Introduction:

 Linguistic Fieldwork:

 Relies heavily on the working relationship between professional linguists and indigenous
language workers.
 This relationship is challenging due to differences in background and aims.
 The common ground between both parties is primarily their interest in the community
language.

 Differences Between Linguists and Communities:

 The chapter outlines the differences in approaches to language documentation between

the linguist and the community.

 Linguist's Contribution:

 Describes the input a linguist can provide in terms of linguistic training and language
work within the community.

 Project Examples:

 Draws from experiences in two projects:

o Primary Education Materials Project in Samoa (1997–2000).
o Language Documentation Project of Teop in Bougainville, Papua New Guinea
(2000–2005).

 Apprenticeship and Teamwork:

 Discusses the importance of individual apprenticeship and teamwork in these projects.

 Workshops:

 Concludes with a short section on the role of workshops in linguistic fieldwork and
language documentation.
 Contents:
 [Link] aim and personal motivation
 [Link] two perspectives of language documentation
 Speech genres
 Content of recordings
 The format
 Orthography
 Dictionary
 [Link] up the project team
 [Link] and teaching
 [Link] started: elicitation
 Wordlists
 Phonology
 Short clauses
 [Link] a corpus of recording with transcriptions and translation
 Recording
 Transcriptions
 Translation
 Editing work
 [Link] flow and time management
 [Link]
 [Link] Remarks
 Research Aims vs. Personal Motivations:

 Linguists and indigenous people engage in linguistic fieldwork with differing aims and
motivations.
 Linguists’ Research Aims:
o Contribute to scientific knowledge of languages or linguistic theory.
o Focus on what makes a language interesting for general linguistics, historical
linguistics, typology, or linguistic anthropology.
 Local Language Workers’ Aims:
o Focus on language maintenance and cultural development.
o Concerned with preserving aspects of their language and culture for future
generations.

 Different Perspectives:

 Linguists emphasize the "otherness" and uniqueness of the language compared to already
researched languages.
 Community members view their language in relation to the dominant official language
and neighboring languages.

 Motivations:

 Linguists:
o Driven by intellectual curiosity and academic career prospects.
o Need to meet expectations of funding institutions, often resulting in a focus on
theoretical work or specialized investigations (e.g., PhD theses).
 Indigenous People:
o Motivated by status within the community and earning money.
o Their objectives are less clearly defined but often prioritize creating dictionaries,
educational materials, or translating important community texts (e.g., religious
texts).

 Summary of Perspectives (Table 1):

 Linguists:
o Aims: Academic.
o Perspective: Focus on otherness.
o Motivation: Intellectual curiosity, academic career advancement.
o Products: PhD theses, specialized investigations.
 Local Language Workers:
o Aims: Educational, cultural.
o Perspective: Focus on identity.
o Motivation: Intellectual curiosity, status, money.
o Products: Dictionaries, reading materials, translations.
 Potential Conflicts:

 A strong commitment to community interests may lead to concerns that academically

relevant aspects are neglected.
 Ignoring community interests may cause guilt and a sense of exploitation without real
benefits to the language community.

 Cooperation:

 True cooperation, where both parties recognize each other’s interests, can lead to fruitful
results.
 The chapter highlights the importance of balancing these differing perspectives to
achieve successful collaboration in language documentation.

The Two Perspectives of Language Documentation

 Differing Views on Language Documentation:

o Even when both parties agree to document the language (recordings,
transcriptions, translations, dictionary, grammar), they have different views on:
 Choice of speech genres to record.
 Content of the recordings.
 Choice of orthography.
 Format of texts from recordings.
 Content and format of the dictionary and grammar.

2.1. Speech Genres

 Linguists:
o Aim for a wide variety of speech genres (e.g., ritual language, formal speeches,
casual gossip).
 Local Language Workers:
o May find certain genres inappropriate (e.g., gossip) or sensitive (e.g., ritual
language restricted to specific titleholders).
 Linguist's Approach:
o Should be sensitive to community attitudes and accept what the community is
willing to share.

2.2. Content of Recordings

 Potential Conflicts:
o Linguists’ ideas may not align with the community’s approval.
o Community members may disagree among themselves (e.g., preserving old
legends vs. considering them unsuitable for education).
 Linguist's Role:
 o Avoid getting involved in debates.
o Emphasize the importance of recording oral literature before it is lost.

2.3. Format of Texts

 Speaking vs. Writing:

o Spoken and written language differ conceptually.
o Scientific Documentation:
 Requires phonetic transcription with translation and relevant metadata.
o Community Needs:
 Edited transcriptions are preferred for educational purposes, removing
errors and hesitations.
 Edited versions differ from oral literature in structure, grammar, and
lexicon.
 May introduce new forms of language, influenced by the dominant
language.
 Linguist's Obligation:
o Assist the community if they desire reading materials in their language.
o Edited texts represent new communicative events and reflect the native editor’s
linguistic competence.
o These versions should be archived and accompanied by metadata, translations,
and comments.

