Vol. 8(3), pp.
70-79 March 2017
DOI: 10.5897/JSSEM2016.0601
Articles Number: 4978A9962841
ISSN 2141-2391
Journal of Soil Science and Environmental
Copyright ©2017 Management
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/JSSEM
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of the effectiveness of soil and water
conservation practices on improving selected soil
properties in Wonago district, Southern Ethiopia
Yonas Ademe*, Temesgen Kebede, Alemayehu Mullatu and Toyiba Shafi
Natural Resources Management Department, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Dilla University, Ethiopia.
Received 17 September, 2016; Accepted 6 February, 2017
Accelerated soil erosion remains the major challenge that is adversely affecting the agricultural
performance in Ethiopia. Efforts towards soil and water conservation (SWC) goal were started since the
mid-1970s and 80s to alleviate soil erosion and low crop productivity. However, the effectiveness of
SWC practices on improving soil properties remains less studied. Soil physical analysis (%sand, silt
+
and clay) and chemical analysis (pH, exchangeable potassium (K ), available phosphorous (P), total
nitrogen (TN), soil organic carbon (SOC) and cation exchange capacity (CEC)) were analyzed. A total of
36 soil samples from two sub watersheds (SWs) with SWC and without SWC practices (Elmo without,
Elmo with, Hobene without and Hobene with) from three landscapes with three landscape positions
+
(upper slope, middle slope, and bottom) were studied. The results showed that soil pH, K , P, TN, SOC,
%clay and CEC were significant (p≤0.05) for SWC practices. The sand and silt fractions were not
significant (p< 0.05) for SWC practices. P, SOC, %silt and CEC were significantly different for landscape
position. The study indicated the effectiveness of SWC practices in improving the soil properties. There
should be a continuous awareness creation for technically efficient implementation and proper
maintenance of SWC practices for optimum improvement of soil properties.
Key words: Soil erosion, soil and water conservation (SWC) practices, landscape position, sub watershed.
INTRODUCTION
Land degradation by accelerated soil erosion remains spearhead the economic transformation of the country
one of the biggest environmental problems worldwide, (Woldeamlak, 2003). However, land degradation in
threatening both developed and developing countries general and soil erosion in particular still remain the
(Lal, 2014). It is considered one of the main problems major challenges that are adversely affecting the
constraining the development of the agricultural sector in agricultural performance of the country. The majority of
Ethiopia (Amsalu and Graaff, 2007; Kirubel and the farmers in rural areas of Ethiopia are subsistence-
Gebreyesus, 2011; Kebede and Mesele, 2014). As oriented, cultivating impoverished soils on sloppy and
agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, it marginal lands that are generally highly susceptible to
is given special attention by the government to soil erosion and other degrading forces (Shimelis, 2012).
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
Ademe et al. 71
The severity of this land degradation process makes have been invested in the construction of SWC structures
large areas unsuitable for agricultural production, in sub-watersheds, their impact on improving soil
because the topsoil and even part of the sub-soil in some properties is not well studied. Comparing changes with
areas has been removed, and stones or bare rock are left soil properties between two SWs (both SWs have areas
at the surface (Esser et al., 2002). The land degradation with and without SWC adjacently) could contribute to
problem has had serious consequences in Ethiopia such further improvement of design, implementation and
as occurrence of persistent food insecurity, economic sustainable maintenance of SWC practices. Therefore,
losses and various environmental hazards such as the main objective of the study was to evaluate the
recurrent drought (Bekele and Holden, 1999). As noted effectiveness of SWC on improving the selected soil
by Pimentel et al. (1995), erosion adversely affects crop properties.
