to describe
the morphology of the surface of the Earth. But it was popularized by the American geologists
William Morris Davis who proposed the "geographical cycle" also known as "Davis cycle"
Geomorphology is an important branch of Physical Geography (geomorphology, climatology,
biogeography, oceanography). It is concerned with the scientific study of the origin and
evolution of the relief features of the earth. The term geomorphology has been derived from
Greek words and combination of three words i.e 'ge' (earth), 'morphe (form) and logo' (a
discourse). Thus, geomorphology is the description (discourse) of various forms (morphe) of
the earth's surface.
Geomorphology is the systematic and organised description and analysis of various landforms
of the earth. The word' landforms' includes not merely micro features of the land and but also
major relief features such as continents, plain and plateaus and a discussion of their origin and
evolution is equally relevant. Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution
of topographic and bathymetric created by physical, chemical and biological processes
operating at or near the earth's surface.
P.G Worcester defined geomorphology as 'the interpretative description of the relief features
of the earth'.
According to Strahler, geomorphology is an analysis of the origin and evolution of earth
features. Geomorphology does not merely study the physical, chemical and biological
processes affecting the evolution of landforms but also the structure of the earth's crust, the
geological processes as well as the climatic influences, because it is the combined influence of
all these factors that determines the landforms.
According to W.D. Thornbury, geomorphology is the science of landforms including the
submarine topography.
A.L. Bloom also defined geomorphology as the systematic description and analysis of
landscapes and the processes that change them.
According to German geologists Machatschek, Geomorphology is the study of the physical
processes fashioning the form of the solid surface of the earth as well as the resultant landforms.

Nature of geomorphology can be divided into three categories:

1) Scientific nature: geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms It gives scientific
account of the physical face of the earth. Spatial relations through geological time scale are
analysis in this subject.
2) Interdisciplinary nature: geomorphology is interdisciplinary by nature. It has close
relationship with other branches of natural science (geology, hydrology, biology, chemistry,
geophysics, meteorology, pedology, engineering etc)
3) Dynamic nature: Face of the earth is constantly changing because of it is dynamic nature.
These changes are caused by both external and internal forces.
SCOPE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY:
The Subject matter of Geomorphology incorporates Structure, Process, systematic analysis and
evolution of Landforms.

• Structure is an arrangement of interrelated elements in a material object or system. It

