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MEDICAL EQUIPMENT
MANAGEMENT

Keith Willson • Keith Ison • Slavik Tabakov

Medical Equipment
Management
Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering
Series Editors: John G Webster, E Russell Ritenour, Slavik Tabakov,
Kwan-Hoong Ng, and Alisa Walz-Flannigan

Other recent books in the series:

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Quantifying Morphology and Physiology of the Human Body Using MRI

L Tugan Muftuler (Ed)

Monte Carlo Calculations in Nuclear Medicine, Second Edition: Applications in

Diagnostic Imaging
Michael Ljungberg, Sven-Erik Strand, and Michael A King (Eds)

Vibrational Spectroscopy for Tissue Analysis

Ihtesham ur Rehman, Zanyar Movasaghi, and Shazza Rehman

Webb’s Physics of Medical Imaging, Second Edition

M A Flower (Ed)

Correction Techniques in Emission Tomography

Mohammad Dawood, Xiaoyi Jiang, and Klaus Schäfers (Eds)

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Andrew Wood (Ed)

Proton Therapy Physics

Harald Paganetti (Ed)

Practical Biomedical Signal Analysis Using MATLAB®

K J Blinowska and J Żygierewicz (Ed)

Physics for Diagnostic Radiology, Third Edition

P P Dendy and B Heaton (Eds)

Nuclear Medicine Physics

J J Pedroso de Lima (Ed)

Handbook of Photonics for Biomedical Science

Valery V Tuchin (Ed)

Handbook of Anatomical Models for Radiation Dosimetry

Xie George Xu and Keith F Eckerman (Eds)
Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering

Medical Equipment
Management

Keith Willson
Imperial College London, UK
Keith Ison
Guy’s and St Thomas’ Hospital, London, UK
Slavik Tabakov
Kings College London, Strand, UK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20130905

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-9959-1 (eBook - PDF)

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have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
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Contents

Series Preface..........................................................................................................xv
Preface................................................................................................................... xvii
Acknowledgements............................................................................................. xix
Authors.................................................................................................................. xxi

1. Introduction......................................................................................................1
1.1 Scope of Medical Equipment Management....................................... 1
1.2 Who Should Read This Book?.............................................................. 2
1.3 Approach and Content of This Book...................................................3
1.4 Clarifications........................................................................................... 6
1.5 Values and Value....................................................................................6
References..........................................................................................................6

2. Medical Equipment and Its Life Cycle........................................................ 7

2.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 7
2.2 What Is Medical Equipment?............................................................... 8
2.3 Equipment Management Processes................................................... 10
2.3.1 Establishing Need................................................................... 11
2.3.2 Funding.................................................................................... 12
2.3.3 Specification............................................................................. 15
2.3.4 Tendering, Evaluation and Purchase................................... 17
2.3.5 Preparatory Work.................................................................... 20
2.3.6 Delivery, Installation, Acceptance and
Commissioning...................................................................21
2.3.6.1 Delivery.................................................................... 21
2.3.6.2 Storage....................................................................... 21
2.3.6.3 Installation............................................................... 21
2.3.6.4 Acceptance and Commissioning..........................22
2.3.6.5 Payment.................................................................... 23
2.3.7 User Training........................................................................... 23
2.3.8 Deployment............................................................................. 24
2.3.9 Asset Management and Depreciation................................. 25
2.4 Management in Use............................................................................. 25
2.4.1 Storage...................................................................................... 25
2.4.2 Decontamination: Cleaning, Disinfection and
Sterilisation.............................................................................. 26
2.4.3 User Maintenance, Spares and Consumables..................... 26
2.4.4 Planned Preventative Maintenance and Breakdown
Maintenance............................................................................ 27

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vi Contents

2.4.5 Quality Control and Performance Testing.......................... 29

2.4.6 Condemning and Disposal................................................... 31
2.5 What Is Clinical Engineering?........................................................... 31
2.6 Summary............................................................................................... 32
References........................................................................................................ 32

3. Medical Device Risk, Regulation and Governance:

An Overview.......................................................................................... 35
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 35
3.2 Medical Device Risks.......................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Frequency................................................................................. 36
3.2.2 Legal and Financial Consequences...................................... 37
3.3 Risk Management................................................................................ 38
3.3.1 Risk Categories........................................................................ 38
3.3.2 Perception of Risk................................................................... 39
3.3.3 Practical Approaches to Risk Management........................ 40
3.3.4 Risks in the Hospital Context...............................................42
3.4 Governance, Standards and Best Practice........................................44
3.4.1 Introduction.............................................................................44
3.4.2 Clinical Governance............................................................... 45
3.4.3 Quality Systems, Records and Document Control............ 46
3.5 Risk Management and Governance in the Equipment
Life Cycle............................................................................................... 49
3.5.1 Procurement............................................................................ 49
3.5.2 Installation, Acceptance and Commissioning.................... 50
3.5.3 Risks during Equipment Operation..................................... 51
3.5.3.1 Operating Risks....................................................... 51
3.5.3.2 Health and Safety Risks......................................... 52
3.5.3.3 Radiation Safety...................................................... 52
3.5.3.4 Non-Ionising Radiation.......................................... 52
3.5.3.5 Electrical Safety....................................................... 53
3.5.3.6 Mechanical Hazards............................................... 53
3.5.3.7 Chemical Contamination.......................................54
3.5.3.8 Infection.................................................................... 55
3.5.3.9 Heat Injury............................................................... 55
3.5.3.10 Electromagnetic Interference................................. 56
3.5.4 Maintenance............................................................................ 56
3.5.5 Hazard and Incident Reporting and Management .......... 58
3.5.6 Modification, Clinical Trials, Research and
Off-Label Use.................................................................... 59
3.5.7 Condemning and Disposal................................................... 61
3.6 Liability and Indemnity: When Risk Becomes Reality.................. 62
3.6.1 Liability.................................................................................... 62
3.6.2 Indemnity................................................................................ 62

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Contents vii

3.7 Legal Obligations of Healthcare Organisations..............................63

3.7.1 Introduction.............................................................................63
3.7.2 Legislation................................................................................64
3.7.3 Medical Device Law and Regulations.................................64
3.7.3.1 Conformity...............................................................65
3.7.3.2 CE Marking and Identification.............................. 66
3.7.3.3 Placing on the Market............................................. 66
3.7.3.4 Exemptions............................................................... 66
3.7.4 Consumer Protection Law..................................................... 67
3.7.5 Health and Safety Legislation............................................... 68
3.8 Summary............................................................................................... 72
References........................................................................................................ 73

4. Approaches to Equipment Management: Structures and Systems....... 77

4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................77
4.2 Organisational Structures to Support Medical
Equipment Management..................................................................... 78
4.2.1 Introduction............................................................................. 78
4.2.2 Governing Board.................................................................... 79
4.2.3 Operational Executive Management Committee............... 81
4.2.4 Risk Management Committee................................................... 81
4.2.5 Capital Programme Committee............................................ 82
4.2.6 Medical Equipment Management Committee................... 82
4.2.7 Supporting Groups.................................................................83
4.2.7.1 New Devices Group................................................83
4.2.7.2 Project Teams...........................................................83
4.2.7.3 Clinical Engineering...............................................83
4.2.7.4 Users..........................................................................84
4.2.7.5 Organisation-Wide Lead Roles..............................84
4.3 Systems for Equipment Management: Balancing In-House
and External Provision........................................................................ 85
4.3.1 Financing and Equipping Major Projects:
An Overview........................................................................ 85
4.3.2 Public–Private Partnerships and Equivalent Schemes......... 86
4.3.3 Financing and Equipping by the Healthcare
Organisation............................................................................ 89
4.3.4 Managed Equipment Services.............................................. 89
4.4 Summary............................................................................................... 91
References........................................................................................................ 91

