METALS

PROPERTIES

Physical properties

Malleable (malleability) Can be hammered into different forms since atoms

have ability to shift positions and metallic bonds
strong to withstand deforming forces
Ductility Can be pulled into wires. Bonds strong to
withstand the stretching forces
Electric conductivity Presence of free delocalized electrons
Thermal conductivity ( can conduct heat) Atoms vibrate to conduct the heat
Sonorous Produce a ringing sound
High density Atoms closely packed together in small volumes
High melting and boiling points Strong metallic bonds

Chemical properties

Reaction with water Produce metal hydroxide and hydrogen

Metal + water = metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Example : calcium +water = calcium hydroxide +
hydrogen
Reaction with acids Produce metal salt and hydrogen gas
Metal + acid = metal salt + hydrogen

Example : magnesium + sulfuric acid = magnesium

sulfate + hydrogen

Alloys = mixture of metals with other metals or with other elements

Formation: mixing the molten metals together thoroughly and then allowing them to cool and form solid

Why use metals as alloys =

 To give metals stronger than the original individual metals, e.g. aluminium which is low density
and not very strong when mixed with copper transforms to a very strong alloy (duralumin). This
combines strength and lightness and is ideal for aircraft building
Alloys representations

NOTE: One should be able to draw sample diagram of an alloy {confirm with your notes}

Examples of alloys and uses

ALLOYS PROPERTIES
Brass (copper and zinc) Harder Making
 nuts,bolts,taps,
 balance weights
 injectors
Bronze (copper and tin) Harder Used in sculpture and construction
Making doors and window frames
Mild steel(iron and carbon) Stronger and harder Car bodies and machinery
Stainless steel (iron ,chromium, nickel) Harder, rust resistant Cutlery, chemical plants ,medical
equipment
Solder (tin and lead) Lower melting point Used in welding
Duralumin (copper and aluminium) Stronger, low density Building aircraft bodies

Reactivity series (based on reactions with water, dilute hydrochloric acid + oxides reduction with carbon)

Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Hydrogen
Copper
Lead
Silver
Gold
Explanation:

 Metals above hydrogen react with acids and water to produce hydrogen gas. Metals below
hydrogen in the series do not react with either water or acid
 Metals above carbon are extracted by electrolysis since are considered very reactive
 Metals below carbon (zinc, iron and lead ) are extracted using by reduction using carbon

Deducing order of reactivity using given set of experimental results .

NOTE: you should be able to do this, confirm with your notes

ACTION OF HEAT ON (THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF METAL COMPOUNDS)

 HYDROXIDES
 Most decompose on heating metal oxide and water
Heat
 Magnesium Hydroxide magnesium oxide + water

NOTE: hydroxides of group one metals do not decompose on heating; example sodium
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide do not decompose because they are very stable

 NITRATES
 Most decompose on heating to produce metal oxides ,nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen gas
 Lead II nitrate Lead II oxide + Nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

NOTE: nitrates of group one when heated intensely decomposes to metal nitrites and oxygen

Sodium nitrate sodium nitrite + oxygen

 CARBONATES
 Most decompose on heating to produce metal oxides and carbon dioxide as the
products
 Magnesium carbonate magnesium oxide + carbon dioxide
 Note : carbonates of group one metals are very stable and hence do not decompose on
heating

ACCOUNT FOR APPARENT UNREACTIVITY OF ALUMINIUM: this is due to the formation of the
impervious layer of oxide which adheres to the surface of the aluminum metal.
 EXTRACTION OF METALS
Description of ease of obtaining metals from ores based on reactivity

Very reactive metals =use electrolysis example sodium and aluminum extraction

Relatively reactive metal = use of reduction by carbon example, iron, zinc and lead extraction

Unreactive metals = heating in controlled in oxygen supply example copper

A. Aluminum

Ore name: Bauxite (aluminum oxide)

Impurities: Silicon (IV) oxide and Iron (III) oxide

Method of extraction: Electrolysis since is reactive metal

Extraction process:

REMOVAL OF IMPURITIES

 Addition of concentrate d hydroxide (aluminum oxide which is amphoteric dissolves in the

strong alkali, iron III oxide and silicon IV oxide are insoluble in the strong alkali and separated by
filtration)

MELTING PROCESS

 Addition of cryolite, lowers melting point of aluminum oxide from 2010 oC to between 1000oC
and 900oC

ELECTROLYSIS

Cathode reactions

Aluminum ions attracted to graphite cathode and undergo reduction

Al3++ 3e = Al

Anode reaction

Oxide ions attracted to the anode and undergo oxidation

2O-2 = O2 + 2e
NOTE:

 THE HIGH TEMPERATURES CAUSE THE GRAPHITE ANODE TO REACT WITH THE OXYGEN
PRODUCED AT THE ANODE RESULTING TO PRODUCTIONOF CARBON DIOXIDE. THE SIZE OF THE
ANODE THEREFORE REDUCES AND NEED TO BEREPLACED FREQUENTLY

CARBON (GRAPHITE ANODE) + OXYGEN CARBON DIOXIDE

o NOTE :ALSO MASTER THE ELECTROLYSIS CELL DIAGRAM VITAL

 GASES AT THE ANODE AND SOURCES
 Oxygen : from the electrolyte due to oxidation of the oxide ions
 Carbon dioxide : complete combustion of the graphite anode ( carbon) with the
oxygen produced at the anode
 Carbon monoxide : incomplete combustion of the graphite anode with the
oxygen formed at the anode
 Fluorine : oxidation of fluoride ions present in the electrolyte at the anode ( due
addition of the cryolite NaAlF6)

Uses of the metal

a) Manufacture of aircraft bodies because of its low density and strength

b) In food containers because of its resistance to corrosion
 B. IRON

ORE NAME: Haematite

IMPURITIES: silicon compounds, sulfur compounds, phosphorous compounds

METHOD OF EXTRACTION: Reduction by carbon monoxide in blast furnace

EXTRACTION PROCESS:

