Chapter 11 HOLOZOIC NUTRITION By SM.

KHAN
• Greek, Holo=whole/complete, zoikos=of animals)
• It is type of heterotrophic nutrition, found in animals-protozoans
• All organisms need food/nutrients including animals to get energy and also to grow
and repair themselves
• Process of getting food/nutrients is called nutrition
• Holozoic nutrition includes, ingestion-digestion-absorption-assimilation-egestion
• Ingestion:- taking in of food into the cell/in case of unicellular organisms or in body/in
case of multicellular organisms , it takes place either through cell surface or through
specific opening, mouth
• Digestion:-process of conversion of large-insoluble-complex food into small-soluble
and simple form is called digestion
• This conversion process takes place chemically/with the help of enzymes as well As
mechanically/mastication-churning-grinding-peristalsis
• Absorption:-soluble molecules of food are absorbed by digestive membrane/intestinal
lining, so that they may be utilized during metabolic activities
• Assimilation:- process of utilization of the absorbed food molecules during the
metabolic process of cell is called assimilation
• Egestion:-process of removal of undigested
Food from the cell/body(specially through the anus) is called egestion
 Chemical and mechanical digestion
• Chemical digestion:-digestion which takes place with the help of digestive
enzymes/hydrolytic enzymes is called chemical digestion
• During the enzymatic breakdown/chemical digestion water is also required
• Hydrolytic enzymes work in the presence of water
• Mechanical digestion:- this type of digestion involves some kind of mechanically
or physically breakdown of larger particles of food into smaller ones. Like through
the mastication-churning-grinding-peristalsis
• It facilitates the process of food to be acted upon by digestive juices
 Intracellular and extracellular digestion
• Intracellular digestion:- digestion which takes place within the cells called
intracellular digestion
• This type of digestion occurs in unicellular organisms like protozoans(amoeba-
paramecium)
• They take in food from environment through cell surface/cell membrane
• They do not release their digestive enzymes outside the cells
• they digest the food within their cell body
• Extracellular digestion:-this type of digestion takes place in digestive
tract/organs ,like oral cavity-stomach-intestine/alimentary canal/gut
• This type of digestion occurs in multicellular organisms like insects-worms-
mammals etc
• They can not take food directly inside the cells since the size of food is too large
Sac like and tube like digestive system
Digestion in amoeba
Digestion in planaria
 Human digestive system
Humans are omnivorous animals, eat all kind of organic food(carbohydrates,proteins,fats)
Functionally and anatomically digestive system of man is divided into two parts
1. GIT(gastro intestinal tract):- this is tube like and is consist on following parts
Mouth-Oral/buccal cavity-pharynx- oesophagus-stomach-small intestine(duodenum-jejunum-
ileum)-large intestine,caecum- colon(ascending colon-transverse colon-descending colon-
sigmoid colon) and rectum , rectum ends in an anus
2. Accessary digestive organs:- includes teeth-tongue-salivary glands-liver-gall bladder-
pancreas
GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT(GIT)
The GIT , which extends from the mouth to the anus. It is approximately 9 meters/30 ft: long
It is specialized at various places along its length with each region designated to carry out
A different role in the over all processes of
1. Ingestion 2. Digestion 3. absorption 4. assimilation 5. Egestion
 Mouth
• It is the anterior opening of the gut/alimentary canal
• surrounded by fleshy lips/upper lip and lower lip
• Lips not only close the mouth but also help in ingestion
• Mouth opens into the oral cavity
Oral/buccal cavity
• There are several functions of oral cavity , the most obvious being the
• a. Grinding or mastication b. Lubrication c. Digestion
• It is wide cavity supported by the bones of skull,
• Cheeks forming its side wall,the tongue its floor, and palate roof
• Jaws forms the boundary of the mouth,upper jaw(maxilla) fixed,lower jaw(mendible)
moveable,both jaws bear teeth which are used to masticate the food into smaller
pieces, help in mechanical digestion
• The tongue nearly fills the oral cavity when the mouth is closed(attached through hyoid
• Rough projections called papillae on the surface of the tongue cause friction
• These papillae also contain taste buds.,frenulum is mucus membraner of tongue
• Anterior part of palate is hard palate and posterior part is soft palate
• In the middle of soft palate, hanging down is a muscular uvula/prevent food to nose
• There are 32 teeth, incissors(front teeth) chisel shaped with sharp edges for cutting,
canine teeth are cone shaped for grasping or tearing the food, the premolars and
molars are flattened surfaces and are for grinding food particles
• There are three pairs of salivary glands , parotid or parotis , submandibular and
[Link] glands secrets saliva having enzymes, help in chemical digestion
 Functions of oral cavity
• In the oral cavity mechanical and chemical digestion takes place
• Mechanical digestion is the physical division of a mass of food into smaller
masses, while chemical digestion is the chemical conversion of larger molecules
into smaller molecules
• Mechanical digestion:= food taken into the mouth is chewed or masticated by
the teeth. Mastication breaks large food particles into smaller ones in the
absence of enzymes.