is determined by internal a force which includes plate tectonic, diastrophism and
volcanic action. It includes study of geomaterials (lithology, deposition of rock beds
and composition of rocks etc)
• Processes are mainly related to external or exogenic forces. These forces contribute to
shape a landscape. They are also called destructional processes or denudational
processes. (for detail read geomorphic processes)
• Systematic analysis and evolution of landforms(time factor), is also an important in
geomorphic evolution like structure and processes because the interaction because the
interaction structures does not provide adequate explanation because the interaction of
surface processes with geological structures does not provide adequate explanation of
landforms unless we include the explanation of the length of time the process has been
operating which will give us an idea of the relative stage of development.
For systematic analysis of landforms, we can classify landforms into three categories. They
are
1.Generic classification of landforms
2.Genetic classification of landforms
3.Classifcation on the basis of scale and lifespan
Generic classification of landforms is the description of entire group or class of lanfoms i.e.
Mountain Plateau and Plains (example, Himalayan Mountain ranges, Tibetan Plateau and the
Northern plains in India).
Genetic Classification of Landforms: It means classification of landforms by dominant set
of geomorphic processes. For example, Tectonic landforms, fluvial landforms, Karst
landforms, Aeolian landforms, Coastal landforms and Glacial landforms.
Classification of landforms on the basis of scale can be understood by rearranging the earth's
landforms into three different orders: for example,
1) First order relief features: it includes Continental Platforms and Ocean Basins.
2) Second order relief features: The relief features of the second order are superimposed on
First order category of landforms for example, plains, plateau and mountains.
3) Third order relief features are superimposed on ll order relief features such as Valleys,
Canyons and Dunes.
APPROACHES IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
Two major approaches in geomorphology are:
1) Historical approaches: it involves historical evolution of landforms
2) Functional approaches: it involves time independent series of landforms evolution
reflecting association between landform characteristics and existing environmental condition.
 IMPACT OF DAM ON RUNOFF
INTRODUCTION:
Dams are structures built across rivers to regulate water flow, store water for various purposes
like irrigation, drinking water supply, hydropower generation, and flood control. While they
provide numerous benefits, they also significantly alter the natural hydrological processes of
river basins, including runoff.
IMPACT ON RUNOFF:
1. Reduction in Peak Flows: Dams store water during periods of high flow, such as
during heavy rainfall or snowmelt, and release it gradually. This reduces the peak flow
downstream, mitigating floods. By holding back water, dams can alter the timing and
magnitude of peak flows, potentially reducing downstream flood risks.
2. Decreased Base Flows: Base flow refers to the minimum flow in a river during dry
periods, primarily sustained by groundwater discharge and natural runoff. Dams can
reduce base flows by trapping sediment and altering the natural flow regime. Reduced
base flows downstream can impact aquatic ecosystems, water quality, and ecosystem
services.
3. Changes in Seasonal Flow Patterns: Dams often regulate water releases based on
human needs rather than natural hydrological cycles. This can lead to changes in
seasonal flow patterns, with alterations in the timing and volume of water released
downstream. These changes can affect downstream ecosystems, including spawning
habitats for fish and other aquatic organisms.
4. Sediment Trapping: Dams trap sediment carried by rivers, leading to sedimentation
within reservoirs. This reduces sediment transport downstream, affecting
geomorphological processes such as erosion and deposition. Downstream erosion may
increase due to sediment deprivation, impacting river ecosystems, habitats, and
infrastructure.
5. Alteration of Temperature Regimes: Reservoirs behind dams can modify temperature
regimes by changing the mixing patterns of water. Deep reservoirs tend to stratify, with
warmer surface waters and cooler bottom waters. Altered temperature regimes can
affect aquatic habitats, especially for cold-water species.
6. Impacts on Riparian and Floodplain Ecosystems: Changes in flow patterns caused
by dams can disrupt riparian and floodplain ecosystems, which depend on periodic
flooding for nutrient replenishment and habitat maintenance. Altered flows may lead to
the loss of wetlands, decreased biodiversity, and changes in vegetation composition.
CONCLUSION:
Dams play a crucial role in water resource management, providing various benefits to society.
However, their impacts on runoff patterns can have far-reaching consequences for downstream
ecosystems, water quality, and the livelihoods of communities. Therefore, it's essential to
carefully consider the trade-offs and implement mitigation measures to minimize adverse
effects while maximizing the benefits of dam projects. This requires comprehensive planning,
stakeholder engagement, and adaptive management strategies to ensure sustainable water
management in river basins impacted by dams.