 Feed :
 coke(carbon)
 limestone ( calcium carbonate)
 the ore Haematite ( iron III oxide)
 blast of hot air (oxygen)
 blast furnace diagram(respective parts ,be in position to label correctly)
 reactions in blast furnace
 hot air blasted through the bottom opening ,react with coke to produce
carbon dioxide
 C + O2 CO2
 The carbon dioxide produced reacts with coke up the furnace to
produce carbon monoxide. Reaction highly exothermic and responsible
for the high temperatures in the furnace
 CO2 + C 2CO
 THE REDUCTION REACTIONS
 Iron III oxide reduced by carbon monoxide(most important
reaction)
o Fe2O3+ CO Fe + CO2
 Other reduction reaction ( carbon also reduces the ore )
o Fe2O3 + C Fe + CO2
 OTHER REACTIONS
 DECOMPOSITION OF LIMESTONE ( CALCIUM CARBONATE)
o CaCO3 CaO + CO2
 REMOVAL OF IMPURITY ( SLUG FORMATION)
o CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
 WASTE GASES : carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide
o Important observations
 Slug floats on molten iron which occupy the bottom part of the furnace
since iron is denser
 Molten iron cannot be converted back to its oxide since the slug on top
inhibits hot oxygen from reaching it and also there is limited amounts of
oxygen at the bottom of the furnace
  Conversion to steel in basic oxygenation process
 Involves blowing a high speed jet of oxygen into a vessel containing the pig iron through a water
cooled lance )

Note: pig iron is impure and should be purified when using it to make steel

The impurities:

a) Carbon
b) Sulfur
c) Silicon
d) Phosphorous

Removal of the impurities

 Carbon content is reduced by burning it off as carbon dioxide ( oxidized to carbon dioxide and
escape as a gas)
 Sulfur contamination is oxidized to sulfur dioxide ,which is gaseous and escapes
 Silicon and phosphorous forms non-gaseous oxides i.e. solid silicon IV oxide and phosphorous V
oxide
 Lime (calcium oxide) is added to remove oxides of silicon and phosphorous. ( the impurities
form slug which floats on top of the molten iron and can be poured off)

 Uses of selected steel

o Mild steel
 Manufacture of car bodies
 Manufacture of machineries
o Stainless steel
 In chemical plants due to unreactivity e.g. pharmaceutical industries
 In cutlery
 C. ZINC

Ore name: zinc blende (zinc sulfide ZnS)

Method of extraction: reduction using carbon

Extraction process:

 ROASTING
o Zinc blende is roasted(heated) in oxygen to produce zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide
which is trapped and used to make sulfuric acid
 ZnS + O2 = ZnO + SO2
 REDUCTION STAGE
o Zinc oxide is reacted with carbon to produce zinc metal and carbon dioxide
 ZnO + C = Zn + CO2
 USES OF ZINC
o For galvanizing iron
o For making brass
D. COPPER

ORE: Copper pyrite

USES OF COPPER

 Electrical wiring ( good electrical conductivity)

 Making cooking ( good thermal conductivity)
 BONDING AND STRUCTURE

IONIC BONDING - occurs between metals and non-metals

Ionic bonding therefore is simply the electrostatic attraction between the positively and negatively
charged ions.

NOTE: REPRESENTATION OF IONIC BONDING USING DOT AND CROSS CHECK YOUR NOTES ON IONIC
BONDING FOR THE DIAGRAMS

STEPS

 identify the number of electrons the non- metal needs to gain

 Identify the number of electrons the metal needs to lose
 Knowing the two are important in establishing the number of each of the atoms you will have in
your final ionic compound.

Ionic structures

Crystal lattice - regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions in ionic structure. Ions in
structure are held in positions with the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely
charged ions

Different elements have different ionic lattice. This is attributed to the difference in their atomic sizes

Properties of ionic structures

 High melting and boiling points -strong ionic bonds, require larger quantity of heat to break
 Electrical conductivity:
 Do not conduct in solid state -ions are immobile (localized, not free to move)
 But Conduct in liquid state (in solution or molten form) since in this state the ions are
mobile and free to move.
 Solubility: most soluble in water as all are polar. Water being polar is capable of breaking the
crystal lattice

Ions formation

Cation -positively charged ions. Formed when atoms loses electrons. Characterized by metals

Anion -negatively charged ions. Formed when atoms gain electron (s). Characteristic of non-metals.
MOLECULES AND COVALENT BONDING

Covalent bonding: sharing of pair of electrons leading to noble gas electronic configuration.

Occurs between non-metal elements i.e. involves a non-metal and a non-metal.

Sample covalent bonding

NOTE: USE THE YOUR NOTES ON COVALENT BONDING FOR THIS PART, YOU MUST MASTER HOW TO
DO THIS; PRACTICE

Sample covalent bonding using dot and cross diagrams for (you should be able to draw the dot and cross
diagrams for these compounds)

 simple structures : examples HCl , CH 4∧H 2 O

 complex structures : CH 3 CH 2 OH , C2 H 4

Properties of covalent structure

Volatility: have low melting and boiling points. This is because the forces between the molecules
(intermolecular forces) are only very weak.

Solubility: they are soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol (very few are soluble in water). This is
because covalent molecular substances dissolve in the covalent solvents and not in ionic solvents

Electrical conductivity: they do not conduct electricity. This is because there are no ions present to carry
the current

Physical state: are often liquids or gases at room temperature since they are made of simple molecules.
The atoms are joined together by covalent bonds
MACROMOLECULES (GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES)

Giant molecular crystals are held together by strong covalent bonds.

