Today, we will continue our lectures on engineering mechanics in statics, focusing on a new method

for solving equilibrium problems: the virtual work method and energy methods. These methods are
particularly useful for analyzing the equilibrium of large structures with many interconnected rigid
bodies. When such a structure or machine is analyzed using traditional methods—by breaking it down
into individual rigid bodies and solving for the equilibrium of each body—the procedure often
becomes too lengthy. The virtual work and energy methods are especially helpful in cases where there
are large numbers of interconnected rigid bodies. We are interested in analyzing the equilibrium of
such a system or determining unknown forces, among other things.
Before diving into these methods, let’s first define the concept of work done by a force and then
discuss what we mean by virtual work. This is from Module 8, Lecture 18 of the Engineering Mechanics
course.

Work Done by a Force

Let’s first define work done by a force. Suppose we have a force F acting on a particle A, whose
position is defined with respect to an origin O by the position vector r. After a small interval of time dt
, the position of the particle A moves to a new position, denoted A′ , with the new position vector r′ .
The vector dr represents the displacement of the particle during this interval of time.
Let α be the angle between the force vector F and the displacement vector dr. We define the work
done by the force during this small displacement as the dot product of the two vectors: F ⋅ dr. In
other words, the work done is the component of the force along the displacement vector dr multiplied
by the magnitude of the displacement.
The incremental work done by the force in displacing the particle from A to A′ is denoted dU , and we
define this as:

dU = F ⋅ dr
In scalar form, we can express this as:

dU = F ds cos α

where ds is the magnitude of the displacement vector dr, and cos α is the cosine of the angle
between the force vector and the displacement vector. This follows from the definition of the dot
product.

Cases of Work Done

Let’s explore a few specific cases:
If the angle α is less than 90 degrees, the projection of the force along the displacement vector is
positive, and the work done is positive. This means that the force does positive work in moving
 the particle from A to A′ .
If α is exactly 90 degrees, the force and the displacement are perpendicular to each other. In this
case, cos 90∘ = 0, and the work done is zero.
If α is greater than 90 degrees, the component of the force along the displacement is in the
negative direction, and the work done is negative. This means the force does negative work in
moving the particle.

Work Done by a Moment

Next, let's consider the work done by a moment. The effect of a force is to displace a particle or
translate it, whereas the effect of a moment is to rotate the object. In the case of planar motion, if a
moment acts on a rigid body, it causes the body to rotate.
The work done by this moment can be computed for an incremental angular displacement dθ . For
example, if we have two particles A and B on a rigid body, and the body undergoes a small angular
displacement dθ , the work done by the moment is:

dU = M ⋅ dθ

where M is the moment and dθ is the angular displacement. For small rotations, dθ is a vector
quantity, which allows us to apply the laws of vector addition.
We can represent the motion of a rigid body as a combination of translation and rotation. The effect of
the applied moment is that the body moves from its original position to a new position. The moment
can be decomposed into a translation of points A and B , and then a pure rotation around one of
those points.
To calculate the work done by the force, we consider the translation of point B to B ′ and the
corresponding rotation of point A to its new position A′′ . We use the relation between the force and
the moment to express the work done.

Work Done by Force and Moment

The work done by the force F in displacing point A from A to A′ is:

dU = F ⋅ drA ​

If the displacement of point A is due to the rotation induced by the moment, then the work done by
the force is related to the rotation and is given by:

dU = F rAB dθ​

where rAB is the distance between points A and B , and dθ is the angular displacement. The work
​

done is positive if the force and displacement are in the same direction, and negative if they are in
opposite directions.
This means that the work done by a moment depends on the direction of the moment and the angular
displacement. If both the applied moment and the angular displacement are in the same direction
(both clockwise or both counterclockwise), the work is positive. If they are in opposite directions, the
work is negative.