5. Purchase and Replacement: Allocating Priorities

and Managing Resources............................................................................. 93
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 93
5.2 Seeking the Ideal: Matching Needs and Resources........................ 94

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viii Contents

5.3 Funding Routes for More Expensive Equipment............................ 95

5.3.1 Capital Funding – Definition................................................ 95
5.3.2 Charities and Research Funding.......................................... 95
5.3.3 Revenue Funding.................................................................... 96
5.3.3.1 Managed Service..................................................... 96
5.3.3.2 Consumables Related............................................. 96
5.3.3.3 Leasing...................................................................... 96
5.3.3.4 Loan and Hire.......................................................... 97
5.3.4 Using Capital Funds for Low Cost Items............................ 97
5.4 Identifying Equipment Needs............................................................ 97
5.4.1 Routine Replacement.............................................................. 98
5.4.2 Replacement due to Unreliability......................................... 98
5.4.3 Failure....................................................................................... 98
5.4.4 Technological Development.................................................. 98
5.4.5 Standardisation....................................................................... 99
5.4.6 Risk and Health and Safety Issues....................................... 99
5.4.7 Professional and Policy-Setting Bodies............................... 99
5.4.8 Service Developments............................................................ 99
5.4.9 Funding of Innovation......................................................... 100
5.4.10 Equipment Usage.................................................................. 100
5.5 Relating Funding to Need................................................................ 100
5.5.1 General Characteristics of a System to Allocate
Capital to Medical Equipment............................................ 101
5.5.2 Examples of Allocation Systems......................................... 102
5.5.3 Creating an Effective System.............................................. 105
5.5.3.1 Flexibility................................................................ 105
5.5.3.2 Taking Organisational Politics into Account....... 105
5.5.3.3 Setting Realistic Time Scales............................... 106
5.5.3.4 Gaming................................................................... 106
5.6 Outline of a Possible Bidding Process............................................. 106
5.6.1 Writing Bids........................................................................... 108
5.6.2 Ranking Service Development Bids................................... 110
5.6.3 Bid Vetting............................................................................. 111
5.6.4 Decision-Making Process.................................................... 112
5.6.5 Confirmation......................................................................... 112
5.6.6 Procurement.......................................................................... 112
5.6.7 Equipment Replacement outside the Annual
Capital Allocation Process................................................... 113
5.7 Summary............................................................................................. 113
References...................................................................................................... 114

6. Procurement, Specification and Evaluation........................................... 115

6.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 115
6.2 Approaching a Replacement Programme and Tender................. 115
6.3 Preparing a Specification.................................................................. 120

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents ix

6.4 Tender Receipt, Evaluation and Decision....................................... 124

6.4.1 Initial Process........................................................................ 124
6.4.2 Clinical Evaluation............................................................... 126
6.4.3 Technical Evaluation............................................................ 127
6.4.4 Post-Tender Negotiations..................................................... 129
6.4.5 Award..................................................................................... 129
6.5 Collaborative Procurement............................................................... 130
6.6 Summary............................................................................................. 131
References...................................................................................................... 131

7. Equipment Training for Clinical and Technical Users........................ 133

7.1 Introduction: The Need for Training.............................................. 133
7.2 Who to Train and What to Learn..................................................... 134
7.2.1 Clinical End User Training.................................................. 134
7.2.2 Training Patients and Carers.............................................. 137
7.2.3 Specialised Technical Training........................................... 137
7.2.4 Underpinning Scientific and Technical Knowledge
for Clinical Engineers........................................................... 139
7.3 How to Train....................................................................................... 140
7.4 Organisation and Delivery............................................................... 141
7.5 Training Records................................................................................ 142
7.6 Assessment of Training and Its Effectiveness............................... 143
7.7 Summary............................................................................................. 145
References...................................................................................................... 145

8. Assessing Maintenance and Support Needs......................................... 147

8.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 147
8.2 Balancing Elements of the Maintenance and Support
Process............................................................................................148
8.3 What Options Are Available for Preventive Maintenance
and Support?....................................................................................... 150
8.4 Assessing Maintenance and Support Requirements for
Particular Devices.............................................................................. 151
8.5 Assigning Responsibility for Maintenance and Support............. 157
8.5.1 Introduction........................................................................... 157
8.5.2 In-House Maintenance Provision....................................... 158
8.5.3 External Maintenance Providers........................................ 160
8.5.3.1 On-Site Services..................................................... 160
8.5.3.2 Independent or Third-Party Maintenance
Providers................................................................. 161
8.5.3.3 Maintenance Contract Management
Companies.............................................................. 161
8.5.3.4 Diversified Service Organisations...................... 162

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

x Contents

8.5.4Factors Affecting What Maintenance Is

Undertaken In-House........................................................... 162
8.5.4.1 Type of Device....................................................... 163
8.5.4.2 Restrictions on What Can Be Done.................... 163
8.5.4.3 Pressures to Maintain Equipment In-House....... 164
8.5.4.4 Nature of the In-House Service........................... 164
8.5.4.5 User Buy In: Internal Politics and Culture.............165
8.5.4.6 Willingness to Change Existing
Maintenance and Support Regimes................... 166
8.5.5 Changing Maintenance Regimes....................................... 166
8.5.5.1 Service Risks.......................................................... 167
8.5.5.2 Staffing Risks......................................................... 167
8.5.5.3 Regulatory Risks................................................... 167
8.5.5.4 Liability Concerns................................................. 167
8.6 Final Review and Decision Making: Deciding Who
Performs Maintenance...................................................................... 168
8.7 Summary............................................................................................. 172
References...................................................................................................... 173

9. Maintenance Contract Management....................................................... 175

9.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 175
9.2 Maintenance Contract Management Life Cycle............................ 176
9.2.1 Setting Up the Contract....................................................... 176
9.2.1.1 Establishing the Need for a Contract................. 177
9.2.1.2 Identifying Funding............................................. 177
9.2.1.3 Allocating Funding............................................... 177
9.2.1.4 Deciding on the Provider..................................... 178
9.2.1.5 Reviewing Options for Contract Type and
Scope....................................................................... 179
9.2.1.6 Factors Affecting the Level of Cover
Required................................................................179
9.2.1.7 Cooperative Contracts.......................................... 180
9.2.1.8 Breakdown Response Time and Hours of
Support................................................................... 180
9.2.1.9 Costs........................................................................ 181
9.2.1.10 Replacement of Expensive Parts......................... 182
9.2.1.11 Agreeing Operational Responsibilities.............. 182
9.2.1.12 Check Details before Signing.............................. 183
9.2.1.13 Liability................................................................... 184
9.2.1.14 Monitoring Measures for Quality of Service.......184
9.2.1.15 Variations to Contract........................................... 185
9.2.2 Tenders and Negotiation...................................................... 185
9.2.3 Operational Support............................................................. 186
9.2.3.1 In-House Technical Staff...................................... 186
9.2.3.2 Clinical User Involvement................................... 187