Graphite

Structure description:

 has hexagonal layered structures

 the hexagonal layers are linked by weaker intermolecular (van der Waals) forces of attraction
 within the layers ,each carbon atom is bonded to three others by strong covalent bonds
 only three of the four possible electrons participate in bonding leaving one free unbounded
electron

Properties of graphite

 Soft with slippery feel: attributed to the fact that the layers can slide over each other easily
 Conducts electricity: attributed to the presence of the free electrons not used by the layered
atoms in covalent bonding
 Dark and shinny
 Less dense

Uses in relation to structure

 Used as lubricant (due to softness and ability of the layers to slide over each other)
 Used in pencils (layers can slide over each other
 Used as electrodes and for the brushes in electric motors ( ability to conduct electricity )

Diamond

Structure description:

 has tetrahedral structure with each carbon atom bonded covalently to other 4 carbon atoms
with strong covalent structure
 The strong covalent bonds extend in all directions throughout the whole structure

Properties of diamond

 very high melting points , this is because the bonding extend throughout the structure
 very hard ; since the bonds are very rigid

Use in relation to structure

 in jewellery and ornamental objects , due to diamonds colourless ,transparent nature and ability
to sparkle in light
 in drill bits , diamond saws and glass-cutters ,this is due to diamonds hardness
Silicon (IV) oxide

Structure description:

 similar structure to that of diamond

 i.e. has tetrahedral structure with the bonding extended throughout the structure
 Within the structure, each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom
to two silicon atoms all with strong covalent bond.
 The whole structure of silicon and oxygen atoms is held together throughout by strong covalent
bonds .

Similarities in properties of diamond and silicon (IV) oxide

a. Both very hard

b. Both have very high melting points
c. Both non – conductor of electricity

METALLIC BONDING

Description of metallic structure

 Comprises of positive ions packed together (lattice) and surrounded by sea of delocalized
electrons.
 The electrostatic attraction that exists between the positive ions and the sea of delocalized
electrons constitute the metallic bonding.

NOTE: Applicable to all metals, Strengths defer from metal to metal hence the disparity evidence in
melting points of the metals.

YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO DRAW LATTICE STRUCTURE OF THE METAL TO DEPICT THE METALLIC
BONDING

Properties of metals

i. Electrical conductivity: presence of delocalized electrons within metallic structure make this
possible
ii. Malleability: can be hammered into different forms. Attributed to the fact that the positive ions
can be moved over one another without breaking the structure (can shift positions when
subjected to deforming forces). Metallic bonds are also strong to withstand the deforming
forces.
iii. Density : have high densities ,this is because of the very closely packed metal ions into lattice
 iv. Ductile; can be stretched into wires; this is because the strength of the metallic bonds means
metals does not easily break.

NOTE; the four different types of structures are

 Giant metallic lattice : a lattice of positive ions in a sea of electrons

 Giant ionic lattice : a lattice of alternating positive and negative ions
 Giant molecular lattice :a giant molecule (macromolecule ) making the lattice
 Simple molecular lattice :simple molecules in a lattice held together by weak forces
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
RATE OF REACTION: refers to the speed of chemical reactions

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION AND THE COLLISION THEORY

Concentration: High concentrations mean more particles. Thus the collision rate will be higher (there
will be an increased frequency of collisions resulting to an increased rate of reaction)

The opposite happens when the concentration is reduced. That is few particles, hence reduced
frequency of collision which in turn causes a decrease in reaction rate

Temperature: increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the reacting particles. The
particles therefore move faster. This increase in the speed of the particles in turn results to an increased
frequency of collision of the reacting particles hence rate of reaction.

Decreasing temperature causes the reverse to happen

Particles size (surface area): the smaller the particle implies an increased surface area. this is because of
the increased amount of surface with which the particles collide. this in turn results to an increased
collision rate hence the reaction rate.

Pressure: only applies to chemical reactions with either the reactants or products are gaseous (affect
only reactions with gaseous reactants or products)

Increasing pressure increases reaction rate. This is because of the decreased volume that results to
decreased spacing between particles. This decrease in distance between particles causes an increase in
frequency of collision of the particles hence the rate of the reaction.

Catalyst: increases the rate of reaction by providing an alternative reaction path with lower activation
energy. Lowering the activation energy means that on collision; more particles will go on to react at a
given temperature.

Catalyst also provides a surface for the particles to react and this contributes to the increased rate of
reaction.

Activation energy: this is minimum energy amount that reactants must overcome for collision to result
to successful reaction.
Practical methods of investigating rate of reactions involving gas

i. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

 Measure the volume of oxygen produced per unit time
 Plot volume results against the time
 gradient of the graph gives the rate of the reaction

ii. Reaction between calcium carbonate (limestone) and hydrochloric acid

Can be used to test effect of particles size or concentration of acid

Measurement taken

 Volume of carbon dioxide produced in unit time intervals

 Time taken
 Plot graph of volume against the times,
 Gradient gives the rate the reaction

Explanation of rate of reaction curve

Rate

Time

At the start the reaction rate is highest depicted by the steepness of the graph at the start. This is
because at the beginning of the reaction the reacting particles are more hence more collision per unit
time

As reaction proceeds, the rate gradually decreases, this is because the reactants are gradually consumed
in the reaction, reducing the number of reacting particles hence frequency of collision (this is indicated
by the gradual decrease in the gradient of the curve)

At the end, the curve flattens, depicting end of reaction as either one or both the reactants have
completely reacted (used up in the reaction)
ENZYMES: These are biological catalysts

Temperature sensitive; at temperature above 40, (optimum performance temperature for most
enzymes) the enzymes get denatured and stop functioning

At very low temperatures, the enzymes become inactive.

Graphical representation of enzyme action

45oC

Temp

Photochemical reactions: These are light catalyzed reactions

They include:

 Photosynthesis
 Halogenation of alkanes (e.g. bromination)
 Photography (oxidation of silver iodide)
A. Photosynthesis

Reaction that converts water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen in the presence of sunlight

Sunlight

Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen

Chlorophyll
 B. Bromination or Chlorination of alkanes

In this reaction, light energy is used in chlorination of methane to form chloroform. Reaction impossible
in the absence of sunlight

Light energy

Methane + chlorine tetrachloroethane

C. Photography

Involves conversion silver ions to silver atoms; silver chloride (white) or silver bromide (cream) darken
when exposed to sunlight

 2 AgBr ( sunlight )=2 Ag+Br 2

The reaction is a redox reaction, the bromide ions lose electrons (they are oxidized) and silver ions gain
electrons (they are reduced)
 REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Reactions that can precede in both forward and reverse directions i.e. the reactants react to form
products and the products once formed interact to form the reactants

Explanation of changing reaction conditions

Condition Effect on equilibrium position

Catalyst  Using a catalyst does not affect the position of the equilibrium, but the
reaction reaches faster.
Temperature  Depends on whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic
 Increasing the temperature of the system makes the reaction move in the
direction that takes in heat (endothermic direction)
 Decreasing temperature favors the exothermic direction ;the direction that
give out heat
Concentration  Increasing the concentration of one substance in the equilibrium mixture
makes the equilibrium move in the direction that produces less of that
substance
Pressure  Affects only reactions involving gases
 Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium in the direction that produces
fewer gas molecules
 Decreasing the pressure of the system prompt the opposite to happen

Concept of equilibrium

Chemical equilibria: conditions established by a reversible reaction and occurs when the rates of
forward and reverse reaction are equal

At equilibrium, the concentration of the reactants and the products do not change

For reversible reactions, a catalyst does not alter the equilibrium concentrations of reactants and
products. It does increase the rate at which equilibrium is reached.