productivity by reducing water availability, water-holding
capacity of the soil, nutrient levels, soil organic matter MATERIALS AND METHODS
and soil depth. Research results confirmed that soil
nutrient depletion caused by erosion is the major cause Description of the study area
for decline of agricultural production (Bekele and Holden,
1998; Abay et al., 2016). Deforestation and conversion of The research was conducted in Wenago district (Figure 1), Gedeo
Zone, Southern Ethiopia, located at 375 km South of Addis Ababa,
marginal land to agriculture has been followed by severe the capital of Ethiopia. The Wenago district lies in geographical
soil erosion that has caused crop production losses, coordinates between 6°20'30" and 6°15ʹ0˝North - 38°15ʹ 30" and
which in turn result in economic losses (Bojö and 38°21'0" East. Total area coverage is estimated to be about 13.7
Cassels, 1995). For example, due to soil and nutrient loss km2, and the district is sub divided into 17 administrative rural
through erosion, Ethiopia has been annually losing about kebeles (villages) (GZFES, 2005). Topographic feature of the
district generally shows that there is a decreasing altitude from east
US$ 106 million (Bojö and Cassels, 1995).
to west and north to south. The physical features of land are
In Ethiopia, coping with these problems, efforts towards dissected and undulating and each hillside or mountain is followed
soil and water conservation goal were started since the by plateau and then by short or long slopping to flat land. Erratic
mid-1970s and 80s to alleviate both problems of erosion and irregular rainfall of the study area is bi-modal including the
and low crop productivity (Shimelis, 2012). As a result, spring (short rainy season) from March to May (60 - 90 days), while
government implemented soil and water conservation the main rainy season is from July to September (90 - 120 days).
According to CSA (2007), the climate of Wenago district is
(SWC) practices to reduce erosion-induced land characterized by annual rainfall and temperature of 1001 - 1800
degradation (Hurni, 1993; Bekele and Holden, 1999). mm and 12 to 25°C, respectively. The soil types that dominantly
Since then, various mechanical (bunds, terraces, check occur in the study area include chromic luvisol, eutric fluvisol and
dams, cutoff drains and waterways) and biological dystric nitisol in decreasing order.
(homestead and communal tree plantations and
enclosures) SWC measures have been implemented in
Data collection
drought-prone areas (Amsalu and de Graaff, 2007). The
implementation of sustainable land management Delineation of watershed
practices may help to increase agricultural productivity,
improve ecosystem functions and enhance resilience to The study was conducted April 2015 to March 2016 in Elmo SW
adverse environmental impacts. SWC practices (Figure 2) with an area of 233.74 ha area in Karasodity village and
Hobine SW (Figure 3) with an area of 167.43 ha in Dako village
undoubtedly have affected positively the productivity of
(Figure 1). The SWs have both SWC practices and degraded areas
agriculture where agriculture is hampered by drought, without SWC practices. Lakew et al. (2005) noted sub-watershed
erosion; low soil fertility and moisture stress (Mulugeta units prioritized for key interventions. The SWs were delineated by
and Stahr, 2010; Kirubel and Gebreyesus, 2011). using digital elevation model (DEM). The topographic transect walk
Recognizing land degradation by accelerated soil method was employed for the assessment of existing SWC
erosion as major environmental and socio-economic measures in the sub watersheds. Transect walk was made to
identify the major SWC practices implemented in the study area.
problems and the importance of SWC, the Wenago The slope of the SWs is indicated in Figures 2 and 3.
district agricultural office has made considerable efforts to
improve food security by rehabilitating degraded land and
preventing further degradation. As a result, different Soil data collection and analysis
degraded watershed areas have been, covered by
physical and biological soil and water conservation Soil physical and chemical analysis (%sand, silt, clay, and organic
carbon, total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (P),
measures. Some of the implemented soil and water exchangeable potassium (K) and cation exchange capacity (CEC)
conservation practices in the SWs include soil bunds, were analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of SWC measures on
check dams, cut-off drains, waterways, area closure, improving soil properties at the two sub watershed. The two SWs
trenches and plantation of tree seedlings. were characterized by having both conserved and non-conserved
However, the effectiveness of SWC practices on areas adjacently. A total of 36 soil samples from two SWs with
SWC practices and without SWC practices (Elmo without SWC,
improving soil properties remains under studied.
