Automobile Engineering

ME 308

Supplementary Lecture Notes

 Introduction

1. Definition

The automobile is a self propelled vehicle that travels usually on land. It has moving
elements as wheels (or sometimes tracks). An engine (or electric moor in electric vehicles)
provides the required power to overcome the resistance experienced by the vehicle during
its motion. The primary function of automobile is to transport people and goods from one
point to another. The automobile is around 100 years since now and initially these are horse
dragged buggies and carriages. Later the development of engines replaces the horses but
the power of horses is still used as an indication to represent the available power of the
engines in terms of horse power.

2. Development

The first automobile based on engine was a buggy built by Karl Benz in Germany in
1885 and 1886. It had three wheels, one in the front and two at the rear. The first automobile
in United States was built by Charles and Frank Duryea in the year 1893. About 15,000 parts
are assembled together in order to produce an average automobile of small size. These
parts are grouped into several systems. Each system is made up of two or more parts that
work together to perform a specific job. The basic part and system in an automobile are the
major components and includes the following. A representative figure is shown in Fig. 1.1
highlighting the major components of an automobile.

Fig. 1.1 Major parts in an automobile

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  An engine, or power plant, that produces power to move or overcome the
resistance for motion of the vehicle.
 A power train or transmission system, to carry the power from the engine to the
drive point or the wheels.
 A suspension system, that absorbs the shock and additional vibrations
generated during the motion of the vehicle due to environmental disturbances.
 A steering system, required for manoeuvring and controlling the vehicle for the
desired motion
 A braking system, for controlling the speed of the vehicle or to seize the motion
of the vehicle.
 An electrical system, for the allied processes required during the vehicle motion
and engine power initiation.
 A body and chassis, for holding the subsidiary structures of the automobile along
with the vital block like engine, power train etc.

3. Classification of automobile

Automobiles can be classified into several types based on several criteria. A brief
classification of automobiles is listed below.

Based on purpose
1. Passenger vehicles - These automobiles carry passengers - e.g.: Buses, Passenger
trains, cars
2. Goods vehicles - These vehicles are used for transportation of goods from one place to
another. e.g.: Goods lorry, goods carrier

Based on capacity
1. Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) — large and bulky motor vehicles — e.g. Large trucks, buses
2. Light Motor Vehicle (LMV) - Small motor vehicles - e.g. Cars. Jeeps
3. Medium Vehicle - Relatively medium sized vehicles - e.g Small trucks. mini buses

Based on fuel source

1. Petrol engine vehicles — Automobiles powered by petrol engine — e.g., scooters, cars,
mopeds, motorcycles etc.
2. Diesel engine vehicles - Automotives powered by diesel engine - e.g.: Trucks, Buses
3. Gas vehicles - Vehicles that use gas turbine as Power source e.g. Turbine Powered cars
4. Solar vehicles - Vehicles significantly powered by solar power e.g. solar powered cars

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5. Hydrogen vehicles - vehicles that have hydrogen as a power source
6. Electric vehicles - Automobiles that use electricity as a power source e.g. Electric cars,
electric buses etc.
7. Steam Engine Vehicles Automotives powered by steam engine e.g. Steamboat, steam
locomotive, steam wagon
8. Hybrid Vehicles - Vehicles that use two or more distinct power sources e.g. Hybrid buses.
hybrid cars
9. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (REV)- Automobile that uses both internal combustion engine and
electric power source to propel itself

Based on type of transmission

1. Automatic transmission vehicles - Automobiles that are capable of changing gear ratios
automatically as they move e.g. Automatic Transmission Cars
2. Conventional transmission vehicles - Automotives whose gear ratios have to be changed
manually
3. Semi-automatic transmission vehicles — Vehicles that facilitate manual gear changing
with clutch pedal

Based n number of wheels

1. Two wheeler - Automobiles having two wheels
2. Three wheeler - Automotive having three wheels
3. Four wheeler - Vehicle having four wheels
4. Six wheeler — Automobile hain2 six wheels used for heavy transportation

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4. Resistance to a moving vehicle

This is the resistance a vehicle faces while attempting to move from a stall condition
or while acceleration. This resistance must be overcome by the power plant of the engine in
order to sustain motion. When the power produced is smaller than the resistance to motion,
the vehicle will gradually slow down. A Poorly inflated tyre also causes the vehicle to groan
more and slow down. These are the resistances that force the vehicle to slow down under
their effect.

Broadly the resistances can be categorized into the following categories:

• Air drag or aerodynamic drag (𝐹𝐴 )

• Gradient resistance (𝐹𝐺 )

• Rolling resistance (𝐹𝑅𝑅 )

• Inertia (𝐹𝐼𝑅 )

All the above produce a restraining force working against the tractive force. The
tractive force must be greater than or equal to the resistive forces in order to maintain a
sustainable motion. We can balance them as follows.

𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐺 + 𝐹𝑅𝑅 + 𝐹𝐼𝑅

The tractive force can also be seen as the minimum effort required by the vehicle in
order to move the vehicle from one point to another overcoming all the resistances. Inertia
resistance is evidential from Newton’s law of motion that states a body tries to maintain its
state either is rest or is at motion until and unless worked by some external agency. Thus,
inertia resistance is experienced during the stalling of vehicle or during the change in
acceleration during motion.