Dynamic Equilibrium : even though the rate of forward and reverse reactions are equal at equilibrium,
the reaction does not stop, the reactants still interact to form the products and the products interact to
produce the reactants but at the same rate hence the term dynamic

Le Chatelier’s principle: when a change is made to the conditions of a system in dynamic equilibrium,
the system moves as to oppose that change
NOTE: YOU SHOULD APPLY THESE TO THE HABER
PROCESS AND CONTACT PROCESS, USE YOUR NOTES ON
THESE
REDOX

Oxidation: gain of electrons

Reduction: loss of electrons

Oxidation state

NOTE: Identification of redox reactions by changes in oxidation state and colour changes involved (use
of acidified potassium manganate and potassium iodide) (USE CLASS NOTES TO ANSWER THIS)
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Names and structures of selected organic compounds

i. Methane
ii. Ethanol
iii. Ethene
iv. Ethane
v. Ethanoic acid

NOTE: YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO DRAW THE STRUCTURES OF ALLTHE ABOVE COMPOUNDS AND NAME
THEM

Name and draw structures of unbranched alkanes, alkenes, alcohols and acids containing up to 4
carbon atoms

FUELS

The fossil fuels

Coal, natural gas, petroleum

Main content of natural gas: methane

Petroleum:

 Mixture of hydrocarbons
 Separated into constituent fractions by fractional distillation

Fractions and uses and order from the most volatile

A. refinery gas : in bottled gas for cooking and heating

B. gasoline (petrol):as fuels in cars
C. naptha:making chemicals
D. kerosene/paraffin :as jet fuel
E. diesel/gas oil :as fuel in diesel engines
F. fuel oil :as fuel for ships and homes heating system
G. lubricating fractions :as lubricant, making waxes and polishes
H. bitumen :tarmacking roads
Homologous series: This is a family of organic compounds with similar properties due to the presence of
the same functional group in their structure.

General characteristics of homologous series

 similar general formula

 similar chemical properties
 show gradual increase in physical properties like melting and boiling points
 same functional group e.g. OH in alcohol , double bond in alkenes,COOH in alkanoic

Description and identification of structural isomerism

Isomers: compounds that have same molecular formula but different structural formulae

Examples

 butane and 2-methylpropane are structural isomers

 alkenes with 4or more carbon atoms possess isomers

ALKANES

Saturated hydrocarbons (contain only Single bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain)

 Properties of alkanes
 unreactive generally
 general formula CnH2n+2
 Melting and boiling points increases with number of carbon atom in the chain. this is because as
the length of the of the hydrocarbon chain increases, the strength if the weak forces between
the molecules (van Der Waals' forces )is increased
 physical state changes gradually from gas (the first four) through liquids (c5 to c16) to solids (17
or more carbon atoms )

The first 4 members;

 methane,
 ethane,
 propane,
 butane
Reactions of alkanes

A. combustion
Complete combustion: alkane’s burn in sufficient /ample amount of oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water

Methane +oxygen = water + carbon dioxide

Incomplete combustion: alkane’s burn in limited supply of oxygen (limited air supply) to
produce carbon monoxide and water.

Methane +oxygen =carbon monoxide +water (limited)

Substitution reaction of alkanes

A. Chlorination/bromination: involves replacement of a hydrogen atoms with either chlorine or

bromine atoms
 The reaction is a photochemical reaction (reaction occurs only on the presence of sunlight) the
ultraviolet light splits chlorine or bromine molecules into separate energized atoms. The atoms
then react with the given alkane with the overall reaction having a chlorine or bromine atom
replacing a hydrogen atom in an alkane molecule.

PRODUCT: halogenoalkane

Example: methane +chlorine = chloromethane (in presence of sunlight)

N/B : if not controlled all the hydrogen atoms will be replaced by chlorine to produce
tetrachloromethane(chloroform) CCl4

ALKENES

These are unsaturated hydrocarbons (contain a C=C double bond somewhere in the chain)

General formulae: CnH2n

First 4 members; ethene, propene, butene, pentene

Manufacture of alkenes

A. Cracking (thermal cracking): involves breaking long chain alkanes to produce alkenes, hydrogen
and short chain alkanes
Thermal cracking is therefore a method of manufacturing alkenes and hydrogen

B. dehydration of ethanol :Catalyst controlled reaction ;

a. catalyst used : aluminium (III) oxide
b. temperature :room temperature

Aluminium oxide

ETHANOL ETHENE + WATER

Heat

Reactions of alkenes: exhibit addition reaction

Combustion:

 undergo both complete and incomplete combustion

 for complete combustion ; carbon dioxide and water are produced as the product s
 example : ethene + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water
 for incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide and water
 example; ethene + oxygen = carbon monoxide + water

Hydrogenation

 Refers to addition of hydrogen across the C=C double bond

 Catalyst controlled reaction
o Conditions
 Catalyst : Nickel
 Temperature : 150 – 300oC
o Ethene + hydrogen = ethane
 Use of hydrogenation : manufacture of margarine from vegetable oils (hardening of fats )

Halogenation

 Refers to addition of halogens across the C=C double bond

 Reaction occurs in absence of sunlight
 Ethene + bromine = 1,2-dibromoethane
Hydration