This completes the transcript with the time markers removed and rewritten for better readability. Let
me know if you'd like further adjustments or have any questions!
Let us define what we mean by virtual work. We start by defining the concept of virtual displacement.
Consider a particle A that is subjected to a number of forces, say F1 , F2 , … , Fn . We imagine that this
​ ​ ​

particle undergoes a displacement and moves to a new position, denoted as A′ , under the action of
these forces. This is just an imaginary scenario; no actual displacement is taking place. We assume that
the particle moves from position A to A′ , and this displacement is termed a virtual displacement,
denoted by δr . The symbol δ indicates a virtual displacement, and the displacement is termed a virtual
displacement because no real movement is occurring.
These forces do not cause the particle to move. The displacement is purely imagined. Now, let’s
consider the work done due to this virtual displacement. If we define such a work, or the work done
due to the virtual displacement, we refer to it as virtual work, and denote it by δU . The work done by
the individual forces can be written as:

Work done by F1 = F1 ⋅ δr ​ ​

Similarly, for other forces, the virtual work done is:

Work done by F2 = F2 ⋅ δr ​ ​

and so on, up to Fn . Thus, the total virtual work done by all the forces is:
​

δU = F1 ⋅ δr + F2 ⋅ δr + ⋯ + Fn ⋅ δr
​ ​ ​

This can be simplified as:

n
δU = ( ∑ Fi ) ⋅ δr = σF ⋅ δr
​ ​

i=1

where σF represents the resultant force vector acting on the particle. Therefore, the virtual work done
by all the forces is:

δU = σF ⋅ δr
Now, let's move on to derive the equilibrium equations for a particle using the concept of virtual work.
We define the equilibrium of a particle as the condition where the sum of all the forces acting on the
particle is zero, i.e., σF = 0. To determine the equilibrium using virtual work, imagine that the particle
undergoes a virtual displacement δr .
If the particle is in equilibrium, the principle of virtual work states that the total virtual work δU of the
forces acting on the particle must be zero for any virtual displacement δr . Since σF = 0 for the
equilibrium of the particle, we have:

δU = σF ⋅ δr = 0

This shows that for equilibrium, the virtual work δU is always zero, irrespective of the magnitude or
direction of the virtual displacement δr .
If we solve the equilibrium equations in component form, we have the work done along the x, y, and z
directions. For example, the virtual work done in the x-direction is:

Fx δ x ​

Summing over all the forces in the x-direction gives:

∑ Fx δ x = 0
​

Similarly, for the y and z directions, we get:

∑ Fy δy = 0 ​

and

∑ Fz δz = 0 ​

Thus, the equilibrium conditions for a particle can be written as:

∑ Fx = 0, ​ ∑ Fy = 0, ​ ∑ Fz = 0
​

These are the equilibrium equations in component form for a particle under the action of forces.
Next, let's extend this discussion to a system of particles or rigid bodies. A rigid body consists of a
system of particles where the relative distances between particles do not change under the action of
external forces. Consider a system of particles or a rigid body with internal forces and external forces
acting on it.
We will consider the virtual work done by the forces when this rigid body undergoes a virtual
displacement. When external forces are applied, the rigid body also experiences internal forces
between its particles to maintain its integrity. Let’s write the work done by these forces when the rigid
body undergoes a virtual displacement δr .
For the i-th particle, the work done by external forces is:

F1 ⋅ δr + F2 ⋅ δr + ⋯ + Fn ⋅ δr
​ ​ ​

And the work done by the internal forces between particles i and j is:

Fij ⋅ δr ​

where Fij is the force on particle i exerted by particle j , and this is equal and opposite to the force Fji
​ ​

on particle j exerted by particle i.

The total virtual work done by all internal forces in the rigid body is:

∑ Fij ⋅ δr
​ ​

i=j

This accounts for all the internal forces between the particles, excluding Fii , as the force of a particle
​

on itself is zero.
For the rigid body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the virtual work done by all forces (external and
internal) must be zero. Thus, the equilibrium condition for the rigid body can be written as:

δU = 0
This virtual work equation can be split into the work done by external forces and the work done by
internal forces. The work done by external forces is:

σF ⋅ δr

where σF is the resultant of all external forces. The work done by internal forces is:

∑ Fij ⋅ δr = 0
​ ​

i=j


Since the forces between any two particles are equal and opposite, the total virtual work done by
internal forces is zero. Therefore, the equilibrium condition for the rigid body is:

σF ⋅ δr = 0

If equilibrium exists, the sum of all external forces σF = 0, and for any consistent virtual displacement
δr, the virtual work δU is zero.
In addition, the equilibrium of the rigid body also requires that the sum of the moments of the
external forces be zero. This gives the condition σM = 0, where M is the moment of the external
forces.
We can write the virtual work done by the moments of these forces causing a virtual angular
displacement δθ as:

δU = σM ⋅ δθ = 0
Thus, the equilibrium condition for the rigid body in terms of virtual work is:

σF = 0 and σM = 0

These two conditions, the sum of forces and the sum of moments, must both be satisfied for the rigid
body to be in equilibrium.
We have this delta U as σ Ṁ δθ, which has to be 0. So, the equilibrium equations for the rigid body can
be written in view of these two equations, that is, σ F = 0 and σ M = 0. We can write σ Ḟ δr = 0 and σ
Ṁ δθ = 0, and we can solve some problems.
We have seen how we define the equilibrium equations for a particle and a rigid body based on this
virtual displacement concept. The principle, as we would have seen, is not of much use in the case of
particles and single rigid body equations because if we had written the equilibrium equation, that is, σ
F = 0, again we would have got the three scalar form equations and could find the three unknowns.
What we have done, in view of this, is just write σ Ḟ δr = 0; again, this provides the three equations to
solve, let’s say three unknowns. We do not see much use in writing the equations in the alternative
form. The same is the case for the rigid body, where we have written, in lieu of these two equations, σ
Ḟ δr = 0 and σ Ṁ δθ = 0. We are just replacing these two equations with the other two. But we will see
that, in the case of connected rigid bodies, if we extend this principle of virtual work, it becomes very
useful to solve certain classes of equilibrium problems. We will see some problems so that we realize
the usefulness of this method for interconnected rigid bodies.
Let’s first define or extend this principle of virtual work to the system of connected rigid bodies.
Before we do that, we have to make certain definitions. First, we would like to define what we mean by
an ideal system of rigid bodies. Let’s first define what we mean by an ideal system of rigid bodies. We
define a system of rigid bodies or a connected rigid body as one where the mechanical connections do
not absorb energy by elongation or compression. This means that the system should not have elastic
members like springs or other kinds of elastic members that can absorb energy when forces are
applied. Because we are going to apply the method of virtual work, the work done should not be
absorbed by any of the elastic members in the structure or the system under consideration. The work
has to be conserved, meaning whatever work is input to the system should be output from the system,
and the system should not absorb any energy by elongation or compression. This is the first
assumption if we would like to idealize a system of rigid bodies.
The second assumption is that there is no friction between the connections, and if it is present, it is a
very negligible quantity. We will see a little later that friction does negative work. Whenever friction is
present, the work done by the friction is not available. It is normally dissipated as heat or in other
forms of energy that are not recoverable. So again, we assume that there is no loss of energy because
of friction in the system. If we make these two assumptions, we can idealize a real system and say that
it is an ideal system of rigid bodies.
Let’s see some examples. Here, we have a system of connected rigid bodies where we have a link AB
and CB connected at this pin joint, connected by a smooth roller at A and pinned at C. We assume that
these are rigid, meaning AB and BC are rigid, so they do not elongate or deflect and absorb energy. If
we assume that the contact between the roller and these guideways is very smooth or lubricated, and
that the pin connections at C and B are well lubricated, such that the friction is negligible, then this
system can be idealized and stated as an ideal system of connected rigid bodies.
Let’s see other examples. Here, we have a system of connected bodies where we have two links, say AB
and CB, and there is a spring element that connects this pin at A and the roller at C. If this element is
taken as a constituent member of the system, that is, if we take this member AC, which is a spring, as
part of the system, then when some external forces are applied, the spring elongates or compresses,
thereby absorbing energy. This system cannot be idealized if we take the spring as a constituent
member of the system. Later on, we will see that we can actually solve this problem by removing this
from the system and equivalently representing the force due to this element on the remaining system,
and we can then solve the problem.
We have other systems like the one shown here, where a force P is trying to move a block, and there is
a frictional contact between this block and the surface. In this case, friction does negative work.
Therefore, this is also not an ideal system if the force F is considerable and it leads to the dissipation of
the work done by heat. If such assumptions can be made, like we can remove the spring elements or
other elements that can absorb energy and assume that such connections have negligible friction,
then we can idealize the system and perform the virtual work method to analyze the equilibrium of
such connected rigid bodies.
Before we go into the actual method, let’s see the kinds of work that occur in a system of connected
bodies and try to analyze the work done by these various forces. Let’s take the same example of two