Aerodynamic drag/Air resistance

This is the effect raised due to the density of the medium at which the vehicle travels
and usually this medium is air mixture. When the body moves in a denser medium, the
molecules of the medium collides with the body and absorbs certain amount of energy
offering resistance to the motion of the body. The denser the medium, the more is the
resistance offered. Apart from the density, this is also affected by the speed of the body. If
the speed is very high, resistance offered is very high. From the theory of aerodynamics, the
drag force can be estimated as follows.

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 1
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
2 𝑑

where, 𝐶𝑑 represents coefficient of drag, ρ represents density of the medium, V represents

velocity of the body and A is the reference area. The negative sign implies that this force
works against the motion of the body.

Gradient resistance

In the ascent of a vehicle in an uphill, a component of its weight works in the direction
opposing the motion and thus creates a resistance to the motion. If some energy is not
applied to overcome this resistance, this would slow down the vehicle, condition of stall may
arise and further the vehicle may roll backwards. The weight of the vehicle can have two
components of forces acting simultaneously. One component is perpendicular to the road
and the other is acting against the motion of the vehicle. If the gradient of the uphill is θ and
weight of the vehicle is W, then this gradient resistive force can be estimated as follows.

𝐹𝐺 = 𝑊. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Rolling resistance

This resistance is evidential when the vehicle rolls with its moving elements like
wheels, tracks etc. Due to the difference of the material of the rolling element and surface of
rolling, friction plays into action for offering resistances. Moreover, rigidity of the road and
rolling element also cause deflections during travel again resulting in resistances. These
resistances are referred as rolling resistances. Usually, rolling resistance is accompanied by
inertia. The magnitude of rolling resistance is worked out from the relationship as shown
below.

𝑅𝑟 = 𝐾. 𝑊

where, K is the constant of rolling resistance and W is the weight of the vehicle in newton.

In order to overcome the various resistance experienced by a vehicle, a dedicated

power source is required. This power generation unit is referred as engine in automobile.
However, the electric vehicles run without engine but to replace engine, electric motors are
installed. If a vehicle moves with a speed of V m/s and the total resistance offered to the
vehicle in N, the power required to propel the vehicle is given by the following expression.

𝑅×𝑉
𝑃=
𝜂𝑡

where, 𝜂𝑡 is the transmission efficiency.

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 Tutorial Problems (Solved)

Numerical Example 1: A motor car weighing 13500 N, the air resistance is given by 0.002 AV2, where A is the
frontal area in m2 and V is the velocity in km/hr. The rolling resistance equals one hundredth the weight of the
vehicle. Taking car speed to be 56 km/hr and car frontal area to be 2.25 m 2, determine the power required to
propel the vehicle on level road. Also determine the maximum gradient which the vehicle can climb if the tractive
effort available at the wheel is estimated to be 1860 N.

Solution:

Air resistance = 0.002 V2 = 0.002 × 2.25 × (56)2 = 14.11 N

Rolling resistance = 135 N

Total tractive resistance = 14.11 + 135 = 149.11 N

The power required to propel the vehicle on the level road = tractive resistance × speed of the vehicle

= 149.11 × 15.56 Nm/s

= 2319.5 kW

Tractive resistance = air resistance + rolling resistance + gradient resistance

1860 = 14.11 +1 35 + [Link] θ

∴ sin θ = 0.1267

Since, for smaller angle sin θ ≈ tan θ

∴ the gradient is approximately equal to 0.1267 or 1/8

Numerical Example 2: A passenger car with frontal projected area of 1.5 m 2 travels at a speed of 56 km/hr.
Determine the power required to overcome wind resistance if the drag coefficient of the car is 0.4. For the same
power expended in overcoming the resistance, what percentage change in the speed of the car is possible if the
drag coefficient is reduced to 0.32 by streamlining the car body? Take density of air as 1.2 kg/m 3.

Solution:

Speed of the car, V = 56 km/hr = 15.56 m/s

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(i) Drag force, FD = CD × ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) × 𝐴
2

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= 0.4× ( × 1.2 × 15.562 ) × 1.5 = 87.16 N
2

Power = drag force × speed of the vehicle = 87.16 × 15.56 = 1.356 kW

(ii) Let, V1 be the speed of the streamline car

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Power = drag force × speed = CD × ( 𝜌𝑉1 2 ) × 𝐴 × V1 = 𝐶𝐷 × 𝜌𝑉1 3 × 𝐴
2 2

Since the power expended to overcome the air resistance remains the same,
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∴ 1356 = 0.32 × × 1.2× 𝑉1 3 × 1.5 = 0.288 𝑉1 3
2

∴ V1 = 16.17 m/s = 58.21 km/hr

% change in the speed = 3.95% 6

 Tutorial Problems (Unsolved)

Problem 1: The following data pertains to a car travelling at a velocity of 60 km/h

accelerated up a gradient of 1 in 20. Estimate (i) total tractive resistance (ii) tractive effort
available at the wheel and (iii) acceleration while ascending the gradient (Ans: (i) 782.96 N,
(ii) 3705 N and (iii) 2.04 m/s2)

Gross weight and frontal area = 11 kN and 2 m2

Air resistance coefficient and rolling resistance = 0.0018 and 220 N

Brake power developed by the engine = 65 kW

Rear axle ratio = 5:1

Effective wheel radius = 0.3 m

Transmission efficiency = 95%

Problem 2: A truck is having a projected area of 6.5 m2 and has the total resistance of 2000
N while travelling at 70 km/h. Out of this 20% is due to the rolling friction and 10% due to the
surface friction, and the rest is due to the form drag. Estimate the coefficient of the drag
assuming the density of air to be 1.22 kg/m3. (Ans: 0.93)

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