Elmo with SWC, Hobene without SWC, and Hobene with SWC)
Although, many resources in terms of money and labor, from three landscapes (replications) with three landscape positions
72 J. Soil Sci. Environ. Manage.
Figure 1. Location of the study area.
(upper, middle and bottom slopes) were taken at one depth (0-30 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
cm). There were two treatments (SWC practices and land positions)
and three landscapes (replications). The study followed factorial Characterization of the SWC practices in the study
randomized complete block design (RCBD). The soil physical and
chemical properties were analyzed based on their standard
methods. The particle size distribution of the soil was done using Based on detailed inquiry on two SWs (sub watersheds)
the Bouyoucos hydrometric method (Bouyoucus, 1962). For this, along the transect line, different SWC practices were
disturbed soil samples from representative locations (transect) were implemented since 2009. The SWC measures in the SWs
collected from a depth of 0-30 cm with the help of soil auger. were installed for the purpose of land rehabilitation and to
Soil organic carbon (%) was determined by potassium control further soil erosion in agricultural areas. Majority
dichromate wet combustion procedure (Walkly and Black, 1934).
The pH of the soil was measured in water suspension in a 1:2.5
of the physical SWC practices constructed were soil
(soil: liquid ratio) potentiometrically using a glass-calomel combined bunds (Figure 4), fanyajuu, half-moons, trenches (Figure
electrode (Van Reeuwijk, 2002). TN content was determined by wet 5) and micro basins (Figure 6), and cut off drain in area
oxidation procedure of the Kjeldahl method (Mostara and Roy, closures on grazing and fallow land. Similarly, the
2008). The available P content was determined by 0.5 M sodium commonly practiced biological SWC include maintaining
bicarbonate extraction procedures (Olsen et al., 1954). Flame natural vegetation and tree plantation in area closures,
photometer (Toth and Prince, 1949) was used for determination of
K+. CEC was determined by extraction with ammonium acetate
plantation of valley bottoms, and stabilization of physical
method (Chapman, 1965) structures using natural vegetations, vetiver grass and
elephant grass. Implementation of conservation practices
may keep the soil in place and reduce both the on-site
Statistical analysis and off-site effects of soil erosion (Blanco and Lal, 2008).
The field observations revealed that most of the SWC
The impact of independent variables (SWC practices and measures have been widely implemented are stabilized
landscape positions) on the dependent variables (soil properties) with some irregularities in dimensions and lack of
was statistically tested. For each measured response, analysis of
maintenance. Stability of SWC structures depend on
variance (ANOVA) was performed. Data was analyzed for variability
using General Linear Model of SAS version 9.1 statistical software various factors such as slope of the land, construction
(SAS institute, 2008). The mean separation was made using least quality, construction material, support of physical
significant difference (LSD0.05) method. structures by biological measures, and appropriateness
Ademe et al. 73
Figure 2. Elmo sub watershed with slope (%).
of structure to the site conditions (Olarieta et al., 2008). Effectiveness of soil and water conservation
The SWC practices improve the biophysical change by practices on improving soil properties
reducing soil and water loss, discharge of springs (Figure
7), improved micro climate, greening the area (Figure 5), Sand, clay and silt fractions
supplying grass for cut and carry (Figure 5), modifying
terrain, improving soil depth, stabilizing active gullies. According to ANOVA sand and silt fractions were not
Even though the above benefits, there are limitations in significantly different (p < 0.05) for SWC practices and
the design and installation of the practices. The study of %sand and %clay were not significant landscape position
Kirubel and Gebreyesus (2011) indicated that there has and their interaction (Table 1). This result confirms
been success in maintaining and improving land findings by Lemma et al. (2015). The maximum sand of
resources, viz. soil, water, vegetation and humidity due to 22.45% at Elmo without SWC and minimum of 19.56% at
the implementation of SWC practices. Most the SWC Elmo with SWC were observed (Table 1). The variation
practices did not follow the site specific design criteria of may be due to the steep landscapes; transportation and
vertical interval and dimension of the structures based on translocation of fine particles are expected. The analysis
the soil depth, slope and rainfall. Simeneh (2016) also showed significant variation of clay for SWC
reported that most of the existing physical SWC practices with maximum clay of 48.49% at Hobene with
structures were not constructed according to the SWC and lower 39.53 at Elmo without SWC with
standards in Wyebla Watershed. The SWC technologies variation on effect of SWC practices. The maximum value
introduced by both government extension system and of silt observed was 38.61% at Elmo without SWC and
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) working at the lower content was 29.50% at Hobene with SWC. The
grassroots level is predominantly biased to standard non-significant difference in texture may be due to the
structural SWC technologies (Mitiku et al., 2006). young age of SWC practices that cannot make