• Chemical digestion: - saliva is secreted by salivary glands.( daily 1 to 1.5 liters
saliva is secreted), salivary glands are controlled by autonomic nervous system
The watery part of saliva contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase,
which breaks the covalent bonds between glucose molecules in starch and other
polysaccharides to produce the disaccaharides, maltose .
• Saliva helps in lubrication of food through its mucin/mucus,help in swallow
• Only about 3% to 5% of the total carbohydrates are digested in the mouth
 Teeth
• Humans have two sets of teeth(diphyodont)
• 1. Milk teeth(deciduous teeth) which are temporary, and 20 in number, appear
at the age of 6-9 month
• 2. Permanent teeth which are 32 in number, appear at the age of 6-9 years
• Teeth are inserted in the gums(thecodont)
• Teeth are different sizes and shapes(heterodont)
• Teeth play role in mechanical digestion, masticate the food
• 8 incissors,4 canines,8 premolars,12 molars
• Incissors are cutting and biting teeth,have flat and sharp edges
• Canines are pointed tearing teeth,used for tearing and piercing the prey, less
developed in humans,absent in herbivores,well developed in carnivores
• Molar and premolars are grinders, for crushing and grinding the food
 Pharynx and swallowing
• Pharynx is posterior narrow part of the oral cavity.
• The principal muscles of the pharynx involved in the mechanics of swallowing, are the three
pharyngeal constrictors(superior-middle-inferior), which overlap with each other slightly
• It contains the openings of oesophagus and glottis, also openings of internal nostrils and the
eustachian tubes.
• Eustachian tube:-A narrow passage leading from the pharynx to the cavity of middle [Link] primary
function is to equalizer air pressure between the atmosphere and the middle ear,drainage of
secretions from middle ear to pharynx
• Swallow(Deglutition) is initially a voluntary action, but after wards it continues as involuntary
• Soft palate helps in swallowing, during which the elastic cartilaginous flap epiglottis is pushed flat over
the glottis by the upward movement of larynx

• No food enters the wind pipe

• Accidently some time, some thing other then gases , comes in between the epiglottis and glottis,a
powerful coughing reflexes expels it out and throws back into the mouth cavity
• The swallowed food in the form of bolus passes down In to the oesophagus
• Upper oesophageal sphincter(UES) open and closed while passing of food through oesophagus
• entry of bolus into nasal pharynx is prevented by the elevation of soft palate
Pharynx and swallowing
• The pharynx is a cavity behind the mouth
• Swallowing/Deglutition:- swallow of food is voluntary as well as involuntary
action
• The tongue forms the chewed and moistened food into a ball like mass called
bolus and pushes it into the pharynx
• Muscles raise the soft palate against the back wall of the pharynx, preventing
food from entering the nasal cavity.
• The pressure of the food in the pharynx stimulates nerves in its walls that begin
the swallowing reflex, an involuntary action.
• As part of this reflex action the voice box or larynx rises up to meet the
epiglottis, with this action epiglottis cartilages drops over the glottis, the opening
to the larynx and trachea.
• In this way food is passed over the trachea without entering it
•
 oesophagus
• The oesophagus is that part of the digestive tube that extends between the
pharynx and the stomach .
• It is the about 25 cm long, it begins at the base of the pharynx and descends
behind the trachea
• The oesophagus penetrates the diaphragm and is continuous with the stomach
• Digestion which started in the oral cavity continues in the oesophagus. As
oesophagus is a passage way so no digestion takes place here
 peristalsis
These are propulsive movement of food, due to contraction and relaxation of gut
[Link] by autonomic nervous system/wave of contraction & relaxation
Muscular layer of the gut consists of inner layer of circular muscles while an outer layer of
longitudinal muscles..