IMPACT OF EMBANKMENT ON RUNOFF

INTRODUCTION:
Embankment is a raised elongated structure (as of earth or gravel) constructed along the river
bank especially to hold back water or protect the settlement on flood plain from flooding. But
many a time the embankment is constructed to carry a road way or railway. Embankments,
often constructed along riverbanks or coastlines, have significant impacts on runoff patterns
and hydrological processes. Here's a detailed note on the impact of embankments on runoff:
EFFECT OF EMBANKMENT ON DIRECT RUNOFF
1. Impact on Floodplain Ecosystem: In natural conditions, the floodplain is generally
characterized by the existence of permanent ponds, marshes, water meadow forests and
agricultural lands (arable. pastures, and meadows) all subject to river flooding and
surface slope runoffs.
During occurrence of flood the water is spread over flood plain and enters into those
depressed part of flood plain since the flood water level exceeds the altitude of bank of
those depression. But when flood water recedes the water from flood plain depression
cannot return to river channel.
The floodplains, under natural flow, thus, function as natural reservoirs, being able to
mitigate the flood effects. If the embankment is constructed the flood water cannot be
spread over the flood plain and cannot enter into the flood plain depression and hence
flood discharge increases and there is also increase in flood surge.
2. Channelization of Flow: Embankments confine the flow of water within a defined
channel, preventing lateral movement and spreading of water onto floodplains during
high flow events. This channelization alters the natural flow regime, often leading to
faster conveyance of water downstream.
3. Increased Peak Flows: The rising limb of hydrograph, thus, shows abrupt rise and it
reaches much higher peak. But under natural condition since flood plain depression
contains much flood water magnitude of flood discharge is moderated and hydrograph
does not show sharp rising limb and higher peak.
Not only that the rate of siltation within channel increases since river cannot spread the
Silt over the flood plain. This phenomenon increases the river bed altitude which is the
reason behind the reduction of carrying capacity of the channel and hence energy head
of flowing water increases that causes increase in flood discharge
4. Reduced Infiltration and Groundwater Recharge: Embankments can limit the
interaction between surface water and groundwater by preventing water from spreading
onto floodplains. This reduction in infiltration and groundwater recharge can affect
groundwater levels and availability, particularly in areas dependent on groundwater for
drinking water supply and irrigation.
Sedimentation and Channel Morphology: Embankments can alter sediment transport processes
by confining flow within a narrow channel. This may lead to increased sediment deposition
within the channel, altering channel morphology and potentially increasing the risk of channel
avulsion or bank erosion downstream.
5. Social and Economic Impacts: While embankments provide flood protection to
adjacent areas, they can also create social and economic disparities. Communities
located outside the embankment may be at increased risk of flooding, leading to
unequal distribution of flood risk and potential conflicts over flood management
strategies.
CONCLUSION:
Embankments play a crucial role in mitigating flood risks and protecting vulnerable areas from
inundation. However, their construction and maintenance can have significant impacts on
runoff patterns, hydrological processes, and the health of riverine ecosystems. It's essential to
carefully consider the trade-offs associated with embankment construction, implement
sustainable flood management strategies, and incorporate ecosystem-based approaches to
minimize adverse impacts on runoff and maintain the ecological integrity of riverine
landscapes. Additionally, integrated flood risk management approaches that combine structural
measures like embankments with non-structural measures such as land use planning, early
warning systems, and community engagement are essential for building resilience to floods
and promoting sustainable water management practices.

IMPACT OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT ON RUNOFF

INTRODUCTION:
Urban development, characterized by the expansion of built infrastructure, impervious
surfaces, and altered land use patterns, significantly modifies the hydrological cycle in urban
areas. As cities grow, changes in land cover, surface permeability, and drainage systems can
lead to increased runoff volumes, altered flow pathways, and elevated flood risks.
Impact on Runoff:
1. Increased Impervious Surfaces: Urban development replaces natural land surfaces
with impervious materials such as concrete, asphalt, and rooftops, reducing infiltration
and increasing surface runoff. This phenomenon, known as the urban heat island effect,
exacerbates runoff by enhancing surface runoff and reducing evapotranspiration rates.
2. Altered Flow Pathways: Urbanization alters natural drainage patterns by channelizing
flow through stormwater drainage networks, culverts, and channels. This modification
of flow pathways can lead to accelerated runoff velocities, increased peak flows, and
changes in the timing and distribution of runoff events.
3. Stormwater Management Infrastructure: Urban development necessitates the
construction of stormwater management infrastructure such as drainage pipes,
detention basins, and retention ponds to mitigate flooding and manage runoff. While
 these structures help control runoff volumes and peak flows, they can also alter natural
hydrological processes and impact downstream ecosystems.
4. Sediment and Pollution Transport: Urban runoff often carries pollutants such as
heavy metals, nutrients, and sediment from paved surfaces and urban areas into water
bodies. Increased sedimentation can degrade water quality, impair aquatic habitats, and
disrupt ecosystem functions downstream, affecting biodiversity and ecosystem
services.
5. Flood Risks: Urban development increases the susceptibility of areas to flooding by
altering natural drainage patterns and increasing runoff volumes. Impervious surfaces
prevent water from infiltrating into the soil, leading to rapid runoff accumulation during
rainfall events and elevated flood risks in urbanized areas, particularly in low-lying and
poorly drained areas.
6. Urban Stream Degradation: Urbanization can degrade urban streams and water
bodies through increased runoff volumes, sedimentation, pollution, and habitat
fragmentation. These impacts degrade aquatic ecosystems, reduce biodiversity, and
compromise the ecological integrity of urban waterways.
CONCLUSION:
Urban development profoundly influences runoff patterns and hydrological processes, leading
to altered flow regimes, increased flood risks, and degraded water quality in urban areas and
downstream. Sustainable urban planning and stormwater management strategies are essential
for mitigating the adverse impacts of urbanization on runoff and promoting resilient, water-
sensitive urban design. Incorporating green infrastructure, low-impact development
techniques, and integrated stormwater management approaches can help minimize runoff
volumes, enhance infiltration, and protect aquatic ecosystems, contributing to the sustainable
management of urban water resources. Additionally, public awareness, community
engagement, and stakeholder collaboration are critical for fostering a collective understanding
of the challenges posed by urban runoff and implementing effective solutions to address them.
 TYPES OF AQUIFERS