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents xi

9.2.3.3 Arranging Service Visits...................................... 187

9.2.3.4 Labelling Equipment............................................ 188
9.2.3.5 Keeping Records.................................................... 188
9.2.4 Contract Performance Monitoring..................................... 189
9.3 Contract Review and Renewal......................................................... 190
9.4 Summary............................................................................................. 192
Reference........................................................................................................ 192

10. Adverse Incidents, Investigations, Control and Monitoring.............. 193

10.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 193
10.2 Definitions and Categories............................................................... 193
10.3 Why Report Adverse Incidents?...................................................... 194
10.4 Initial Incident Handling.................................................................. 195
10.5 Incident Investigation........................................................................ 197
10.5.1 Investigation Process............................................................ 197
10.5.2 Establishing the Facts........................................................... 198
10.5.3 Investigating the Medical Device and Associated
Equipment.............................................................................. 199
10.6 Incident Analysis............................................................................... 200
10.6.1 Investigation Techniques..................................................... 201
10.6.2 Human Error versus System Failure.................................. 202
10.6.3 Categories of Human Error and Associated
Remedies...........................................................................203
10.6.3.1 Poor Design............................................................ 203
10.6.3.2 Basic Mistakes........................................................ 204
10.6.3.3 Lack of Knowledge................................................ 204
10.6.3.4 Lack of Training and Experience........................ 205
10.6.3.5 Malicious Acts....................................................... 205
10.6.3.6 Behavioural Problems........................................... 205
10.6.3.7 Institutional Pressures.......................................... 206
10.6.4 Equipment Failure................................................................ 206
10.6.5 Systematic Interpretations and Associated
Remedies........................................................................ 208
10.6.5.1 Patient Factors........................................................ 209
10.6.5.2 Environmental Factors......................................... 209
10.6.5.3 Process and Equipment Factors.......................... 210
10.6.5.4 Operator Factors.................................................... 210
10.6.5.5 Team Factors.......................................................... 211
10.6.5.6 Unexpected Events................................................ 212
10.7 Devising Control Measures.............................................................. 212
10.8 Outputs from an Incident Investigation......................................... 214
10.9 Monitoring.......................................................................................... 215
10.10 Summary............................................................................................. 215
References...................................................................................................... 215

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xii Contents

11. Supporting Research and Development................................................. 217

11.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 217
11.2 Legitimising and Managing Research Projects............................. 218
11.2.1 Internal Governance............................................................. 218
11.2.2 Ethical Considerations......................................................... 219
11.2.3 Confidentiality...................................................................... 220
11.3 How an Organisation Manages Risk
Associated with Innovative Equipment......................................... 220
11.3.1 Approved Medical Devices Used for Research
Rather than Clinical Applications...................................... 221
11.3.2 Non-Medical-Grade Items Used as, or in
Conjunction with, Medical Devices................................... 221
11.3.3 Constructing or Modifying Medical Devices for Use
within the Organisation......................................................222
11.3.4 Clinical Investigations of New Devices Prior to
Placing on the Market..........................................................223
11.3.5 Use Outside the Region of Approval................................. 223
11.3.6 Equipment for Off-Label Clinical Use............................... 224
11.4 Practical Aspects of Getting Novel Medical Equipment
into Use................................................................................................ 224
11.5 In-House Construction of Novel Devices....................................... 227
11.6 Creating a Novel Device................................................................... 229
11.6.1 Evaluating Whether to Buy, Modify or Build................... 229
11.6.2 Establish Resources and Funding...................................... 230
11.6.3 Designing for Conformity................................................... 230
11.6.4 Production, Validation and Traceability of
Components and Suppliers................................................. 231
11.7 Placing on the Market....................................................................... 231
11.8 Summary............................................................................................. 233
References...................................................................................................... 233

12. Disposal......................................................................................................... 235

12.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 235
12.2 Condemning and Disposal Procedures.......................................... 236
12.3 Legislation Relevant to Disposal..................................................... 236
12.4 Preparing for Disposal...................................................................... 239
12.5 Disposal Routes.................................................................................. 240
12.5.1 Return to Manufacturer....................................................... 240
12.5.2 Using a Specialist Contractor.............................................. 240
12.5.3 Scrapping............................................................................... 241
12.5.4 Use for Spare Parts................................................................ 241
12.5.5 Remanufacturing.................................................................. 242
12.5.6 Redeployment for Research and Teaching........................ 242
12.5.7 Sale or Donation for Reuse.................................................. 243
12.6 Disposal of Consumables and Batteries......................................... 244

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Contents xiii

12.7 Disposal of Waste from In-House Repair and

Manufacturing Activities.................................................................. 245
12.8 Summary............................................................................................. 245
References...................................................................................................... 245

13. Sources of Information for Equipment Management

Professionals................................................................................................ 247
13.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 247
13.2 Government Agencies and Medical Device
Regulatory Bodies.......................................................................... 248
13.2.1 Regulation.............................................................................. 248
13.2.2 Regulatory Bodies................................................................. 249
13.2.3 Competent Authorities and Notified, Accredited and
Certification Bodies.............................................................. 249
13.3 Standards and Standards Bodies..................................................... 250
13.3.1 Overview of Standards........................................................ 250
13.3.2 Standards Bodies.................................................................. 251
13.3.3 Key International Standards Relevant to Medical
Devices and Their Management......................................... 253
13.3.3.1 Device Construction and Development............. 253
13.3.3.2 Quality Systems..................................................... 253
13.3.3.3 Medical Equipment Management......................254
13.3.4 Other Functions of Standards Bodies................................254
13.4 Learned Societies and Professional Bodies....................................254
13.4.1 Introduction...........................................................................254
13.4.2 Societies Relevant to Equipment Management
and Healthcare Technology................................................ 256
13.4.3 Training and Certification in Clinical Engineering......... 257
13.4.4 Knowledge Resources.......................................................... 258
13.4.5 Regional and International Societies................................. 258
13.4.6 Chartered Status................................................................... 260
13.5 Sources of External Assistance: Commercial,
Non-Profit and Peers.......................................................................... 260
13.5.1 Commercial Equipment Advisors and Equipment
Manufacturers....................................................................... 260
13.5.2 Supranational and Not-for-Profit Agencies....................... 261
13.5.2.1 ECRI Institute........................................................ 262
13.5.2.2 Charitable Bodies.................................................. 262
13.6 Summary............................................................................................. 263
References...................................................................................................... 264

14. Improving Performance: Quality, Indicators, Benchmarking

and Audit....................................................................................................... 267
14.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 267
14.2 Why Monitor Performance?............................................................. 268

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xiv Contents

14.3 Internal and External Monitoring................................................... 268

14.3.1 Internal Monitoring.............................................................. 268
14.3.2 External Monitoring............................................................. 269
14.3.3 Monitoring Methods............................................................ 270
14.4 Constructing Performance Indicators............................................. 270
14.4.1 Types of Performance Indicators........................................ 270
14.4.2 Quantitative Input and Output Measures and Ratios........ 271
14.5 Performance Indicators in Equipment Management.................... 272
14.5.1 Devising Practical Indicators.............................................. 272
14.5.2 Pitfalls of Indicator Design.................................................. 274
14.5.3 Selecting and Using Performance Indicators.................... 276
14.6 Benchmarking in Clinical Engineering.......................................... 277
14.7 Audit.................................................................................................... 279
14.8 Summary............................................................................................. 280
References...................................................................................................... 281

Appendix A: Practical Issues in Running an In-House

Clinical Engineering Service.................................................. 283
Appendix B: Electrical Safety for Medical Equipment.............................. 295

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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aeroplane factory is exceptionally high.