74 J. Soil Sci. Environ. Manage.
Figure 3. Hobene sub watershed with slope (%).
Figure 4. Stabilized soil bund.
significant change on soil weathering (Lemma et al., was indicated at upper and lower position, value of
2015). For landscape position, maximum sand content of 41.07% was indicated at middle position, maximum silt
22.78% was indicated at middle and lower position, value content of 38.67% was indicated at bottom position and
of 20.13% at bottom, maximum clay content of 47.43% lower value of 30.95% was indicated at upper position
Ademe et al. 75
Figure 5. Water harvested in area closure with trench .
Figure 6. Micro water harvesting structure.
with variation due to position. The highest silt content more easily detached; silty soils derived from loess
measured at bottom may result to erosion and parent material are the most erodible type of soil (Blanco
sedimentation processes, as there could be a balance and Lal, 2008).
between soil particle detachment, runoff velocity and
deposition. This may be due to soil particles resistance to
detachment, and susceptibility to transportation. Soil pH
Gebremichael et al. (2005) reported that selective
removal of soil particles to steeper slopes leave behind The soil pH in the experimental area varied from 5.0 to
coarser materials (sand, gravel and stones), while the 7.3 with an average value of 6.06 which is moderately
transported material is deposited as the slope steepness acidic (Tekalign and Haque, 1991). The pH was not
decreases. Sandy soils are less cohesive than clayey significantly different at p<0.05 level of significance for
soils and thus aggregates with high sand content are landscape position and for interaction, and highly
76 J. Soil Sci. Environ. Manage.
Figure 7. Discharge of water below area closure.
Table 1. SWC practices and landscape position effects on soil properties.
pH K+ P TN SOC Particles size distribution (%) CEC
Treatment
(H2O) ( ppm) (ppm) (%) (%) Sand Clay Silt (meq/100 g
Elmo without SWC 6.23b 3.70b 4.196b 0.139b 1.9c 22.45a 39.53b 38.01a 25.81c
Elmo with SWC 6.75a 5.19b 5.73a 0.320 a 3.42ab 19.56a 41.82ab 38.61a 43.18a
SWC
Hobene without SWC 5.48c 5.09b 4.21b 0.163b 2.69b 22.02a 44.44ab 33.54a 25.88c
practices
Hobene with SWC 5.78bc 7.00a 5.55 a 0.272a 3.61a 22.01 a 48.49 a 29.50a 38.22b
LSD0.05 0.49 1.72 0.56 0.096 0.74 4.77 8.09 8.4 4.12
Upper 5.90a 4.53a 4.41b 0.237a 2.85b 21.62a 47.43a 30.95b 29.51b
Landscape Middle 6.14a 5.50a 4.83b 0.223a 2.37b 22.78a 41.07a 35.14ab 36.70a
position Bottom 6.13a 5.70a 5.53a 0.211a 3.49a 20.13a 41.21a 38.67a 33.61a
LSD0.05 0.43 1.49 0.48 0.08 0.64 4.13 7.00 7.27 3.64
CV (%) 8.38 13.55 11.63 23.94 26.07 22.36 18.98 24.61 12.91
K+ = Exchangeable potassium; P = available phosphorous; TN = total nitrogen; SOC = soil organic matter; CEC = cation exchange capacity.