INTRODUCTION
An aquifer is a ground-water reservoir composed of geologic units that are saturated with
water and sufficiently permeable to yield water in a usable quantity to wells and springs.
Sand and gravel deposits, sandstone, limestone, and fractured, crystalline rocks are examples
of geological units that form aquifers. Aquifers provide two important functions:

(1) they transmit ground water from areas of recharge to areas of discharge, and
(2) they provide a storage medium for useable quantities of ground water.

The amount of water a material can hold depends upon its porosity. The size and degree of
interconnection of those openings (permeability) determine the materials’ ability to transmit
fluid.

TYPES OF AQUIFERS
Most aquifers are of large areal extent and may be visualized as underground storage
reservoirs. Water enters a reservoir from natural or artificial recharge; it flows out under the
action of gravity or is extracted by wells. Ordinarily, the annual volume of water removed or
replaced represents only a small fraction of the total storage capacity. Aquifers may be
classed as-
• unconfined or confined, depending on the presence or absence of a water table,
• while a leaky aquifer represents a combination of the two types.
• Sometimes, fourth type of the aquifer is known as ‘Perched aquifer’.

CONFINED AQUIFER
• It is Confined under pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure by over lying
impervious (aquiclude) or semi-pervious strata (aquitard).
• When the water level in the well penetrating the confine aquifer rises above the ground,
called flowing well otherwise, artisian well.
• The imaginary surface to which water rises in wells tapping an artesian aquifer is known
as Piezomertric surface.
• A region supplying water to a confined area is known as a recharge area; water
may also enter by leakage through a confining bed. Rises and falls of water in wells
penetrating confined aquifers result primarily from changes in pressure rather than
changes in storage volumes.
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
• It is a permeable bed saturated with water table serves as the upper surface of the zone
of saturation, it is otherwise be called as water table aquifers.
• Rises and falls in the water table correspond to changes in the volume of water in
storage within an aquifer
• Water which is present in an unconfined aquifer is called as unconfined or phreatic
water.
• The upper surface is under atmospheric pressure and the is called water table.
• Water table undulates in form of depending upon the recharge and discharge, pumpage
of wells and permeability.
• This occurs wherever a groundwater body is separated from the main groundwater by
a relatively impermeable stratum of small areal extent and by the zone of aeration
above the main body of groundwater.

LEAKY AQUIFER
• If an aquifer (confined aquifer or unconfined aquifer) loses or gains water through
adjacent semi-permeable layers, it is called a ‘leaky aquifer’.
• Therefore, the terms ‘leaky confined aquifer’ and ‘leaky unconfined aquifer’ are widely
used depending on whether the leaky aquifer is confined or unconfined.
• These are a common feature in alluvial valleys, plains, or former lake basins where a
permeable stratum is overlain or underlain by a semi-pervious aquitard or semi-
confining layer.
• Pumping from a well in a leaky aquifer removes water in two ways: by horizontal
flow within the aquifer and by vertical flow through the aquitard into the aquifer.