These facts are interesting, as they explain why "a few bits of stick
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High prices are charged for aeroplane engines. Here, again, the
same causes are at work. Most costly are the preliminary expenses
connected with the production of a new petrol engine. In the case of
the famous "Gnome," for instance, many thousands of pounds were
spent upon a series of experimental engines, before a reliable model
could be obtained.

II. Economy of a large military order for machines—The incidental

expenses.

The idea has been conveyed, by the previous notes, that the
aeroplane is an expensive machine. So it is, at present, so far as the
private purchaser is concerned—although its champions are already
prone to point out that a first-class flying machine does not cost
more than a high-powered, luxurious motor-car.

When the aeroplane is regarded as a weapon of war, however, it

should not be considered expensive. It is, in fact, remarkably cheap,
particularly when compared with the cost of other forms of
armament.
 The prices, previously quoted, as representing the cost of the best
makes of aeroplane, have been for individual machines; and this
introduces a point which is greatly in favour of any War Department,
when it seeks to equip itself with a number of aeroplanes. Through
placing orders for a batch of machines, instead of buying one here
and there, any Government should be able materially to reduce the
price of any make.

Grant, for the sake of argument, that a country decides to provide

itself with a fleet of a hundred war aeroplanes. The policy, in such a
case, would be to look round, at the beginning of any flying season,
and make a selection, say, of the three types of machine best suited
for the tasks arising in military work.

It would certainly not be wise to buy a hundred machines all of

one type, although, by so doing, the price for each machine could be
more reduced than in the case of splitting up an order between
several manufacturers. But such a policy of having "all one’s eggs in
one basket" would not be judicious—or fair to the industry as a
whole. Government policy, in this regard, should be to support as
many manufacturers as is reasonably possible, and thus ensure the
industry maintaining a healthy position.

Orders placed with a number of makers would be necessary, in

fact. But, even with such a distribution as this, a considerable saving
of expense could be made. Expert estimates have been given as to
the cost, per machine, of a hundred war aeroplanes, all ordered at
the same time; and a reasonably exact figure places the average
price, for each machine, at £600.

This represents a very definite reduction upon the price of a single

machine; and it also indicates that, in the future, when aeroplanes
are bought in even larger numbers, for war purposes, the cost of
each machine will become an almost insignificant item—insignificant,
that is to say, when compared with the cost of other forms of
armament. When a thousand machines can be ordered, and built at
one time, for example, the cost per machine will be enormously
reduced.

There should be no outcry, indeed, as to the cost of war

aeroplanes. The Admiralty embarks, without question, upon the
construction of a great battleship, although it knows that each huge
craft will speedily become obsolete. This money is not grudged; it is
for the defence of the country.

The same attitude should be taken up as regards the creation of a

fleet of war aeroplanes. They, too, have become essential weapons.

War aeroplanes are, in their own sphere, quite as important as

battleships. And the contrast between the two weapons, in the
matter of price, is extraordinary. For the price of one Dreadnought it
is, indeed, estimated that a fleet of a couple of thousand aeroplanes
could be created.

An enthusiastic advocate of the war aeroplane puts this matter of

cost very forcibly. "It is as nothing," he declares. "A vote of a few
hundred thousand pounds would place the whole air service on a
sound basis, so far as England is concerned. The net cost of each
aeroplane, in a squadron, is an absolutely insignificant item of
expense, when we reckon what we are spending, in other ways, on
our Army and Navy. One aircraft represents only about twice the
amount spent in making one of the great shells fired by our biggest
naval guns. It is this astonishing cheapness of the aeroplane, having
regard to its revolutionary work, which is the surprising factor of the
situation. It will mean, of course, that flying machines will be used,
eventually, in huge fleets."

Naturally, the purchase of a hundred machines does not represent

the total outlay, in connection with the establishment of a well-
equipped air-corps. An organisation must be built up round these
machines, and there must be men not only to fly them, but to keep
them in a state of efficiency; and there is the need, also, of housing
the air-fleet.

The question of providing sheds for a fleet of machines is an

important one. Aeroplanes must be well housed, or their
depreciation is rapid. Whatever sheds are provided must, apart from
being strong and weather-proof, be portable as well.

Under the same heading, also, should come the workshops—some

of them portable—necessary to cope with repairs and renewals in
connection with machines. This, too, is an important item, as first-
class repair work is an essential feature in the organisation of any air
service.

An estimate of the money that should be expended upon sheds

and repair-shops—for a fleet of a hundred aeroplanes—places the
amount at £20,000. Money should not be stinted in this direction;
good sheds, and efficient repairs, should both tell their tale, when
the aeroplane is used in a campaign.

[Illustration: PILOT AND "OBSERVER."

Photo, M. Roe.
The above photograph shows a military-type Breguet biplane, as
used in
the French manœuvres, with pilot and observer in their places.]
 Now it is necessary to touch upon the question of military flying
grounds, and the expense incurred in keeping them in proper order;
also the sum of money necessary to provide a sufficient number of
motor transport lorries for the air-fleet. As has been explained, the
plan generally adopted is for an aeroplane to be transported from
point to point on a lorry, and followed by a repair-car.

In regard to the English trials of war aeroplanes, a point is made—

in connection with the size of the packing-cases for machines—of
the possibility of transporting aircraft by railway in time of war.
Undoubtedly, under favourable circumstances, this would provide a
rapid method of bringing up machines from a distance.

Under the headings of the expenditure upon flying grounds, and

the provision of motor-lorries to follow aeroplanes, and act as
transport waggons, a reasonable estimate of the sum to be
expended—in connection with a fleet of a hundred machines—is
£20,000.

The sum of £100,000 should be sufficient, not only to purchase a

hundred war aeroplanes, but to equip the corps with sheds and
repair-shops, and also to maintain flying grounds, and provide an
adequate number of motor-lorries.

This amount allocated for machines and incidentals, a Government

would find itself face to face with the question of providing officers
and men for the air-corps. Pay for this corps should, it is considered,
be represented by an annual sum of approximately £60,000.
 III. Question of renewals—General cheapness of an air-corps, as
compared with other forms of armament.

A point of considerable importance, in regard to an air-corps,

concerns the money which should be put aside, each year, for the
provision of new machines. One eminently practical authority,
Colonel J. E. Capper, reckons that, in connection with a fleet of a
hundred aeroplanes, an allowance should be made for the purchase
of forty new machines each year.

Upon this question of renewals there is, however, diversity of

opinion. The contention is made, for example, that a Government
should be prepared, at the commencement of the flying season, to
relegate all its previous year’s machines to the schools, for the use
of pupils, and purchase a new fleet of up-to-date craft for use in
war-time.