Stimulus for peristalsis is distension of the gut wall due to bolus
Distension is process of swollen due to internal pressure
In peristalsis a wave of relaxation of circular muscles in front of food is followed by a wave
of strong contraction of longitudinal muscles behind food simultaneously ,propels the
mass of the food through the digestive [Link] the food moves it expands the tube wall,
the expansions stimulates peristalsis.
Some times the peristalsis becomes opposite in direction, called antiperistalsis that leads
vomiting, it is due to over distension/over eating or excessive GIT irritation/infection
Abdominal muscles contract,stomach is squeezed
Finally the gastro-oesophageal sphincter relaxes allowing the expulsion of gastric content
upward through the oesophagus in the form of vomiting/nausea
stomach
• Stomach is muscular,distensible bag like structure,in the left side of abdomen
• Below the diaphragm,typically J shaped, when empty.
• The opening from the oesophagus into the stomach is cardiac opening(located
near the heart).The cardiac sphincter around the cardiac opening(anterior side)
• The largest part of stomach is the body(corpus), which narrows to from pyloric
opening,guarded by pyloric sphincter(posterior side)
• Four parts of stomach cardia-fundus-corpus(body) and pylorus
• Serosa is the outer most layer of the stomach.
• The muscularis of the stomach consists of three layers(outer longitudinal layer- a
middle circular layer-an inner oblique layer)
• Next two layers are submucosa and mucosa(mucosa cells produce mucus)
• Mucosa surface forms numerous bulb like gastric pits which are the openings for
the gastric glands, three types of cells produce gastric juices
• 1. parietal cells(oxyntic cells) produce hydrochloric acid/HCL/Ph 1.5 to 2.5
[Link](chief) cells produce pepsinogen,3. mucus secreting cells
 Gastric glands in stomach
• Gastric glands release gastric juices
• Distal region/pyloric region of stomach contains pyloric glands/contain endocrine
cells secrete gastrin hormone
• Stimulus for secretion of gastrin hormone is distension of stomach and raising the
PH of the stomach by the addition of foods like protein(decrease in acidic
environment)
• Another secretion of pyloric gland/endocrine cells is serotonin/inhibin hormone
which inhibits the secretion of gastric juices
• Enteroendocrine cells of gastric gland secrete ghrelin hormone/hunger hormone
• Secretion of gastrin hormone and serotonin is regulated by parasympathetic
nervous system/type of autonomic nervous system through vagus nerve,
regulates the process of digestion
• Gastrin hormone via blood stimulate the gastric glands to release gastric juices in
the lumen of stomach
 Functions of stomach
• Three main functions of stomach(mechanical digestion-chemical digestion-storage
• Mechanical digestion:=smooth muscles of the stomach produce contractions called
mixing waves.
• The churning action of the stomach or mixing waves mix the boluses of food with
gastric [Link] mixing leads to the production of thick liquid called chyme.
• Chemical digestion:- mucus-HCL-pepsin enzyme play role in chemical digestion
• Mucus is thick secretion,.it prevents the underlying walls of stomach from being
digestion…hydrochloric acid is secreted in dilute form .it adjusts the PH of stomach
contents ranging from 2-3 for the pepsin to act on protein,it also softens the food and
kills many microorganisms taken in along with the food
• Pepsin is an enzyme secreted in an inactivated form called pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is
activated by HCL,it hydrolyzes protein to yield peptones or
polypeptide…..Rennin/chymosin enzyme released in infants,play role in curdling of
milk,it converts soluble milk protein(caesinogen) into insoluble form/casein
• Casein than digested by pepsin enzyme
• Rough projection in stomach called rugae/folds, they also secrete mucus, also increase
surface area of stomach
Small Intestine
• The small intestine consists of three parts ; the duodenum,the jejunum;the ilium
• The entire small intestine is 6 meters long and 3 to 5 cm wide
• It plays role in complete digestion of food and absorption
• Duodenum:- it is the first part of small intestine .it is about 30 cm in length
• When food enters the duodenum the secretions of pancreas and liver are poured
• Pancreatic juice:-the secretions of pancreas is called pancreatic juice, it is poured
through pancreatic duct, it is slightly alkaline,its PH is about [Link] is stimulated by
secretin and CCK hormones released by [Link] is stimulated by HCL.
The important enzymes in pancreatic juice are:- amylase,lipase,trypsin,chymotrypsin.