significant for SWC practices. Maximum pH value of 6.75 SWC). This could be attributed to the presence of higher
was obtained from areas with SWC practices at Elmo and exchangeable cations due to reduced erosion. Similarly,
relatively lower pH value of 5.48 at Hobene without SWC Shimelis (2012) reported that pH values on the farmland
practice. This indicates that SWC practices increase the terraces decreased with increase in slope of the terrain.
pH of the soil and then reduces soil acidity. Similarly, pH
value did not vary for landscape positions. Maximum pH
+
value of 6.27 was found on bottom landscape with SWC Exchangeable (K )
and pH value of 5.65 found on upper. This study agreed
+
with Tadele et al. (2013) who found relatively lower pH The soil K value in the experimental area varied from 0.6
mean value for the loss zone (without SWC) which may to 8.7 ppm with an average value of 5.24 (Table 1)
be attributed due to the relatively lower base saturation which is lower based on standard values of nutrients by
percentage and lower soil organic matter content while Marx et al. (1999). Results of Mulugeta and Stahr (2010)
+
the highest pH value in the accumulation zone (with also indicated that tropical soils are deficient in K . The
Ademe et al. 77
+
exchangeable K is significantly different for SWC (TN) than the non-conserved parts of the sub
practices (p=0.0065) and for interaction (p=0.0489), but watersheds. TN was significant (p = 0.0018) for SWC
not significant for landscape position at 5% level. Even practices and the highest content was found from the
+
though it is not significantly different, a maximum K value conserved parts with SWC practices than adjacent part
of 5.7 ppm was obtained from bottom position. Area with without SWC practices. Mulugeta and Stahr (2010) also
+
SWC practices at Hobene showed higher K value of reported that the lands with SWC measures have high
+
7.00 ppm and relatively lower K value of 3.7 ppm at TN as compared to the non-conserved land. Abay et al.
+
Elmo without SWC. Similarity, average K value of 5.7, (2016) found TN (%) differed significantly between
5.50 and 4.53 ppm were found from bottom, middle and conserved and non-conserved, slope positions and also
upper position of the field, respectively (Table 1). The with their interactions (p≤0.05). This indicates the positive
interaction effect also showed significance with maximum impacts of SWC practices in improving the nutrient status
+
K value of 8.03 ppm found on lower position with SWC of farms treated by structures (Hailu et al., 2012). Lemma
+
at Hobene and lower K value of 3.53 ppm found on Elmo et al. (2015) also reported the overall total nitrogen (TN)
without SWC at the middle position. This may be due to was higher under closed area with SWC than in soil
the fact that erosion and leaching remove soluble salts under closed area without SWC. Similar to exchangeable
from upper-slope and accumulate these at the down- K and soil pH, no significant differences were found for
slope erosion (Pimentel et al., 1995). Olarieta et al. TN in the landscape positions. Following the rating of TN
(2008) reported that at the lower slope positions, water greater than 1% as very high, 0.5 to 1% as high, 0.2 to
has a relatively longer residence time and as a result, 0.5% as medium, 0.1 to 0.2% as low and less than 0.1%
soluble materials precipitate down. as very low nitrogen status as indicated by (London,
1991), TN of conserved and non-conserved farm plots of
the study area were found between low and medium.
Available P These may be attributed to less physical protection
against water erosion, intensive tillage, due to leaching
Available phosphorus (P) was significantly different and limited nutrient amendments.