Such a drastic step, however, should not be necessary. It would be

advisable, of course, to weed out a number of machines, from time
to time, for the reason that they become obsolete; and such
machines should, as suggested, find a place at the schools for the
use of beginners.

The exact number of new aeroplanes which it should be advisable

to buy, in any one year, must be governed, very largely, by the
process of perfection which goes on. For the next year or so, it is
probable that an allowance for renewals will need to be a heavy one.
Afterwards, as the rate of improvement becomes slower, the
purchase of new machines will represent a lighter item.
 A good reconnoitring biplane, say of the flying season of 1911, is
not likely to become obsolete in 1912. A new machine will probably
fly farther and faster, and carry more weight; but the 1911 biplane
will still be capable of useful work, and need not be relegated to the
scrap-heap. It will behove a Government, of course, to equip itself
with as many new-type machines as possible; and an estimate of
forty new machines a year, in connection with a fleet of a hundred,
is by no means unreasonable.

This, of course, presupposes a logical process of development,

with an improved type of machine appearing from year to year.
Should a revolutionary discovery be made, the plans of all nations
would be altered. It might then become necessary, in the interests of
national safety, to "scrap" a whole fleet of aeroplanes, in order to
make way for the type which had made them obsolete.

But the unexpected production of an aeroplane, immeasurably

superior to existing models, is not anticipated. Already, it is true, the
way can be seen to make many improvements upon present-type
aeroplanes; but, in regard to such a difficult problem as that of
aviation, the testing and perfecting of any new device, however
simple, cannot be hastily carried out.

One other consideration, in regard to the running costs of a fleet

of machines, now presents itself. This concerns the allowance to be
made for the general upkeep of the aeroplanes, and for such items
as the provision of petrol and oil. Here an expert computation places
the figure—for an air service of a hundred machines—at a sum of
£16,000.

It is possible to arrive at a summary of the cost of the purchase

and upkeep of a fleet of a hundred machines. First would come the
expenditure of £100,000 upon the aeroplanes themselves, and
incidentals; and then the Government would need to be ready to
spend another £100,000 a year upon the upkeep of the corps.

Such estimates as this go to reveal the inadequacy of the grant

made by the British Government for the year 1911-12. As has been
previously mentioned, the actual sum devoted to aeroplaning,
dirigible ballooning, and the upkeep of the Air Battalion, has been
£85,000. Owing to the costliness of airships, only a small portion of
this sum has been devoted to aeroplanes. There is no chance—with
such a grant as this—of mapping out an adequate programme for
aeroplane work.
OUR AERIAL PROGRAMME FOR
1912-13

While the greater portion of this book was already in the Press, and
too late for classification or detailed comment, the Government’s
programme in regard to Naval and Military Airmanship, for 1912-13,
was duly announced.

The appended summary of the official scheme is from the

Memorandum, concerning the Army Estimates, issued by the
Secretary of State for War:—

"Sufficient experience has now been gained in military aviation to

warrant advance on less tentative lines; and after careful
consideration by the Committee of Imperial Defence, it has been
decided to establish at once a joint Army and Navy School of
Aviation at which officers of both services shall be taught to fly,
before proceeding to the separate Army and Navy establishments at
which they will be exercised in the more specialised requirements of
their respective services.

"A site for the school has been selected on Salisbury Plain, and the
purchase of the necessary land will be completed at the beginning of
April. Building, to plans which have been already prepared, will be
pressed forward rapidly, and it is hoped at a very early date to have
accommodation at the school for officers and men, instructors and
mechanics, as well as the necessary sheds for aeroplanes and
workshops for their repair and adjustment. Provision has also been
made on an extended scale for purchase of aeroplanes and other
necessary equipment for the school.

"Officers of both services will be employed on the staff of the

school, and its expenses (other than cost of land) will be shared
between Army and Navy votes.

"The Estimates further provide for continuing the experimental

and other work of the Army aircraft factory, for further buildings
required for airships, for an addition of personnel to Army
establishments for aeroplane work, and for a considerable number of
aeroplanes as a first instalment of the equipment of the Field Army.

"The total provision for the above services made in these

estimates compares with that made in 1911-12 as follows:—

───────────────────────────────────────
──────────────────────────
— 1912-13 1911-12
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────
Establishment of Army personnel for £25,000 £20,000
aeronautical work … …
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────
Premiums to officers gaining pilot’s £3,000 —
 certificates
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────
Staff of new school £5,000 —
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────
Aeroplanes, stores, and materials for £161,000 £85,000
factory and school
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────
Buildings, including Army share of school £38,000 £26,000
buildings
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────
Land for school £90,000 —
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────

───────────────────────────────────────
──────────────────────────
Less Admiralty contribution to general £322,000 £131,000
expenses of school
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────
— £14,000 —
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────

───────────────────────────────────────
──────────────────────────
 Increased provision £308,000 £131,000
─────────────────────────────────────────
────────────────────────

─────────────────────────────────────
──────────────────────────── — £177,000
──────────────────────────────────────
───────────────────────────

For a full statement of the Government’s aerial programme, it is

not possible to do better than reproduce the speech (as printed in
The Times) which was made by Colonel Seely, Parliamentary Under-
Secretary of State for War.

Colonel Seely, explaining in the House of Commons the official

scheme for the forthcoming year, said:—

"He now came to what was called aviation, though he

hoped that that detestable word would vanish from the
English language. With regard to the defence of the country,
the Prime Minister had appointed a committee, of which Lord
Haldane was the chairman. That committee settled broad
principles and entrusted the making-out of the complete
scheme to a technical committee, of which he acted as
chairman. This committee was at work during the whole of
last recess, and prepared a scheme which the full committee
had accepted in all parts except the details as to pay. The
scheme had that morning been approved by the Prime
Minister, and would now be carried into effect.
 "There was to be one flying corps, embracing soldiers,
sailors, and civilians—all who could fly and would take the
obligation to serve this country in time of war in any part of
the world. No man would hold executive rank in the flying
corps unless he was himself an expert flyer. The present Air
Battalion would cease to exist, and part of it would be
absorbed in the new organisation. The corps would be one
corps, and as far as possible all the officers would be paid
and treated alike. In a purely land war the whole flying corps
would be available for land warfare, and in a purely naval war
for naval warfare. The headquarters would be near Nether-
Avon on Salisbury Plain, where a large tract had been
purchased at a cost of about £90,000. In the first instance
accommodation would be provided for sixty officers at the
school at any one time. There would be three terms of four
months each, and it was proposed to pass through a hundred
and eighty officers in each year. If an officer wished to join
the flying corps he had first to get the consent of the military
authorities, then to be passed by the doctor, and afterwards
obtain his Royal Aero Club certificate at a private aerodrome.
It was not proposed to use the central school for teaching
officers to fly. They would learn the elements of the art
elsewhere and go to the flying school for the more advanced
course. After receiving the Royal Aero Club certificate, and
before presenting themselves, they would receive £75 which
it was believed would cover the cost. This arrangement had
already been in force some little time; he believed between
twenty and thirty officers had received the £75. Afterwards
officers would be attached to the central air school, and
would go through a course of four months. They would learn
progressive flying, mechanics and construction, meteorology,
observation from the air, flying by compass, photography
from the air, signalling, and types of warships of all nations.
After this course the officer of the air-corps, whatever his
origin, would either join the military wing or the naval wing,
or go straight to the reserve. The military wing would consist
of seven aeroplane squadrons, each containing twelve
aeroplanes and a suitable number of officers for flying. There
would be an eighth squadron, consisting of balloons and
kites. The naval wing would have headquarters at Eastchurch.
The numbers had not yet been finally settled, but they would
be considerable, and would be increased. In the reserve there
would be two classes—the first reserve consisting of airmen
who performed so many flights across country in each quarter
and received a retaining fee, and the second reserve
consisting of those who did not enter into this undertaking,
but would be available in time of war. Both the Army and
Navy wings of the air-crops would always be on a war
footing, and the peace and war establishments would be the
same. The Army aircraft factory would cease to be called by
that name, and would become the aircraft factory for the
whole flying corps. Its functions would include experiment
and building experimental machines, making repairs to
machines where that was thought desirable, sometimes
building machines, though that would not be its primary duty,
and training in expert knowledge the numerous mechanics
who would be required for this new service.