• Amylase/amylopsin, acts on starch/glycogen,which digests starch into maltose
• Lipase enzyme hydrolyzes the fats into fatty acids and glycerol
• Trypsin(activated form)trypsinogen is inactivated form, activated by entrokinase, an
enzyme secreted by duodenum,it spilits proteins and peptones to break them into short
chain polypeptite
• Chymotrypsin acts on milk protein(caisen)converts it into polypeptides/short chain
amino acidsd
 Brunner’s glands
• Duodenum contains specific Brunner’s glands which produce a mucus rich
alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate ions
• These secretions, in combination which bicarbonate from the pancreas,
neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme
Liver and pancreas
Bile juices
• Liver secretes bile,which may be temporary stored in the gall bladder and
released into the duodenum through bile duct.
• Hormone named CCK(cholecystokinin) released by small Intestine/duedenum, it
stimulates the liver to release bile juices
• The bile is yellowish green,watery [Link] contains no enzyme..
• Its colour is yellowish green due to bile pigments(Bilirubin,brownish yellow,and
biliverdin/green which are formed from the break down of haemoglobin in liver
• Bile also contains bile salts(sodium bicarbonate-sodium taurocholate-sodium
glycocholate) ,which acts on fats and emulsifies them and also plays role in
neutralize the chyme(make it alkaline)
• If bile pigments are prevented from leaving digestive tract,they may accumulate
in blood, causing a condition known as jaundice
• Cholestrol secreted by the liver, may precipitate in the gall bladder to produce gall
stones which may block release of bile
 Pancreas
• It lies behind the stomach in horizontal line along the curve of duodenum
• It is 12 cm to 15 cm long
• It serves as both exocrine and endocrine gland
• Its endocrine parts release hormones like insulin and glucagon in blood
• Its exocrine parts produce pancreatic juice(Acinar cells)
• Pancreas is also stimulated by cck hormone released by duodenum to release
pancreatic juices
• Secretin hormone(released by duodenum) stimulates the pancreas to secrete water
and bicarbonate ions which neutralize and turn the acidic chyme into alkaline
• Pancreatic juices are released in duodenum through pancreatic duct
• Pancreatic juice containing enzymes which digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats
• Just before entering the duodenum , the pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct
to form the hepatopancreatic duct
• The duodenal opening is called ampulla of vater, hepatopancreatic duct enters in
duodenum through this opening.
jejunum
• Jejunum is the second portion of small intestine extending from the duodenum
to the ileum., it is about 2.5 meters long
• The food which escapes undigested from the duodenum, is completely digested
in the jejunum by group of enzymes contained in the intestinal juice
Ileum(absorption of food)
• Nearly all absorption of products of digestion takes place in the ileum
• Ileum is about 3.6 meters long, it receives much diluted food(chyle)
• Internal surface of ileum has many folds(plicae circulares), which exhibit velvety/circular
appearance due to the presence of numerous finger like out growth called villi.
• Each villus is richly supplied with blood capillaries and a vessel lacteal of lymphatic
system with a covering of epithelial cells
• Microvilli are present on epithelial cells for more absorption
• Digested food is absorbed by the process of diffusion or active transport
• Vitamin B12 is also absorbed from ileum
• Fatty acids and glycerol are recombined as fats(chylomicrons) again, absorbed by lacteal
• Fats and nutrients are drain to the thoracic duct which is emptied into subclavin vein
• Simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion or active transport into the
blood capillaries through the microvilli.(blood capillaries merge into hepatic portal vein,
which delivers the absorbed food to the liver for storage and delivered to all body parts
• The intestinal contents are pushed along the alimentary canal by normal persistaltic
activity
Large intestine
• Large intestine is composed of caecum,colon and rectum.
• It is about 1.5 meters long, its diameter is 6.5 cm
• Caecum is blind sac that projects from large intestine between ileum and colon
• From the blind end of the caecum there arises a finger like process called vermiform appendix(it
is about 18 cm long), vestigial organ in humans but useful in herbivore animals
• The appendix some times gets inflamed causing appendicitis, which has to be removed
surgically….