between the areas with SWC and without SWC
(p<0.0001), among the landscape positions (p =0.0004)
and their interaction (p<0.0001). Maximum available P Soil organic carbon (SOC)
value of 7.78 ppm found on lower position with SWC at
Hobene and lower available P value of 4.05 ppm was Based on ANOVA result, soil organic carbon differences
measured on Hobene without SWC at middle terrain. between the conserved and non-conserved SWs were
Similar finding was obtained by Mulugeta and Stahr statistically significant (p = 0.0003 and p = 0.0052) with
(2010). This may be due to the fact that organic sources respect to landscape position, with higher values at
of P are important for amending the agricultural land for a Hobene and at bottom. This reveals the physical
better land productivity. Higher available P of 5.73 ppm structures stabilized with vegetative practices have a
was found at Elmo with SWC and lower available P of better effect in soil OM accumulation. This finding agrees
4.196 ppm was determined at Elmo without SWC. The with Mulugata and Stahr (2010) who assessed the effect
lower P from areas without SWC was possibly due to the of integrated SWC measures on key soil properties with
difference in the past land degradation resulting from higher soil organic matter (SOC) (3.69%) in conserved
continuous cultivation, extractive plant harvest and soil catchment as compared to non-conserved (2.24%). As
erosion. Bottom position showed higher available P of compared to sites without SWC practices, the
5.73 ppm and a lower value of 4.41 ppm was observed at implementation of SWC practices in this erosion-prone
upper position (Table 1). P contents increased from landscape resulted in the recovery of SOC. Moreover,
upper to bottom position. Even though comparatively SWC measures may hold great potential for increasing
higher P found from areas with SWC, it was found at the SOM levels since the areas where these are
lower range of medium based on London (1991) which is implemented are often heavily degraded.
≤ 5ppm as lower, 5-15 ppm as medium and >15 ppm as This variation in SOC could be attributed due to the
higher content of P. The lower plant available P could be erosion reduction effects of SWC measures implemented
attributed to inherent soil properties such as P fixation by and biomass accumulation (Tadele et al., 2013; Abay et
iron and aluminum, while the differences between the al., 2016; Lemma et al., 2016). This implies SWC
terraces across slope of the terrain could be related to practices can bring current land use systems to a higher
organic matter (OM) input differences (Shimelis, 2012). above and below ground biomass (and hence SOC) level
by enhancing better ground cover. Kebede et al. (2011)
on crop field also reported that the non-conserved fields
Total nitrogen (TN) had lower SOC as compared to the conserved fields with
different conservation measures. Lal and Bruce (1999)
The plots treated with SWC practices within the sub also generally indicated technologies for restoration of
watersheds was found to exhibit higher total nitrogen degraded soils by establishing ecological-based
78 J. Soil Sci. Environ. Manage.
vegetation cover, using appropriate soil and water (upper, middle and bottom slopes) affect the efficiency of
conservation measures, adopting water harvesting different SWC measures and should be considered when
measures, enhancing nutrient recycling mechanisms, and designing and placing such measures for maximizing the
controlling stocking rate. Because soil organic matter is benefit from that conserved. Bearing in mind, the
highly concentrated at the top layers of soils, it is highly effectiveness of SWC practices towards improving the
affected by erosion. At the bottom slope position, higher soil quality and thereby sustainable agricultural
organic carbon content was due to lower erosion rate and productivity, there should be a continuous awareness
higher biomass production at bottom position (Tadele et creation mechanism for technically efficient
al., 2013.) implementation and a follow up process on the proper
maintenance for optimum soil properties improvement.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
Statistical analysis revealed that the soils had statistically
significantly different CEC (p < 0.001), SWC practices (p= The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
0.0019), and landscape position (p=0.0003) for their
interaction, CEC was higher in parts of SWs treated with
SWC as compared to without SWC adjacent parts. The ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
conserved area at Elmo was found to have higher mean
CEC value of 48.18 meq/100 g and lowest value of 25.81 The authors thank Research and Dissemination
meq/100 g at Elmo without SWC (Table 1). This is in line Directorate, Dilla University, for covering the full cost of
with research conducted by Abay et al. (2016) who the study. We are very grateful to the farmers, District
revealed significant difference in CEC (meq/100 g) SWC expert, development agents and others who
between the treatments and with respect to slope cooperated during the research activities.
gradients (p≤0.05). The mean CEC (meq/100 g) did not
vary (p=5%) between middle and bottom positions with
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