PERCHED AQUIFERS
• Perched aquifers, are special kinds of phreatic aquifers occurring whenever an
impervious (or semi-pervious) layer of limited extent is located between the water table
of a phreatic aquifer and the ground surface, thereby making a groundwater body,
separated from the main groundwater body, to be formed.
• It is a special type of unconfined aquifer.
 METHOD AND CONCEPT OF GROUND WATER RECHARGE
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is the foremost supply of freshwater that caters to the demand of household,
agricultural and industrial sectors. It has become an essential for domestic uses especially for
drinking water and food security for billions of populations of the country. Approximately 70
percent water use in rural regions and approximately 50 percentage of water used in urban and
commercial region are fulfilled by the sources of groundwater.
NEED OF GROUND WATER RECHARGE
In last three decades an exponential growth in number of ground water structures has been
observed, leads to enormous withdrawal of groundwater for various uses in different sectors.
However, speedy urbanization and land use adjustments has resulted in decreased natural
infiltration/recharge of aquifers. This has result in various issues related to quantity and quality
of groundwater, the decline in water table levels and depletion of groundwater resources.
Slow natural replenishment of groundwater reservoir is not able to keep pace with the excessive
persisted exploitation of groundwater assets in numerous parts of the country. In order to
increase the natural supply of groundwater, artificial recharge to groundwater has emerged as
a vital and frontal management approach.
So, the recharge of groundwater is performed by using various direct and indirect recharge
technologies. The adoption of this technology depends on hydrology, geology and other factors
of a region. Thus artificial recharging of aquifer is one of the best options, in order to improve
groundwater crises which are sustainable in the long term.
BENEFITS OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
There are following advantages of artificial recharging of groundwater aquifers:
• Subsurface storage space is available free of cost and inundation is avoided.
• Evaporation losses are negligible and temperature variations are minimum.
• Quality improvement by infiltration through the permeable media.
• It has no adverse social impacts such as displacement of population, loss of scarce
agricultural land etc.
• It is a environment friendly technology that controls soil erosion and flood like
situations, and provides sufficient soil moisture during dry spell or water deficit
conditions.
• Water stored in soil profile is relatively immune to natural and man-made catastrophes.

METHODS OF NATURAL RECHARGE

Natural groundwater recharge occurs without human intervention and includes the following
processes:
Precipitation:
Direct Infiltration: Rainfall or snowmelt percolates through the soil and into the groundwater
system. This is the most significant source of natural recharge.
Factors Influencing Infiltration: Soil type, vegetation cover, land slope, and climate
conditions all impact how much water infiltrates versus running off.
Surface Water Interaction:
Rivers and Lakes: Water bodies can contribute to groundwater recharge when water levels are
high enough to seep into adjacent aquifers.
Flood Events: Overbank flooding can lead to significant infiltration in floodplains, recharging
the groundwater.
Geological Contributions:
Fractures and Faults: In regions with fractured rock formations, water can quickly move from
the surface to deeper aquifers through these natural pathways.
Permeable Rock Layers: Certain rock types, like limestone or sandstone, allow water to pass
through more easily, enhancing recharge.

METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE

Artificial or managed aquifer recharge (MAR) involves human activities designed to enhance the
natural replenishment of groundwater. This can be particularly important in areas facing groundwater
depletion or where natural recharge is insufficient to meet demand. Key methods include:
DIRECT SURFACE TECHNIQUES
This method of groundwater recharge is very simple and most widely used. Under this method
stored surface water is directly conveys into an aquifer without infiltration and water percolates
naturally through the unsaturated zones of soil profile and join the groundwater table.
Flooding/water spreading
This is a very common method of groundwater recharge.
• This method is suitable for relatively flat topography.
• Water is spread as a thin sheet.
• Higher rate of vertical infiltration is obtained.
• Potential area for this method is alluvial region of country
Percolation tank/basin
• A percolation tank can be defined as an artificially created surface water body in a
highly permeable land submerged area so that the surface runoff is made to percolate
and recharge the groundwater storage.
• It is the most prevalent structures in India because it is used to measure the recharge the
groundwater reservoir in highly permeable land areas.
• It is applicable in both alluvial as well as hard rock formations regions.
• Its efficacy and feasibility is more in hard rock formation regions than alluvial regions.
• Suitable in the States of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttrakhand, Sikkim,
North Eastern States, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala
Stream augmentation (Check dams/Nala bund/ gabions)
• It is feasible to construct across small streams having gentle slope (less than 6 percent).
• It is applicable in both hard rock as well as alluvial formation region.
• It is mainly confined to stream course and its height is normally very less (less than 2
m).
• To harness the maximum run off in the stream, series of such check dams can be
constructed.
• A nala bund acts like a mini percolation tank.
• These are popular and feasible in Bhabar, Kandi and talus scree areas of Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, and Maharashtra.
Ditch and furrow technology
This technology is mainly suitable in areas of irregular topography, shallow and flat bottomed
and closely spaced furrows or ditches that provide more surface area under groundwater
recharge through canal, river, stream and so on. This requires fewer earthworks and also less
sensitive to siltation.
Dug well recharge
• It is suitable in alluvial as well as hard rock areas having depth upto 50 meters.
 • The ground water reservoir, storm water, tank water, canal water etc. can be diverted
into these structures to directly recharge the dried aquifer.
• Ordinary dug wells, borewell and tube wells can be used for recharging of gw recharge
takes place by gravity flow.
• Suitable in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala.
Recharge pit and shaft
• These are the most efficient and cost-effective structures to recharge the aquifer directly.
• In area where impervious layer is encountered at shallow depth.
• Where phreatic aquifer is not hydraulically in connection with surface water.
• The diameter of shaft should be more than 2 m for recharging rate 7–14 lps.
• These structures are common in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu& Kashmir.

Injection wells
Injection well is generally recommended in urban area. It is operational in certain
hydrogeological setting for groundwater recharge where the aquifers do not get the natural
recharge because of the confining layers of low permeability. There are following advantages
for installation of the injection well:
• It is made with the purpose of augmenting the ground water storage of a confined
aquifer by pumping-in treated surface water under pressure.
• The aquifer to be replenished is generally over-exploited.
• It is suitable in coastal regions to capture sea water and also to withstand the land
subsidence problems in the regions where confined aquifers are over-pumped.
• Water available for groundwater recharging is to be fairly treated for elimination of
suspended material, chemical stabilization and bacterial manipulation.
Subsurface dykes
• It is a sub-surface barrier across a stream which slows down the natural sub-surface
/groundwater flow of the system and capture water beneath ground surface to meet the
water demand.
• The main cause of groundwater dam is to capture the flow of groundwater out of the
sub-basin and increase the storage capacity of the aquifer.
• Suitable in hard rocks or alluvium forested area.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH GROUNDWATER OVEREXPLOITATION
1. Lowering of the ground water level
The most critical effect of over-pumping of groundwater is that the water table may be lowered.
For water to be withdrawn from the aquifers, water should be pumped from a well that reaches
beneath the water table. If groundwater levels reduce too far, then the well owner may have to
deepen the well, drill a new well, or, at least, lower the pump below the water table available.
Also, as water levels fall down, the rate of water the well can yield might also reduce.
2. Increased costs for the user
As the depth of groundwater increases, the water must be lifted from the depth of groundwater
to the ground surface. If water pumps are used to lift the water, more electrical energy is
required to operate the water pump. Under this situation, using the well can become costly to
users.
3. Reduction of water availability in water bodies
There may be more of an interaction between the water in water bodies such as ponds, lakes,
rivers and streams, and groundwater than the most of the people think. A proportion of water
flowing in rivers contributed from seepage from the streambed to groundwater. Groundwater
contribution mainly depends upon on the parameters of physiographic, region’s topography,
soil, geology and climate.
4. Land subsidence
The primarily cause of land subsidence is a lack of support underneath ground surface.
Sometimes, when groundwater is over-exploited, the soil collapses, compacts, and sinks. This
depends on various factors, such as the type of soil, soil compressibility, physical attributes of
the aquifer, water table levels and earth geology. It is most often caused by anthropogenic
activities, mainly from the excess removal of subsurface water.
5. Deterioration of water quality
Saltwater intrusion is the major cause and threat to contamination of fresh groundwater
supplies. Available volume of water in the aquifers is not fresh water; much of the very deep
groundwater and water below seas is saline. Under natural conditions the boundary between
the freshwater and saltwater tends to be relatively stable while under excessive pumping
conditions it may result saltwater to migrate inland and rising upward and it leads to
contamination of the water supply.
 WATER LOGGING
INTRODUCTION
Water logging is a condition of land in which the soil profile is saturated with water either
temporarily or permanently. In waterlogged lands, the water table rises to an extent that the soil
pores in the crop root zone are saturated resulting in restriction of the normal circulation of air.
This causes a decline in the level of oxygen and increase in the level of carbon dioxide.
Generally, the water table is located at or near the surface resulting in poorly drained soils,
adversely affecting crop production. A land is said to be water-logged when the soil pores
within the root zone of the plants get saturated, and the normal growth of the plant is adversely
affected due to insufficient air circulation. Areas with water table within 2 m below the ground
surface are considered as prone to water logging and those with water table within 2-3 m are
considered to be at risk.
Waterlogging in urban areas refers to the accumulation of water on roads, streets, and low-
lying areas following heavy rainfall or poor drainage systems. It's a common problem in many
cities around the world and can lead to various issues such as traffic disruptions, damage to
infrastructure, and public health concerns.