"The scheme involved the purchase of a hundred and

thirty-one aeroplanes. He was not sure they could all be
bought this year, though the obstacle was not expense. The
first seventy-one had been sanctioned already. The orders for
a great many of them had gone out, and the others were in
process of negotiation. Not so many had been ordered from
British manufacturers as could be wished, but that was
because the technical members of his committee realised,
and in this they had the full approval of the whole committee,
that the first essential was efficiency and safety. In many
respects France had gone a long way ahead of us in both
those matters. The Government could not buy British
machines at the price of human life, but no doubt this
difficulty would soon be overcome, for a great many of the
best brains were undoubtedly at work making the aeroplane
not only more speedy and efficient, but safer.

"The risks the officers would run would be very great. The
insurance rates were very high. But it was some consideration
to know that in France they had enormously increased the
safety of learning to fly. One school had covered 160,000
kilometres without accident. It was to be hoped the risks
would be reduced, but they would still be very great, and he
trusted the House would not grudge the expense involved in
making adequate payment to officers, and giving an adequate
scale of pensions in the event of their being seriously injured.
(Cheers.) The military wing required at once to fly these
aeroplanes a hundred and thirty-three officers, the Navy a
number not yet fixed, but thirty or forty at once, and the
reserve a number which would depend on the progress of our
science in the near future. They had not got the hundred and
thirty-three military officers. No doubt many officers would
volunteer. It could only be hoped that they would learn to fly
with as little accident as possible. It had been settled that the
 officers should learn to fly at private flying schools, first,
because it was desirable to encourage private effort; and,
secondly, because they thought there was less risk of
accident in the initial stages if this method was adopted. It
was a method which had been largely followed in France, and
it had obvious advantages. It was greatly to the interest of
the owner of an aerodrome to avoid accident. When officers
had learned the elementary art of flying they would go to the
central flying school."

This official announcement of policy, as revealed above,

unfortunately comes too late for more than the briefest criticism in
these pages.

All that can be said, indeed, is that the scheme prepared, while
certainly representing a stride forward in comparison with the
previous apathy of our authorities, is still inadequate when
contrasted with the activities of either France or Germany.

In France close upon £100,000 has been subscribed, by an

enthusiastic public, to augment the million which the Government
will expend; Germany has increased an original vote to the tune of
£100,000.

Our scheme can only be regarded as a beginning—and, in several

respects, a disappointing one, seeing that, at the end of the present
flying season, both France and Germany will, inevitably, have still
further increased their already long lead.

Agitation for a more ambitious aerial programme in England must

not, indeed, cease; this 1912-13 scheme is not sound enough to
relieve public uneasiness. We are lamentably behind; and adequate
steps have not, even now, been taken to bring us on anything like a
level with foreign rivals, despite the fact that the aeroplane has been
proved to be an absolutely revolutionary weapon of modern war.

NOTE

Amplifying the official statement of policy previously quoted, the

authorities issued, on 12th April, 1912, a fuller explanation of their
aerial programme. But it throws no very clear light upon the
immediate future; and, although it deals with plans which are
ambitious, it is disquietingly vague concerning the all-important
question of finance.

The official design is, it is stated, to form seven aeroplane

squadrons, each comprising twelve aeroplanes; and, to man this air-
fleet, a force of 364 pilots and observers will be required. In
addition, there will be forty airmen who will be trained, specifically,
in the duties of naval airmanship.

But the facilities actually provided—as apart from paper schemes

—are still so meagre that it will only be possible, during this year, to
train a very small proportion of the corps set forth above. Thus it is
to be feared that, at the end of 1912, our position will continue to
compare, most unfavourably, with that of either France or Germany.

We are more than a year behind, and seem likely to remain so.
TWELFTH SECTION PROBLEM OF
ARTILLERY FIRE AND THE
AEROPLANE

I. Conflicting opinions as to an aeroplane’s vulnerability—

Experiments which have been carried out.

So far, the military aeroplane has been described as a

reconnoitring or dispatch-bearing craft, carrying out its important
work, in time of war, without any interference save that brought
about by adverse weather conditions.

But there is an aspect of the case, so far as actual service

conditions are concerned, which will—according to many vehement
critics of the aeroplane—nullify the utility of an air-scout, and make
expenditure upon fleets of machines largely a waste of money.

They affirm, in a word, that well-directed artillery-fire will prove so

deadly that no aeroplane will be able to live through it, and that any
reconnoitring machine, which ventures over an enemy’s position, will
be destroyed with the greatest ease.
 On the other hand, there is an equally definite statement by
staunch advocates of military flying. They declare, emphatically, that
artillery-fire, when directed against aeroplanes, will prove a
negligible quantity. No point, indeed, arouses more controversy than
the problem of the vulnerability of the aeroplane to artillery or rifle-
fire.

The question is a moot one, and it is bound to remain so until the

coming of a war in which aeroplanes are employed in fair numbers;
but nothing could be more ill-advised than a policy which stints
aeroplane development, because it is believed they will be destroyed
by gun-fire.

As a matter of fact, tests which have been made up to the present

time are in favour, not of the gunner, but of the aeroplane. This fact
is, however, frequently ignored by the artillery experts. They adhere
to their view, and the airmen to theirs. "Aeroplanes will be swept
away when they come into the danger zone," declare the champions
of artillery. "Nothing of the sort will happen," retort the advocates of
the aeroplane.

It is probable that an unbiased reader will prefer to take a view

rather midway between these two, and be willing to grant that, while
some aeroplanes are likely to be "winged" by skilful gunners, the
greater proportion of them will, on account of their height and
speed, escape being hit.

Since the aeroplane has demonstrated its unquestionable value as

a reconnoitring craft, special guns have been made in order to
combat it. These have long range, and are designed to fire vertically
into the air. Many tests have, also, been made with kites and
balloons, to reveal the ease, or otherwise, of striking an aeroplane in
flight.

As regards these experiments, the opinion among experts is again

divided. Artillerymen do not hesitate to say that they prove their
case—which is, of course, that the aeroplane is a vulnerable target.
Aeroplane enthusiasts combat such suggestions; and so the
controversy goes on.

One fact stands suggestively revealed; wise countries, despite

assertions that artillery will blow aeroplanes to pieces, are buying
more and more machines, instead of curtailing their orders.