 Refers to the addition of OH and H across the C=C double bond to form ethanol
 Its catalyst controlled reaction
 Conditions
 Catalyst : phosphoric (V) acid
 Temperature : 300oC
 Pressure : 60 atmospheres

300oC, 60 atmospheres

 Ethene + steam ethanol

Phosphoric acid

 C 2 H 4 (g)+ H 2 O(g)=C 2 H 5 O H (g)

TEST FOR UNSATURATION

A. Use of bromine liquid

With alkenes

The test: Shake an alkene such as ethene with a solution of bromine in water and observe

Results: bromine loses its colour (bromine decolourizes)

With alkanes

Test: shake an alkane such as ethane with a solution of bromine in water and observe

Results: no reaction with bromine water, (bromine water retains it reddish-brown colour)

NOTE: BOTH TESTS SHOULD BE DONE IN THE DARK

B. Use of acidified potassium manganate vii

With alkenes

Test: Shake an alkene such as ethene with an acidified dilute solution of potassium manganate (VII)

Results: acidified potassium manganate VII changes colour from purple to colourless when shaken with
ethene
With alkanes such as ethane

Result; the acidified dilute solution of potassium manganate VII retains its purple colour (there is no
reaction experienced)

ALCOHOLS

Formation

Methods

A. fermentation (enzyme catalyzed reaction )

 This is an anaerobic process. It takes place under conditions where there is no air of or
oxygen available
 Products : carbon dioxide and ethanol
 Conditions
 Catalyst : yeast
 Temperature : optimal temp of 37oC

Yeast (enzyme)

Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide

37oC

B. catalytic addition of steam to ethene ( hydration of ethene )

 this is the industrial method of making ethene
 conditions
 catalyst : phosphoric acid
 temperature : 300oC
 pressure : 60 atmospheres
o ethene + steam = ethanol
o C 2 H 4 (g)+ H 2 O ( g )=C 2 H 5 OH (g)
Chemical properties of ethanol

Combustion

 burns with clear flame giving carbon dioxide, water and a lot of heat
 ethanol +oxygen =carbon dioxide +water +heat
o C 2 H 5 OH ( l ) +3 O 2=2CO 2 ( g ) +3 H 2 O ( g ) +heat

Oxidation: involves reacting ethanol with an oxidizing agent

Undergo oxidation in the presence of powerful oxidizing agents like warm acidified potassium
manganate (VII) to produce ethanoic acid and water

Potassium manganate VII

Ethanol + Oxygen (from oxidizing agent) Ethanoic acid +Water

H2SO4

C2H5OH +2(O) = CH3COOH +H2O

Potassium manganate vii solution turns from purple to colourless

Dehydration: involves removal of water molecules from ethanol

 Ethanol dehydrate in a catalytic reaction to produce ethene

 catalyst used in dehydration : aluminium oxide

Aluminium oxide

Ethanol ethene + water

Heat

ESTERIFICATION: reaction between ethanol and organic acids

A. product : sweet smelling oily liquids called esters

B. catalyst: concentrated sulfuric acid
C. sample reaction : ethanol + ethanoic acid = ethyl ethanoate +water

CH3COOH +C2H5OH =CH3COOC2H5 +H2O

USES OF ETHANOL

a) As fuel: used as an alternative fuel to gasoline or mixed with gasoline to produce gasohol,
burns with a clear flame giving out a lot of heat.
b) human health improvement : moderate amounts of ethanol reduce coronary heart disease
c) As solvent: used in industries as solvent a part from water e.g. in chromatography, in paints,
glues perfumes, aftershave etc.

ORGANIC ACIDS

Description

 have functional group - COOH attached to hydrocarbon chain

 have a general formula CnH2n+1COOH

First 4 members

a) Methanoic acid
b) propanoic acid
c) butanoic acid

Physical properties

a) Dissolves in water: Ethanoic acid is a weak acid i.e. only partially dissociates into ions in
water. A dynamic equilibrium is set up in the solution.

Ethanoic acid ethanoate ions + hydrogen ions

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
FORMATION OF ETHANOIC ACID

Oxidation of ethanol: ethanol is heated with an excess of acidified potassium dichromate to convert it to
ethanoic acid.

Potassium manganate (VII) or potassium dichromate

C2H5OH CH3COOH + H2O

H2SO4

ESTERIFICATION: reaction between organic acids and alcohols in the presence of a few drops or sulfuric
acid

H2SO4

Ethanoic acid + Ethanol Ethylethanoate

 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

Addition polymerization:

Synthetic polymers : these are often referred to as plastics

Typical uses of plastics

 Making cars and aircraft components

 Used in packaging
 Manufacture of clothing

Monomers : small repeating units that make up polymers

Types of polymers

Homopolymers : contain just one monomer

example ;poly(ethane),poly(propene ),poly(chloroethene ) {bracketed are the monomers }

Copolymers :made up of two or more monomers example ;nylon (diamine and dicarboxylic acid
) terylene (diol and dicarboxylic acid ),protein ( amino acids ){bracketed are the monomers )

uses of man-made fibres

 Gear wheels production

 Woven into fabrics to make clothes
 Making racquet strings
 Making ropes

Pollution problems caused by non -biodegradable plastics

Deductions of polymer product from given alkene

Ethene: The double bonds break and allow other atoms to attach to the carbon. Many ethene molecules
join to each other to form to form polyethene

Condition : high pressure , heat ,catalyst

Ethene

( C=C )( C−C )

Properties : tough and durable

Uses :packaging ,bowls ,bottles ,plastic bags

Propene

Polymerizes to form polypropene

n(CH2CHCH3 ) { CH2CHCH3}n

Properties: tough and durable

Uses: crates, boxes, plastic ropes

Chloroethene

Polymerizes to give poly chloro ethene (PVC)

n{CH2CHCl } { CH2CHCl}n

Properties: Strong, hard,

Uses: insulation, pipes and guttering

NOTE: FOR THE STRUCTURES DESCRIBED ABOVE, CHECK WITH YOUR CLASS NOTES
 NATURAL POLYMERS (MACROMOLECULES)
Examples: protein, carbohydrates ,fats

CONDESATION POLYMERISATION:

Formation of nylon (polyamide)