CAUSES OF WATER LOGGING

Water logging is a drainage problem that results of high-water inflow caused by rain, runoff,
interflow, rise in groundwater, over irrigation or flooding. Drainage problems can be caused by
low water outflow due to low infiltration rate, low hydraulic conductivity, flat terrain, lack of
outlet or restricted outlet in the soil. In irrigated agriculture, drainage should be part of the
overall design and implementation to avoid problems of water logging. Water logging can be
caused by natural conditions or human induced activities, as follows:
Natural Causes:
a) Topography of a watershed
The topography, its slope, shape and drainage pattern has an important bearing on the drainage
of a watershed. Areas that lie in valley bottoms, depressions and other flat lowlands tend to
become waterlogged naturally as surface flows concentrate in these lowlands, causing natural
swamps.
b) Geology
Some areas have an impervious stratum below the top soil which obstructs the infiltration of
rainfall. This creates a false water table or perched water table. Also, Areas with shallow soils,
high water tables or a hard pan close to the ground surface are likely get waterlogged,
particularly if subjected to high rainfall events.
c) The weather
Areas that receive heavy rainfall for prolonged duration can get waterlogged temporarily or
permanently.
 d) Soil Type
Heavy clay soils such as black cotton soils are prone to water logging, as they hold moisture
for long periods. Also, soils prone to surface sealing cause temporary water logging.
e) Seepage Inflows
Seepage and interflow from other water bodies e.g. lakes, rivers and shallow aquifers can cause
water logging of adjacent lands. Also, subsoil flows from upper regions to lower areas may
result in water logging.
f) Inadequate surface drainage
When the surface drainage is not adequate, the heavy precipitation in the area is not drained
off quickly and the rain water remains stagnant over the area for considerable time. This gives
rise to heavy percolation and water-table rises in the area.
Human-Induced Causes of Water Logging
Human induced causes of water logging in agricultural lands are usually associated with bad
water management whether under irrigated or rainfed agriculture. For instance:
a) Irrigation
Irrigation, if not well planned, can cause drainage problems for the irrigated lands and adjacent
ones. This is because irrigation adds extra water to the soil profile, over and above the naturally
occurring rainfall. There are several ways in which irrigation can increase water logging. They
include:
(i) Over irrigation: over irrigation and intensive irrigation result in water logging. The
excess water from irrigation and without proper drainage contributes to rise in the
water table.
(ii) Seepage from canals: Excessive seepage from unlined canal system and water
courses result in the rise of water table leading into water logging
(iii) Inadequate drainage: in irrigated areas, water losses from canal system and water
courses continuously contribute to water table.
(iv) Poor irrigation management: poor irrigation and cropping management by the
cultivator
(v) Obstruction of natural drainage: interception of natural drainage by the
construction of canals, roads, railways, water courses, etc.
(vi) Land locked parches having no outlets: Water logging develops due to absence
of outlet to drain excess irrigation or rain water.
Rainfed systems
(i) Excessive rainfall: Rain, apart from irrigation, is the major cause of water logging
when it is in excess and in the absence of adequate drainage.
(ii) Flat topography: Flat terrain with depressions lead to water logging as disposal of
excess water is delayed resulting in increased percolation into the soil.
 (iii) Occasional spills by floods: Occasional flooding of the countryside and storm
floods water not quickly drained off gives rise to water table.
(iv) Closed/contour water conservation structures – Construction of soil and water
conservation structures on the contour can impound too much water causing water
logging.