France and Germany, for instance, which have carried out more
tests than any other countries in regard to the vulnerability of
aircraft, are determined to increase their fleets of aeroplanes.

This, surely, should tell its own story. It is unusually impressive, as

a matter of fact, seeing that artillery experts, both in France and
Germany, have been ready to declare that well-directed gun-fire will
rob aeroplane scouting of its significance. But those who control
constructive policy, both in France and Germany, have judged
impartially; and, as a result, they have bought more aeroplanes.

The difficulty, in carrying out tests of gun-fire, as directed against

aeroplanes, is to obtain artificial conditions which shall, even
roughly, approximate to those which would prevail in actual war. So
far, it has been clear that, in all tests which have been carried out,
conditions have been in favour of the gunner. But, even so, the
results obtained have been inconclusive—to say the least of it.
 Let us take, for purpose of illustration, one of the experiments
conducted in France. In this a large box-kite was employed. It was
allowed to ascend, in a strong wind, until it flew at a height, in
regard to its size, which represented, approximately, the target
which would be represented by a scouting aeroplane.

Then it was towed past a battery of artillery. Twelve shots were

fired at it; and, out of the dozen, one hit was recorded. This was not
a good result, from the gunner’s point of view. In this test, too,
conditions favoured the men at the guns.

To begin with, they expected their target, and knew from which
direction it would appear. In the second place, the target was, in
comparison with an aeroplane, moving much more slowly than the
flying machine would have done; and, in the third place, the kite
was towed in a perfectly-straight line, and was not pursuing an
erratic course, as an aeroplane would certainly do—in the efforts of
the pilot to escape being hit—were it under fire. And yet, even with
these points in their favour, the gunners achieved but one hit in a
dozen shots.

It is possible to cite another instance, in this connection—that of a

series of tests carried out, in American waters, from a warship. Here,
again, the target was a box-kite, and it was flown above the vessel
at an altitude of about 800 feet. Ten blue-jackets were then formed
up upon the deck; and they fired three volleys at this representation
of an aeroplane. The bullets, in the first two volleys, all went wide of
the mark. In the third, however, the box-kite was hit.

Here, again, although conditions favoured the riflemen, they failed

to obtain satisfactory results. During the three volleys, the box-kite
was flown at an unvarying height. This was a point very greatly in
their favour.

In actual warfare, had they been firing at an aeroplane, the

machine would, probably, have been travelling at a speed of sixty
miles an hour or more; and it would, therefore, have presented a
different range, at each volley fired.

Another experiment, carried out from an American battleship, is

also of interest. In this case, a plunging kite was sent up to a
specified height, and 160 rounds were fired at it with rifles. Although
the kite swung about a good deal, it did not vary its altitude. In
connection with this test—in which picked shots were employed—40
hits, out of the 160 rounds, were recorded.

As a result of the tests recorded above, and of others less

interesting, the Secretary of the United States Navy was led to make
the pronouncement that no aeroplane could, with any degree of
safety, approach nearer than 1000 yards of a position protected by
rifle-fire.

As opposed to this view, the opinion of experts at the Hythe

School of Musketry is that it would be more or less a waste of
ammunition to attempt to "wing," with rifle-fire, an aeroplane 3000
feet high. In the practical work of the aeroplane in Tripoli, machines
flying less than 2000 feet high were not damaged by rifle-fire.

The point to bear in mind, in this connection, is that an aeroplane

flying 3000 feet high, and at a speed greater than that of an express
train, would, inevitably, prove a very difficult target. The airman
would appear suddenly, and quickly go out of view again; and he
would alter his height, and course, so that a perplexed gunner—
needing to fire quickly, or not at all—would find the range constantly
varying.

[Illustration: MILITARY AIRMAN’S REPORT. Photo, M. Branger.

After descending from a reconnoitring flight on a Blériot monoplane,
in the French manœuvres, the pilot seen above is imparting details
of what he has observed to another officer.]

Quite recently, a famous military expert has pronounced the

opinion that high-angle gun-fire would have no great potentiality
against fast-flying aeroplanes.

Amplifying some tests first carried out in France, have come a

series of more recent experiments, in which the conditions imposed
have been more disadvantageous to the gunners. The result has
been a striking testimony to the invulnerability of the aeroplane. For
example, kites have been towed by motor-cars at a speed actually
representing the flight of fast monoplanes. Gunners, when firing
under such fairly realistic conditions, have failed to secure anything
like a satisfactory percentage of hits.

Tests on a somewhat similar scale have, also, been carried out in

Germany; and, here again, the artillery has not distinguished itself.
In Germany, also, small balloons have been used as targets. These
have been set free, and have been permitted to ascend to a certain
height, before being fired at. In connection with these experiments,
a fairly-large percentage of hits was recorded. This was due, no
doubt, to the fact that there was no erratic movement to be allowed
for—the balloons moving on an easily determined line.

These target tests, as can be seen, represent conditions which are

quite artificial. It is possible to take, for the sake of comparison, the
practice indulged in by gunners at coast defences. Targets are towed
at specified distances out to sea, and then the gunners pound away
at them. Such practice is good, of course. It accustoms the men to
the handling of their guns; and it certainly improves their
marksmanship.

But now contrast this target practice with a sudden attack, in war-
time, by hostile torpedo craft.

Here will be no mechanically-moving target, at which to take a

leisurely aim. Instead, there will be the rush and tear of war.
Marksmanship, under such conditions, is a very different thing to
quietly-conducted practice firing. And a similar argument—only with
greater force—applies to shooting at aeroplanes in war-time.

Among distinguished students of this problem of gun-fire and the

aeroplane is Colonel J. E. Capper, who was, for seven years, in
charge of the aeronautical work of the British Government. His view
is that artillery, however well-trained, would have very great
difficulty in firing accurately at a fast-flying machine.

An instance which Colonel Capper gives is this: if the range of a

gun is 5000 yards, an aeroplane, moving across it at a speed of fifty
miles an hour, would be in range for less than 3 1/2 minutes. During
this period of 3 1/2 minutes, the gun would need to travel across an
angle of 60 degrees, altering its range down to 4330 yards in the
first 1 3/4 minutes, and increasing it again to 5000 yards in the next
1 3/4 minutes.

To do this would be an extremely difficult task, even if the

aeroplane, while flying past, made itself the easiest possible target;
that is to say, if it flew steadily at one level, all the time, and moved
directly across in front of the guns. But an airman would, naturally,
seek to make himself as difficult a target as possible. He would,
therefore, constantly alter his altitude by movements of his elevating
plane; and he would, in addition, steer erratically from side to side.

How confusing this would be for the gunner may easily be

imagined. Apart from the speed of the aeroplane, which would, as
shown, only permit him a brief opportunity of firing at it, he would
be faced with the fact that range, elevation, and direction of the
elusive target would constantly be altering. In addition, he would
probably be called upon to make allowance for a wind, when aiming
at the machine.

Apropos the rapidity with which a modern-type machine will come

into the range of a gun, and disappear again, an incident in some
minor manœuvres held in France is of interest. On this occasion, a
special gun, designed to shoot at aircraft, and mounted upon a
motor-car, was taken out with the troops. Suddenly, an aeroplane
appeared in sight. It was flying straight towards the troops, which
were on the march. The special gun was called for; but, before it
could be brought into action, and trained upon the aeroplane, the
latter had gone completely out of range. This illustration shows what
an unsatisfactory and elusive target an aeroplane is bound to be.