2.4. Orthography

 Linguists’ Preference:
o Phonological orthography for accurate pronunciation.
 Native Readers’ Preference:
o Morphologically-based orthography for easier word recognition during silent
reading.
 Importance:
o Orthographic issues are crucial for the speech community, though often of
marginal interest to linguists.

2.5. Dictionary

 Divergent Interests:
o Community’s Dictionary:
 Contains more encyclopedic information to preserve cultural heritage.
 Appeals to both language maintenance and ethnographic interests.
o Linguists’ Dictionary:
 Includes grammatical information (parts of speech, pronunciation,
inflection, derivation) that may be irrelevant to the community while the
language is vital.
 Presentation:
 o Such grammatical details should be presented in a way that does not hinder native
speakers’ accessibility to the dictionary.

Setting Up the Project Team

 Selection of Local Language Workers:

o Fieldwork manuals often discuss selecting an "informant," but in practice,
linguists usually cannot choose their collaborators.
o Language workers are often chosen by others or volunteer themselves.
o Linguists can request help from intermediaries (hosts, local schools, churches) to
find people with qualities like literacy, bilingualism, and interest in language
work.
o The selection criteria of the community may include social standing and
relationships, not just qualifications.
 Social Considerations:
o The linguist, as a guest, is not in a position to hire and fire workers.
o If a language worker fails to meet expectations, the linguist should consult an
intermediary or respected community member before taking any action.
o The community's chosen worker is likely the one they considered most suitable.
 Managing Expectations:
o If a language worker does not meet expectations, it might indicate a failure to
communicate those expectations or that the expectations were unsuitable.
o Key qualities in a language worker include genuine interest in the language,
cooperation, and availability.
o Different workers have different talents (e.g., explaining semantic subtleties,
understanding sound structure).
 Training and Preparation:
o While the linguist is trained and prepared, local counterparts usually start
unprepared.
o Time should be allocated to identify strengths and weaknesses of language
workers.
o Workers need time to overcome shyness, insecurity, and to discover their talents
and interests.
 Task Distribution:
o If someone is uncomfortable with their assigned job, the linguist should find a
more suitable role for them.
o Main tasks that can be distributed among different people include:
 Helping the linguist learn the language.
 Recording, transcribing, and translating.
 Editorial work.
 Assisting in understanding and translating recordings.
 Dictionary work.


Learning and Teaching in Fieldwork

  Mutual Learning Process:
o Researchers learn the language and culture from local counterparts.
o Researchers teach linguistic methods and language work organization to local
workers.
 New Challenges for Local Language Workers:
o Teaching their indigenous language as a second language, which has never been
taught before.
o Adopting the role of a teacher for an adult second language learner.
o Teaching someone from a foreign and often dominant culture.
o Navigating different cultures of learning with the researcher.
 Developing Teaching Skills:
o Local teachers may initially feel unprepared to teach their language.
o Teaching one's native language to adult learners requires training and experience.
o Through cooperation, local teachers develop skills in understanding language
structures and research methods.
 Different Teaching and Learning Practices:
o Cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings in teaching methods.
o Example: German teaching style emphasizes detailed explanation, while Samoan
teaching may rely on learning by observation.
o Over-explaining can be perceived as patronizing; silence and observation are
valued in some cultures.
 Expectations in Language Learning:
o Indigenous teachers may expect linguists to actively learn the language.
o In some communities, it may be seen as inappropriate or intrusive for an outsider
to speak the language or certain varieties.
o Example: In Samoa, the user’s host family did not want them to speak colloquial
Samoan.
 Linguists' Evolving Goals:
o Modern linguistic fieldwork goes beyond creating recordings, grammars, and
dictionaries.
o There is a responsibility to train indigenous language workers to document the
language independently.
o This approach helps local workers become genuine shareholders in the project.
 Skills Needed by Local Language Workers:
o Handling technical tools (e.g., recorders).
o Organizing notebooks, folders, and files.
o Understanding basic theoretical concepts of phonology, grammar, and
lexicography.
o Making and editing recordings, transcriptions, and translations.
o Organizing the workflow of the project.

Getting Started: Elicitation in Fieldwork

 Elicitation Basics:
o Elicitation involves obtaining linguistic data by asking native speakers questions.
 o Older fieldwork manuals often assigned a passive role to native speakers in this
process.
o Modern approaches emphasize mutual teaching and learning, involving speakers
as active partners who can become independent language documenters.

 Combining Data Collection with Linguistic Training:

o Initial data collection can be combined with training local language workers in
basic linguistics.
o Cooperation between linguists and local language workers can lead to the creation
of a corpus of annotated recordings and edited texts.