EFFECTS OF WATER LOGGING

Water logging is the phenomenon in which soil gets fully submerged for a long enough time.
It can occur for various reasons and may cause harmful effects on the existing soil. Here few
effects of water logging are explained in detail.
• Poor Soil Aeration: In the water logging situation, the water table rises and hence removes
the entrapped air in the voids of the soil. Hence, due to water logging, soil aeration cannot be
done properly, affecting the soil’s growth.
• Effect on pH of soil: Due to the water-logging situation pH of the soil reduces and becomes
more acidic. Hence alkalinity reduces the soil. This affects the growth of the plants.
• Effect on the temperature of the soil: Due to water logging, the temperature of the soil
decreases. And due to the low temperature of the waterlogged soil, the activities of the
microorganisms reduce. This will reduce the rate of nitrogen fixation in the soil.
• Effect on soil nutrients: Due to the water logging effect on the soil, some useful nutrients
diminished due to the prevailing water logging situation. It further leads to the decreasing
growth of the plants.
• Effect on cultivation: It is difficult to cultivate the soil due to water logging conditions.
Waterlogged soil may or not be suitable for the proper growth of crops. In waterlogging
conditions, only rice can survive in the environment.
• Accumulation of Harmful salts: Due to water logging in the area, some harmful salts present
in water may accumulate while drying and harm the soil.
• Growth of water-loving plants and animals: Some wild plants that are water loving can
survive in water-logging areas. And may promote the killing of the existing crop nature. These
plants decrease the useful nutrients of the soil.
• Effect on human health: Due to water logging in areas, many water-loving insects may
survive, and it may cause several harmful effects on the surrounding human beings. These
insects may cause Malaria, typhoid, dengue, etc., serious diseases.

TYPES OF WATER LOGGING

Water logging can be classified into various types based on several factors. These factors
include the causes, performance, water sources, location of waterlogging, etc. Here a few types
of water logging are given below.
• Riverine Flood Water logging: It occurs due to flooding of the river water in the nearby
locations. And generally, occurs in the rainy season.
• Oceanic Flood Water logging: As the name suggests, it occurs due to the flooding of the
seawater in the nearby locations.
• Seasonal Water logging: It occurs in rainy seasons due to the improper drainage of the
rainwater. It occurs due to the poor drainage characteristics of the catchment.
• Perennial Water logging: This will occur when the groundwater meets with the nearby
stream and runoff spreads in the nearby location.
• Subsoil Water logging: It occurs when the groundwater table rises up due to any reason. It
generally occurs in the rainy season.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF WATER LOGGING

Some of the important preventive methods of water logging are given below.
• Artificial open and underground drainage grids are a possibility. Similarly, it may be beneficial
to enhance the natural drainage systems’ current flow conditions.
• Utilizing water more wisely will eliminate the percolation loss. It can also be accomplished
by minimizing irrigation intensity.
• To avoid an increase in the water table and consequent waterlogging, rainwater should be
swiftly evacuated from the soil’s surface.
• Alkaline irrigation water has an impact on the soil and increases its susceptibility to future
waterlogging. Alkaline water shouldn’t be utilized for irrigation because of this.
• The mulching process entails spreading organic or inorganic materials on top of the soil.
• By introducing intercepting drains as they are generally constructed parallel to the canal they
give exceptionally good results for the reach where the canal runs in high embankments.