• Colon is divided into four parts(ascending-transverse-descending-sigmoid colon)
• Colon contains symbiotic bacteria like Lactobacillus, that synthesize niacin/nicotinic acid/Vit B3
Thiamin/vitamin B1 and vit: K etc these are necessary for metabolic activities
• In colon, water, minerals/electrolytes are absorbed from undigested food

• Rectum is the last part of large intestine , where faeces temporarily stored and rejected through
anus,water and inorganic nutrients are absorbed also
• Rectum is about 13 cm long that is terminated in anal canal,its dilated portion is rectal ampulla
• Anus is surrounded by two sphincters,the internal is of smooth muscles(involuntary and outer of
striped muscles(voluntary)
 Number of sphincter valves in GIT
• There are about seven sphincter valves in GIT
• 1. upper oesophageal sphincter (UES)
• 2. lower oesophageal sphincter (LES)/cardiac sphincter
• 3. pyloric sphincter (PS)
• 4. Ileocecal sphincter (ICS)
• 5. Internal anal Sphincter (IAS)
• 6. External anal Sphincter (EAS)…..voluntary
• 7 sphincter of odii
 Liver
• Liver is largest organ and largest gland in our body………1.5 kg weight
• Reddish brown in colour, bilobed(right lobe and left lobe)
• Present in abdominal cavity,below the diaphragm, at right side
• Perform hundreds of functions,among them , the important are as follows
• 1. secretion of bile :- bile is secreted by hepatocytes
• 2. metabolism: Liver is metabolic center , regulate glucose level
• Converts glucose into glycogen with the help of insulin hormone(by pancreas)
• Glycogen is converted into glucose with the help of glucagon hormone(by pancreas
• 3. Deamination:-remove amino group from amino acids and make urea
• 4. Detoxification:-play role in breaking of toxic substances like H2O2-alcohol
• 5. Synthesis:- make plasma proteins(prothrombin-fibrin-globulin)
• 6. Storage:- stores fat soluble vitamins like A,D,E,K and also store iron,copper etc
• 7. thermoregulation/production of heat:- heat producing organ, produce heat
• 8 breakdown:- involved in breakdown of worn out erythrocytes/RBC
• 9 Defence:- this is carried out by phagocytic Kupffer cells/hepatic macrophages present
in sinusoids(blood vessels/channels)
 Anus and Egestion
• External opening of anal canal is known as anus
• Used in egestion
• Bulk of faeces consists of dead bacteria,cellulose and other plant fibers, dead
mucosal cells, mucus, cholesterol, bile pigment and water pass out through the
anus
Disorders related to digestive system and food habits
• Ulcer:- ulcer is a sore/a painful wound which would be developed anywhere
• In the gastro-intestinal tract, the most common ulcers are peptic ulcer
• They may be termed as gastric ulcers/in stomach or intestinal ulcers/in intestine
• These peptic ulcers caused due to excess secretion of gastric juices
• It happens when the HCL of gastric juices etches away the protective layer of
mucus which may cause painful condition
• Common cause of peptic ulcer is bacteria named Helicobacter pylori-some
medication like aspirin-stress-drinking alcohol-taking lot of spicy food
• Symptoms of ulcer are, loss of apetite-sharp abdominal pain-nausea-vomiting
• Treatment includes, proper antibiotics-proton-pump inhibitors/PPIs to reduce the
secretion of acid in stomach
 Food poisoning-Dyspepsia
• Food poisoning is caused by taking contaminated, spoilt or toxic food
• Food may be contaminated through some bacteria such as staphylococcus-
viruses-parasites or other pathogens
• Uncooked food is a common factor for food contamination
• Common symptoms are stomach cramps, vomiting-fever- diarrhea etc
• Treatment is related to rehydration, electrolyte solution and some antibiotics
• Dyspepsia:- it is popularly known as indigestion
• It refers to the discomfort or pain that occurs in the upper abdomen followed by
eating or drinking
• Common symptoms are blotting-nausea-abdominal fullness-hurt burn
 obesity
• It is related to the accumulation of excess body fats
• Medically according to WHO, at adult age(around 35 years) person is considered
obese when his body mass index(BMI) is over 30kg/m square
• BMI is obtained through
Following formula
• Obesity is the
Result of combination
Of inheritance,
Environment,diet
And exercise
Obesity increases the
Risk of diabetes
Cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, cancer
 Anorexia nervosa and Bulimia nervosa
• Anorexia nervosa:-It is psychological disorder
• In which the person has fear of gaining weight so refuse to eat appropriately
• It is commonly associated with young girls and women
• As a result, victim develops anorexia/loss of appetite
• The weight reduces to normal
• It may be accompanied by spontaneous or induced vomiting in some patients
• Bulimia nervosa:-it is also psychological disorder of gaining excessive body
weight, this is very serious, life threatening disorder
• It is generally characterized by binge eating (episodes of uncontrollable eating so
the person consumes excessive amount of food)
• Complication from bulimia may lead to kidney failure-heart problems-teeth
decay-electrolyte or chemical imbalance
• Weight may increases due to bulimia nervosa