Nylon – copolymer of two monomers: diamine and dicarboxylic acid

reaction: The amine groups react with the carboxylic group to form an amide linkage

Product : polyamide (polymer) and water

NH2 - - NH2 + COO- -OOC = (OC - CO-HN - - NH –CO- - CO-HN - NH-)n + H2O

NOTE: CHECK WITH YOUR NOTES THE PROPER STRUCTURE FOR THE POLYAMIDE (NYLON)

Polyester (Terylene)

Made of two monomers: dicarboxylic acid and diol)

Reaction result to formation of an ester link

Products : Terylene(polymer )and water

HO- -OH + COO- -OOC = { -O- -O- CO - -CO - O - - O-CO- -CO- }n + H2O

NOTE: CHECK WITH YOUR NOTES THE PROPER STRUCTURE FOR THE POLESTER (TERYLENE)

NATURAL MACROMOLECULES (POLYMERS)

Example s: proteins, carbohydrates and fats

Proteins; possess the same amide linkages similar to that of nylons

The structure of protein

 Built from amino acids (the amino acids are the monomers )

Hydrolysis of proteins; involves breaking up the complex protein structure into simpler molecules

The product of hydrolysis is the amino acids

H2N- - COOH + H2N- COOH = - {- HN- CO – NH - CO-}n- + H2O

Forward reaction: condensation (involves removal of water)

Backward reaction: hydrolysis (involves addition of water)

NOTE: CHECK WITH YOUR NOTES THE PROPER STRUCTURE FOR THE AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEIN

Fats; these are esters possessing ester linkages just like Terylene

Soap: this is a product of hydrolysis of fats

Complex carbohydrates: comprise of large numbers of sugar units (HO-[]-OH) joined together by
condensation polymerization

Examples: starch, glycogen and cellulose

Structure:

NOTE: CHECK WITH YOUR NOTES THE PROPER STRUCTURE

Acid hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates: involves warming the complex carbohydrate with HCL

EXAMPLE; starch hydrolyses to give simple sugars like glucose

Fermentation of simple sugars

 Product: ethanol and carbon dioxide

Description of detailed usefulness of chromatography in separating and identifying products of

hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins

 For carbohydrates; warm with HCl,sugar present analyzed by chromatography . locating agents
used as the sugars are colourless
 For protein , the amino acids which are the products of hydrolysis being colourless are analyzed
using chromatography. Locating agents are used. the locating agents react with amino acids to
produce coloured spots for analysis
 SULFUR AND COMPOUNDS
SOURCES OF SULFUR

 From metal ores : example copper pyrite(CuFeS2) and zinc blend (ZnS)
 Volcanic regions
 From natural gas and oil

Frasch process (diagram important)

Molten sulfur hot compressed air

Superheated

Water

 steam forced into the sulfur beds via the outer pipe to melt the sulfur
 pressurized hot air forced through the central pipe this forces the molten sulfur out
 the molten sulfur is forced out through the second pipe

MANUFACTURE OF SULFURIC ACID

 THE PROCESS( THE CONTACT PROCESS )

o CONVERTING SULFUR TO SULFUR DIOXIDE
 Sulfur roasted/burn in ample supply of oxygen to produce SO2(sprays of sulfur
can be used as this increases rate of reaction due to increased surface area
hence frequency of collision of reacting molecules )
 S + O2 = SO2
o CATALYST CONTROLLED REACTION( CONVERTING SO2 TO SO3)
 Reaction is reversible
 Conditions
 Catalyst : Vanadium (V) oxide
 Temperature : 450 to 500oC
 Pressure : 1 to 2 atmospheres
 Reaction : SO2 + O2 = SO3
 o DISSOLUTION OF SULFUR TRIOXIDE
 Sulfur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid to form OLEUM,
 OLEUM is the diluted with water to form the concentrated sulfuric acid
 Reactions :
 SO3 + H2SO4 = H2S2O7
 H2SO4 + H2O = H2SO4
 NOTE: SULFUR TRIOXIDE NOT DISSOLVED DIRECTLY INTO WATER SINCE THE
REACTION IS HIGHLY EXOTHERMIC, EXPLOSIVE AND PRODUCES ACID FUMES
WHICH ARE ENVIROMENTAL POLLUTANTS AND DIFFICULT TO HANDLE.
o PROPERTIES OF DILUTE SULFURIC ACID
 React with metals to produce hydrogen and sulfate salts
 Reacts with oxides to give salt and water
 Reacts with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide ,salt and water
 Uses of sulfur dioxide
 bleaching agent in paper manufacture
 food preservative by killing bacteria
 fumigant
 insecticides manufacture
 manufacture of sulfuric acid
 uses of sulfur
 production of sulfuric acid
 vulcanization of rubber
 fungicides manufacture
 manufacture of matches and fireworks
 CARBONATES
MANUFACTURE OF LIME (CALCIUM OXIDE) (by thermal decomposition of limestone)

 Achieved by heating calcium carbonate strongly.

 Calcium carbonate thermally dissociates (break up or decompose ) to form calcium oxide (lime )
and carbon dioxide
 CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

Uses of lime (Calcium oxide)

 Used by farmers to neutralize acidity in soils

 Drying agent in industry
 Used in making glass

Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2)

Formation: by reacting calcium oxide with water in controlled reaction since reaction is very exothermic

Uses of slaked lime

 Farmers to neutralize soil acidity

 Neutralizing acidic industrial wastes
 Manufacture of whitewash
 Water purification
 In glass manufacture

Uses of calcium carbonate

 Manufacture of cements
 Cement manufacture
 AIR AND WATER
Chemical tests for water:
 Changes white copper II sulfate blue ( proof that the liquid is water)
 Changes blue cobalt chloride pink ( proof of the liquid being water)

WATER TREATMENT

Stage 1 :Filtration through screens (removes debris)

Stage2 :Addition of aluminum sulfate (coagulate

clay particles)

Stage 3: Filtration through coarse sand (removal of

larger insoluble particles)

Stage 4 :Sedimentation (addition of flocculants

remove remaining smaller particles)

Stage 5 :Further filtration (remove product of

sedimentation)

Stage 6 : Chlorination (addition of chlorine to kill any

bacteria hence sterilize water) excess chlorine
removed by addition of sulfur dioxide gas.