5.1. Wordlists:

 Purpose:
o Compile wordlists to investigate the phonological system and create or understand
a working orthography.
 Traditional Method:
o Traditionally involves asking bilingual native speakers for translations of
wordlists from a lingua franca.
o This method can cause embarrassment if speakers cannot translate a word due to
lack of knowledge or cultural taboos.
 Alternative Method:
o Explain the purpose of the wordlists to the native speaker.
o Discuss suitable semantic fields to start with (e.g., food and cooking).
o Break down the field into subcategories like:
 Fruit and vegetables, edible animals
 Dishes
 Activities (e.g., wash, peel, boil, fry)
 Tools (e.g., knife, spoon, pot)
o Use imperatives to elicit verbs (e.g., commands like "wash the vegetables").
o This method helps both the linguist and the native speaker to become aware of
semantic fields and word classes.

5.2. Phonology:

 Initial Wordlist Limitation:

o A 180-word list is insufficient for a complete phonological study.
o Phonology can be revisited later as rare sounds or patterns emerge during other
analyses (e.g., morphology, syntax).
 Example from Fieldwork:
o In a course with a speaker of Acoli (a tonal language from Uganda), the focus
shifted from phonology to syntax to avoid frustration.
o The teacher, through observing the linguists' mistakes, became more aware of the
tonal system, improving the teaching process.
 Learning Minimal Pairs:
o Introduce the concept of minimal pairs without using linguistic terms.
 o Use playful methods or games (e.g., finding words that nearly sound the same or
rhyme).

5.3. Short Clauses:

 Building Clauses:
o Ask the native speaker to create short clauses from the wordlist.
o Example: If the semantic field is food preparation, words like water, fish, boil,
cook, fry can form clauses such as boil the water, cook the fish, fry the fish.
 Learning Collocations and Grammar:
o Incorrect combinations (e.g., cook the water) help the teacher and linguist to
recognize collocation rules.
o This process introduces the first rules of word order and functional words (e.g.,
articles).
o Helps both parties to begin understanding grammatical structure and inflections
(e.g., nouns inflecting for case, verbs for gender).
o As the native teacher becomes more aware of the language's grammatical
structure, their ability to correct mistakes and teach improves.

Creating a Corpus of Recordings with Transcriptions and Translations

 Goal:
o Document a variety of naturally spoken language through recordings.
o Begin with short, simple stories to ease transcription and analysis.
o Stories for children may be a good starting point due to their simpler content,
structure, and vocabulary.

 Preparation:
o Discuss recording content with local language workers.
o Explain tasks and workflow.
o Allow language workers to record stories independently to avoid creating an
unnatural situation by the linguist's presence.

6.1. Recordings:

 Steps for Operating a Recorder:

o Plan the sequence of steps (e.g., inserting battery, connecting microphone) and
stick to it.
o Demonstrate how to hold the microphone properly.
o Practice with language workers, allowing them to gain confidence and familiarity
with the equipment.
o Choose quiet locations to avoid background noise in recordings.
o Allow time for language workers to overcome fear of breaking equipment or
making mistakes.
6.2. Transcriptions:

 Local Language Workers:

o Literate local workers can assist in making transcriptions.
o Emphasize the importance of transcribing exactly what the speaker says without
correcting errors.
 Practical Orthography:
o Transcriptions should be in an accessible orthography for the community, not
necessarily in a narrow phonetic transcription.
o Consistency in spelling isn't crucial initially, as the orthography might not be
standardized.
o Encourage workers to follow their intuitions, which might help in analyzing the
phoneme system.
 Spelling and Standardization:
o Discussions on spelling and standardization should be delayed until the linguist is
more familiar with the community.
o For the project database, a consistent working orthography that distinguishes
between norms and variants is essential, but local transcribers don't need to use it.

6.3. Translations:

 Translation Preferences:
o Free and idiomatic translations are preferred for general readers, while literal
translations are better for linguistic analysis.
o Consider offering idiomatic translations with literal translations in footnotes for
clarity.
 Engaging Local Translators:
o Find community members who feel confident translating, even if their work isn't
perfect.
o Use differences between their translations and yours to refine interpretations.
o Explain that the initial translation is raw and that making mistakes is expected.
o If unsure of an equivalent translation, they can use the original term and provide
an explanation in brackets or a footnote.
o Number the utterances in the transcription and have the translator match these in
the translation to avoid retelling rather than translating.