links, AB and CB, connected at B and having a roller at A and a pin connected at C, with some external
forces F1 and F2 acting on these members. Even though, by our first analysis, this member seems to be
a two-force member because it is connected at A and B, since this force F is acting not at the
extremities, both the slender members, AB and CB, are not two-force members. Let’s try to see the
various kinds of forces that are occurring.
First, let’s see the applied forces, say F1 and F2. Because of the application of these forces, the system
tries to undergo a displacement consistent with the constraints. This means the displacement should
be consistent with the constraint that, at C, the position of this link cannot move, or this link CB can
only rotate about this point C, and at A, this point can only track along this dotted line. This means the
roller is confined to the slot or path that is available. Consistent with these constraints, if we assume
that the link takes a new position, say B' for B and A' for A (with C remaining the same as C'), this link
has moved to a new position, consistent with the fact that the length of CB' remains the same as CB
and so forth. This is a pure rotation; the movement from B to B' is a pure rotation about this point C. If
consistent with these constraints, a displacement has taken place, then these forces, F1 and F2, would
have done some work causing this displacement to occur. Thus, the work done by these forces, which
we define as active forces, must be considered when we analyze the problem of equilibrium. When we
are interested in finding some unknown forces, we must consider the work done by these forces,
which actually do work when a displacement consistent with the constraint takes place in the system
of connected rigid bodies. We see that the displacement is neither perpendicular to these forces nor is
it zero. There is some displacement, which is neither zero nor perpendicular to the direction of these
forces, F1 and F2. The work done by these forces is not zero. Thus, we say that these are active forces,
or the forces that actually do the work.
Let’s see the other kinds of forces that are occurring, which are the reaction forces. At A, it is supported
by a roller, and so we have the reaction force R1 perpendicular to this slot along which this point A can
move. At C, since it is pin connected, the reaction can have both horizontal and vertical components,
say R2x and R2y, and here it is only along the x-direction. Consistent with this constraint, if we see any
virtual displacement, this point A can move to another point only along this line, and this force R1 is
perpendicular to the direction in which any virtual displacement, δr, can take place. δr can be either in
this direction or in that direction. For any such displacement, we see that since R1 is perpendicular to
this virtual displacement, the work done by this force R1 is always zero.
Let’s see the work done by this force R2. Because this point C is fixed, the link can rotate with respect
to it. This could be another virtual displacement, or this could be δθ. We see that, since this point C
cannot move and is fixed, whatever may be the virtual displacement, this point is not displaced, and so
the work done by this force R2 is zero again. We see that these reaction forces, R1 and R2, do no work
when some virtual displacement takes place in the system.
Let’s see the other kind of force that is occurring, which is the forces in the joints. If we dismember this,
we will have a force in this multi-force member AB, say FAB, which is the force in the multi-force
member. We again see that it has components along the member as well as perpendicular to the
member, and at the other link, BC, we have an equal and opposite force FBC because equilibrium
should exist at this point B. So, the sum of these two forces should be zero. If this point B undergoes a
virtual displacement δr consistent with these constraints, meaning point A can move only in the
vertical direction in the slot and point C cannot move, and thus CB has to purely rotate about this
point C, then if consistent with these constraints, we define this δr, the work done by the forces FAB
and FBC will cancel each other out. Therefore, the net work becomes zero. We see that the work done
only by the external forces has to be counted in the virtual work equation.
When we apply this equation to the ideal system of rigid bodies, the principle of virtual work becomes:
The work done by the external active forces on this ideal mechanical system in equilibrium is zero for
any and all virtual displacements consistent with the constraints. We can write this as δU = 0.
So, the advantage is that we do not need to dismember the system because we have already seen that
the internal forces constitute no work. Therefore, for the analysis, we do not need to dismember the
system. The second thing is that the relation between the active forces can be determined without any
reference to reactive or internal forces, because we see that we do not have to find any internal forces.
Finally, this method is useful for establishing equilibrium configurations under known loads.
We will continue in the next lecture, where we will discuss some concepts of the degree of freedom
and solve some problems on this ideal system before moving on to real systems.