Note : filtration helps in removal of

 Debris
 Some bacteria
 Colloidal clay after flocculation
USES OF WATER IN INDUSTRY AND HOME

 Major industrial solvent

 Cooling industrial machines
 Drinking
 Laundry
 Farming ,irrigation

COMPOSITION OF AIR

COMPONENT % composition
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Neon 0.002
Helium 0.0005
Krypton 0.0001
Xenon and minute amount of other gases 0.00001

NOTE: should be able to do calculations to obtain the composition of oxygen in a given reaction example
reaction with copper to form copper oxide

SEPARATION OF OXYGEN AND NITROGEN FROM AIR

Both oxygen and nitrogen are separated from liquid air by FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF THE LIQUID
AIR

The process:

 filtration of air to remove dust

 cooling air to -80oC to remove water vapor
 repeated compression and expansion of air to temp below – 200oC ( air liquefies)
 passage of liquefied air into a fractionating column and fractionally distilled
 nitrogen and oxygen have different boiling points and distils off separately ,collected ,cooled
and stored
COMMON POLLUTANTS IN AIR AND SOURCES AND ADVERSE EFFECTS

POLLUTANTS SOURCES EFFECTS

Carbon monoxide Incomplete Can result to suffocation
Sulfur dioxide Combustion of coal ,oil, natural Dissolve in rain water to form
gas acid rain(destroy buildings,
plants, skin irritations)
Oxides of nitrogen From car exhausts Nitrogen dioxide contributes to
Nitrogen monoxide formed by formation of acid rain, an
reaction of nitrogen and oxygen environmental pollutant
In combustion engine
Nitrogen dioxide is also formed
when the nitrogen monoxide
reacts further by oxygen
Lead compounds Combustion of petroleum Brain damage, kidney failure,
products reduction in IQ
Hydrocarbons

RUST PREVENTION METHODS

Sacrificial protection:

 Involves attaching bars of zinc to structures made of iron or steel. .

 Since zinc is more reactive than iron, it will react in preference to iron and corroded instead
thus protecting iron from rusting.
 Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq) = Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s)

Galvanization:

 Involves coating iron or steel with zinc by dipping into molten zinc.
 The thin layer of the more reactive zinc coating corrodes instead of steel or iron.

Other methods of rust prevention

 Plating
 Painting
 Oiling /greasing

Need for nitrogen- phosphorous and potassium in fertilizers: (NPK)-

 Added to the soil to replace the named nutrients

Improving fertility of the land

Displacement of ammonia from its salts

Ammonium salts + strong alkali = metal salt + ammonia gas (ammonia is highly volatile and
hence displaced from its salt by the strong alkali)

Example: ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide = sodium chloride

+ ammonia gas + water

Test for ammonia: turns wet red litmus paper blue

GREEN HOUSE GASES

Carbon dioxide

Methane

Nitrous oxide

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA

Sources of hydrogen and nitrogen

NITROGEN: fractional distillation of liquid air

HYDROGEN:

Obtain through steam reforming process (reaction between methane and steam)

CH4 + H2O (g) = 3H2 + CO

CO produced reduce the unreacted steam producing more hydrogen

CO + H2O (g) = H2 + CO2

Both the reactions are reversible

Conditions

Catalyst: finely divided iron

Temperature: 350oC to 500oC

 Pressure: approx. 200 atmospheres

Reaction:N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3 Δ=−92kj ( reaction is reversible )

CARBON CYCLE (COMBUSTION, RESPIRATION, AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS)

 Combustion of fossil fuels, respiration and decay of living things release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere
 Photosynthesis takes up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

FORMATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

 Reaction between metal carbonates and acid ( calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid =
calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water) CaCO3 + HCl = CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
 Thermal decomposition of carbonates ( heating calcium carbonate gives carbon dioxide and
calcium oxide ) CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

Test: bubble through lime water (calcium hydroxide solution) forms white precipitate with lime water
( CaCO3 is the white precipitate)

Sources of methane
 THE PERIODIC TABLE

The description of periodic table: method of classifying elements in order of increasing atomic numbers

It is used to predict properties of elements

PERIODIC TRENDS: refers to gradual change in mode of reactivity, physical and chemical properties of
the elements. This allows for predictions to be made about the elements which we have not observed in
action.

Across the periods the following trends are evident

 Gradual change from metal to non – metal (example in period 3 Na,Mg,Al are metals while the
rest are non-metals
 An increase in the number of electrons in the outer energy level of the element
 Structural change from giant metallic(e.g .Mg) through giant covalent (Si) to simple molecular
( Cl)

Relationship between group number, number of valence electrons, valence, metallic/nonmetallic

character

 Valence electrons : these are number of electrons in the outer energy levels and corresponds
to the group number in the periodic table( examples element with 5 electrons in outer shell
belong to group 5)
 Valence: the number of electrons an element have to lose or gain to have a stable electronic
configuration)
 Metals :they lose electrons to become stable forming CATIONS with positive charge
 Non-metals :gain electrons to become stable forming negatively charged ions called ANIONS

GROUP PROPERTIES

Group 1 elements (alkali metals )

Texture (softness): increases down the group, lithium the hardest and potassium the softest.

Electrical conductivity: increases down the group, ease of electron loss increase down the group .
Melting point: low melting point, decreases down the group ( Li – 181oC and K – 64oC )

Density: low densities

Reaction with water: reaction is vigorous; products are the Metal hydroxides and hydrogen
gas(potassium + water = potassium hydroxide + hydrogen gas)

Reaction with halogens: reactions very vigorous producing respective chlorides.

Reactivity: increases down the group, caesium being the most reactive and lithium the least reactive in
the group. Group 1 elements react by losing the one outermost electron to become stable. The energy
required to overcome the electrostatic attractive forces between the outermost electron and the
positive nucleus decreases down the group. Therefore the less the amount of energy required to
remove the outer electron, the more reactive the metal is .Hence francium is the most reactive of all the
group 1 elements.