6.4. Editorial Work:

 Editing Guidelines:
o Respect the speaker's original way of speaking.
o Avoid stylistic changes unless correcting obvious mistakes.
o Do not alter sentence structures, replace coordinate clauses with subordinate ones,
or change direct to indirect speech (or vice versa).
o Add information only if necessary for understanding, especially for cultural
references that may be unknown to younger generations.
o Do not shorten the text.
Work Flow and Time Management

 Efficient Work Practices:

o Well-organized workflow and good time management are essential.
o Initial planning should be flexible to accommodate the talents and interests of
local language workers.
o Start with only two or three people and allow time to develop a work routine
before expanding the team.
 Joint Work Organization:
o Identify activities required to produce a piece of documentation.
o Discuss roles: Assign tasks based on each person’s skills.
o Create a work plan: Arrange activities in order and allocate time for each task.
o Stick to the plan: Complete one task before moving to the next.
o Evaluate and revise the work plan as necessary.
 Divide Projects into Subprojects:
o Break down the project into small, manageable subprojects.
o Avoid postponing transcription, translation, and description of recordings.
o Recordings may be context-bound and difficult to understand if context details are
forgotten.
 Motivation and Discovery:
o Discover exciting language features through transcription and translation.
o Motivation increases as drafts are completed.
 Use of Technology:
o In areas where computers are available, use them along with a printer to provide
printouts for co-workers.
o In other areas, revert to handwriting or manual typewriters.
 Challenges in Time Management:
o Local language workers may hesitate to finish work, seeking continuous revisions
due to fear of criticism.
o Strict deadlines help overcome perfectionism and ensure work is completed.
 Case Study: Samoan Dictionary Project:
o A strict deadline from the funding agency helped the team avoid perfectionism.
o A mistake in the published dictionary (incorrect definition of "coal") was
discovered, but it was better than an unfinished manuscript.
 Example of Work Flow from Teop Language Project (2004):
o Recording on MDs: Done by Enoch, Shalom, Ulrike.
o Metadata and copying: Metadata written down and MDs copied to cassette tapes
by Ulrike.
o Transcription: Cassette tapes transcribed by Enoch, Joyce, Shalom.
o Checking and rewriting: Transcriptions checked and rewritten in consistent
orthography by Ulrike.
o Discussion and review: Transcription discussed with transcribers (Ulrike with
Enoch, Joyce, Shalom).
o Revised transcription review: Revised transcription reviewed while listening to
the tape, noting new words (Ulrike with Siimaa, Joyce).
o Translation: Transcriptions translated into English (Ulrike with Siimaa, Joyce).
 o Editing: Original transcriptions given back to Joyce and Enoch for editing.
o Editing check: Editing checked and discussed (Ulrike with Enoch, Joyce, often
with Siimaa).
o Final translation review: Revised edited versions given to translator (Naphtaly),
followed by checking and discussion (Ulrike with Naphtaly, often with Siimaa).
o Additional Work: Siimaa and Vaabero worked on example sentences and
monolingual definitions for the dictionary.
o Illustrations: Graphic artists Neville and Rodney created illustrations for legends
and the dictionary.

Workshops

 Considerations Before Conducting a Workshop:

1. Purpose and Outcome: Clearly define the workshop's purpose and expected
results.
2. Budget: Assess available funds, including costs for transport, food, and
accommodation per participant per day.
3. Participant Capacity: Determine the number of participants and the workshop
duration based on budget.
4. Participant Selection: Decide who selects the participants and what criteria will
be used.
5. Organization Support: Identify who will help with invitations, food, stationary,
and accommodation arrangements.
6. Agenda Setting: Determine who will decide on the workshop agenda.
7. Reporting: Assign responsibility for writing the workshop report.
8. Rituals: Consider necessary rituals like opening ceremonies or farewell parties.
 Balance of Involvement:

o Less involvement in organizational matters allows more focus on content but

could marginalize your professional input.
 Types of Workshops in Language Documentation Projects:

1. Introductory Workshops:
 Useful at the beginning of the project.
 Introduce researchers, inform the community about the project, and
discuss expectations.
 Helps recruit local language workers.
 Typically half-day or full-day workshops.
2. Orthography Standardization Workshops:
 Needs careful planning due to the sensitivity and potential political nature
of orthography issues.
 Keep participant numbers small, selected by community elders.
 Address societal standing and community rivalries.
3. Workshops for Training Community Language Workers:
 Longer workshops or a series of workshops can be conducted.
 Train members of the community in linguistic and technical skills for
language documentation and revitalization.
 Requires sufficient funds, equipment, and a team of three or more
linguists.
4. Workshops for Training School Teachers:
 Better conducted by school inspectors or senior teachers.
 Linguists assist in producing workshop materials and suggest how they
can be used.

Concluding Remarks

 Working with Native Speakers:

o A fascinating experience on intellectual, social, and personal levels.
o Daily discoveries of interesting linguistic phenomena.
o Gaining deeper insights into the community's culture.
o Witnessing the community's enthusiasm for linguistic work.
 Personal Reflection:
o University studies may cause doubt about the relevance of linguistics.
o Engaging in language documentation clarifies the importance and purpose of
linguistics