II. Shrapnel shell—Question of hitting a vital part of the aeroplane

—Difficulty of identifying friend or foe.

It is generally agreed, among artillery experts, that shrapnel shell

should form a suitable projectile to be fired against an aeroplane.
The shrapnel is, indeed, a particularly-deadly missile. This shell
consists of a metal case, containing a sufficient amount of explosive
to burst it, when the fuse explodes the charge. This fuse can, of
course, be set so that the shell explodes at any given distance from
the gun which fires it.

Inside the metal case, or shell, is a charge of bullets. When the

shell bursts, these bullets fly out from it, ready to spread destruction
over an appreciable area. Should a shell burst in close proximity to
an aeroplane, for instance, the scattering charge would, it is
anticipated, break struts and stays, and possibly hit the pilot, or
some vital part of his machine.

But, granting the deadly nature of a well-aimed shrapnel shell,

there are several points to be considered, before we can imagine it
bringing an aeroplane to the ground. In the first place, there is the
question of the timing of the fuse. This must be done, of course,
with absolute accuracy; and the gunner must aim his weapon at a
point in front of the aeroplane, as it flies across his view. This
represents a matter for nice calculation, being determined by the
speed of the aeroplane aimed at, the speed of the shell, and the
distance of the aircraft from the gun.

Thus, when he is firing at a sixty-mile-an-hour monoplane, passing

swiftly through the air, several thousand feet away, a gunner must
obtain his range without delay, set his fuse accurately, and aim his
gun with the greatest care. And, all the time, his target will be
moving as fast as an express train, and perhaps making erratic
twists and turns in the air.

It is not surprising, in view of such circumstances, that one of the

greatest of military experts has declared that an aeroplane, flying at
sixty miles an hour, and at an altitude of from 3000 to 4000 feet, will
present an exceptionally-difficult mark, even to the most skilled of
gunners, equipped with special weapons.

It does not follow, even should a shrapnel shell be exploded

successfully in the vicinity of an aeroplane, that the machine will be
brought to the ground. There is still the question as to striking a vital
part of the aircraft. It should be remembered that the greater
portion of the target which a machine exposes to gun-fire is
represented by its planes; and these could be pierced by many
bullets before their efficiency was affected.

Thus, a number of bullets from a shrapnel shell might strike an

aeroplane without producing any result. What would be necessary,
would be to hit the airman, or place a shot in some vital part of his
machine. Damage to a working part of the engine would, for
example, bring the machine down. So would injury to radiator, petrol
tank, or propeller. A bullet might, also, break an important stay—or
cut a controlling wire. In such a case, the machine might fall, and be
wrecked.

The point to be made, which is of importance, is this: it does not

follow that, even if an aeroplane were hit, it would be brought to the
ground. Many bullets from a shrapnel shell might, as has been
shown, strike a machine in flight, without having any effect upon it
at all. This is certainly a factor in favour of the aeroplane.

A fact to be considered, also, when the problem of aeroplanes and

gun-fire is under review, is the distance at which aircraft are visible
from the ground. In ordinary weather, and under normal conditions,
it is generally estimated that a reconnoitring aeroplane should be
sighted when it is about three miles away.
 But, even in clear atmospheric conditions, the aircraft is an elusive
object to locate. Even when one is expected to appear, from a
certain direction, and all eyes are fixed upon the sky, awaiting its
advent, it is frequently almost at its destination before anyone
locates it.

More difficult, as can be imagined, is the task of sighting an

aeroplane when it is not known from what point of the compass it is
likely to appear. And yet this, of course, will be the position of the
gunner in war-time. A hostile aircraft may loom up from anywhere—
even from over his own troops. It will be possible for a reconnoitring
machine to ascend to a great height, and conceal itself in low-lying
clouds. From these it will be able to descend swiftly, effect a rapid
reconnaissance, and then "climb" again until lost to sight.

In such circumstances, the artilleryman will need to be

phenomenally handy with his gun if he is to note the approach of so
cunning a scout, and "wing" him before he has slipped out of range.

A point which has been referred to before—but which artillery

experts are prone to ignore—is the skill a military pilot will be able to
exercise, in avoiding fire from below. In many cases, during a
reconnaissance, the observer should be able to obtain all the
information he seeks without once coming within range of the
enemy’s guns.

Naturally, the aeroplanist will never fly intentionally over artillery,

or court infantry-fire. Long-distance observations will often be
possible, giving the gunner no chance of using a shell; or, if it is
necessary to come fairly close to troops, for a detailed piece of
reconnaissance, the airman will swoop down, and as speedily get
clear again.
 When he knows he is likely to be within range of any of the
enemy’s guns, he will pursue an erratic course. Therefore, the
gunner, when he does obtain a chance of firing at a machine, will
find his target darting about in disconcerting fashion.

A point arises as to establishing the identity of an aircraft, when it

is sighted during time of war. Machines will fly flags, indicating their
nationality, but these flags are not likely to be seen at any great
distance. Therefore, if an artilleryman detects an aeroplane,
approaching at an appreciable altitude, it will frequently be
impossible for him to determine whether it is friend or foe.

That it is, obviously, a machine of a particular type, or make, will

not help the artilleryman, because aeroplanes of all forms of
construction will be employed, in connection with the various armies.
The fact that it may be flying over from behind him, as though it had
risen from his own lines, will prove nothing, as a hostile scout might
have made a wide detour, and so approached the enemy from the
rear.

This difficulty as to identifying friend or foe is likely to prove a real

one in time of war, particularly when a large number of machines are
in the air; and, exactly how it will be met, is not easy to see.

Having reviewed the position, so far as the aeroplane and gun-fire

are concerned, it is possible to form more or less definite conclusions
concerning the subject. In the first place, one point is clear: extreme
views are unwise in regard to such a problem as this. What tests so
far carried out have proved, if they have proved anything, is that
there are two points of view.
 Artillery experts, who declare that every reconnoitring aeroplane
will be blown to pieces before it can carry out its work, are obviously
wrong; so, too, is the enthusiast who affirms that guns will be
altogether useless when directed against airmen.

What it is possible to deduce, from the generally-inconclusive

experiments recorded, is that the balance of testimony—so far as it
can be estimated—is in favour of the aeroplane. As a matter of fact,
the reasonable view to take is that, when a squadron of aeroplanes
deliberately sets forth to reconnoitre an enemy’s position, a certain
percentage of machines will be hit by gun-fire, and brought to the
ground.

Exactly what that percentage will be is a moot point; experience

alone can tell. But the tests already described suggest, very plainly,
that the percentage should be low.

The skill of the pilot in avoiding fire will be an important factor in

the question—as already mentioned. An over-daring airman may
quickly find himself in danger; a careful, cautious man may do all the
work required of him without giving hostile artillery a chance to get
in a shot.

Level-headed officers, who have practical experience in military

flying, do not anticipate, for a moment, that the aeroplanes which
ascend in time of war will escape scot-free.

"Casualties there are bound to be." The words are those of an

expert of international repute. "Risks will be taken knowingly,
according to the value of the information which is required. War is
not a kid-glove affair. Large squadrons of aeroplanes will be used;
and, apart altogether from the question of the loss of life, the
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