Prediction of properties of other elements in the group : similar trend in physical properties ,chemical
properties and reactivity is displayed by group 2 and group 3 elements, of which are metals too.

GROUP VII (HALOGENS )F,Cl,Br,I,At

Description

Diatomic: all exist as diatomic molecules: F2, Cl2, Br2 ,I2, At2

Colour trend: coloured. Darken down the group. (F- Green, Cl – pale green, Br- red brown, I – purple
black)

Physical state: gradual change from gaseous state (F2 and Cl2) through liquid state (Br2) to solid state (I2)
This change is attributed to increasing molecular size down the group.

Reactions :react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides(dissolve in water to form acidic solutions) and
metals to form metal halides (salts)

Reaction with halide ions (DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS): less reactive halogens often get displaced from
their compounds by the most reactive ones.

 Potassium bromide + chlorine = potassium chloride + bromine ( observation : reddish- brown

gas produced ) implies bromine is being displaced from its compound
 Potassium chloride + fluorine = potassium fluoride + chlorine gas ( green – yellow gas produced )
 Potassium iodide + bromine = potassium bromide + iodine ( purple-black substance seen )

Decreasing reactivity
 Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine

NOTE: halogens react by gaining electrons and the ease of gaining the electron decreases down the
group. The closer the outer energy level is to the nucleus the stronger the attractive force between the
incoming electron and the nucleus, hence the more reactive the element is.

Down the group, the outermost electron move further and further away from the nucleus hence
decreasing attraction .this explains the decreasing reactivity of group 7 elements.

Uses

Fluorine Toothpastes
Chlorine PVC plastics , bleaching, chlorination of water
Bromine Disinfectants ,fire retardants, in medicine
Iodine Disinfectants, medicines, photographic films

TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Properties

 High densities metals

 High melting points
 Form coloured compounds
 Acts as catalysts in elemental or compound forms

NOBLE GASES

Properties: unreactive (inert), monoatomic, colourless

USES:

Argon provision of inert atmosphere in lamps

Neon Advertisement lights
Helium filling balloons
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
ACIDS:

Definition:

 Are proton donors (donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions)

 Substances that dissolve in water to give solutions with high concentrations of hydrogen ions

Strong acids and weak acids

 Strong acids are those that dissociate (ionizes) completely in solution to give high concentration
of H+ . example sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid
 Weak acids are those that undergoes incomplete dissociation ( ionization ) to give low
concentration of H+ example ethanoic acid, methanoic acid

BASES

Definitions:

 Are proton acceptors ( accept hydrogen ions in chemical reactions )

 Substances that dissolves in water to give solutions wth high concentrations of hydroxide ions
OH-

Strong and weak alkalis

 Strong alkali are ones which undergo complete dissociation ( ionization) in solution to give a
solution of high OH- ions examples ; sodium hydroxide
 Weak alkalis are ones that dissociate ( ionizes ) incompletely in solution giving rise to solutions
with low concentration of hydroxide ions ; example ; ammonia solution

Characteristic properties of acids and bases

Acids Bases
Reacts with metals to give metal salts and Reacts with acids to give neutral solutions
hydrogen gas. example Mg + HCl = MgCl2 + H2
Reacts with bases to give neutral solutions of Strong alkali displaces ammonia from its salts
metal salt and water example: Example : sodium hydroxide + ammonium nitrate
NaOH + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + H2O = sodium nitrate + ammonia gas + water
MgO + HCl = MgCl2 + H2O NaOH + NH4NO3 = NaNO3 + NH3 + H2O
Reacts with carbonates to give metal salts, water Changes litmus paper blue
and carbon dioxide (also neutralization reaction)
Changes litmus paper red Colour range from blue to violet with the universal
indicator
Colour range from red(strong ) through orange
(moderate) to yellow (weak)

Neutrality, relative acidity and alkalinity, PHand universal indicator

Neutrality Acidity Alkalinity

H
P 7 Less than 7 Greater than 7
Universal Green Red - 0 to 3 Blue – just above
indicator Orange – 4 to 5 7 to 8.5
colour Yellow –6 to 6.9 Purple/ violet 11
to 14
Note;

 the more acidic a solution is the lower the PH

 the more basic a solution is the higher the PH

CONTROLLING SOIL ACIDITY

Acidity and alkalinity of the soil affects plant growth

Different plants types survive in soils with give PH

Too acidic soils are treated by liming (addition of calcium oxide, calcium carbonate, powdered chalk or
limestone to the soil)

TYPES OF OXIDES

Oxides Characteristic traits

Acidic Oxides of non-metals that dissolve in water to form acidic solutions; example sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide
Basic Basically metal oxides and they neutralize acids
Amphoteric Metal oxide or hydroxide that reacts with both an acid and an alkali to give salt and water
Example oxides and hydroxides of zinc and aluminum
Neutral Do not react with either acids or alkalis , example hydrogen oxide , carbon monoxide and
nitrogen monoxide
PREPARATION OF SALTS (description of preparation,separation,purification) describe prep of insoluble
salts by precipitation, suggest method of making a given salt from suitable starting material given an
appropriate info

Important factors in working out the method of salt preparation

 solubility : ( is the salt soluble or insoluble )influences the method chosen

 water of crystallization :affects how the crystals are handled at the end of preparation

Preparation of soluble salts:

Made by neutralizing an acid and by direct reaction of the parent acid with the metals

Methods employed are;

 acid plus solid metal , base, or carbonate

This method is essentially the same whether starting with a solid metal, a solid base or a solid carbonate

The method is divided into the following important stages

A. addition of excess (more than enough ) of the solid to the acid ; this ensures that all the acid is
used up
B. filtration ; this is to help remove the excess unreacted solid
C. evaporation of the filtrate ;this helps in concentrating the salt solution and should be done
gently
D. Crystallization: heating stopped when crystals can be seen forming. the solution is then left to
crystalize as it cools
E. Filtration of the formed crystals ,washed with distilled water and dried carefully between filter
papers

Preparation of insoluble salts

Made by precipitation method

The direct method that involves reaction of acid and solid metal, oxides and carbonates is not adopted.
This is because

 The reactions will quickly stop before completion. This is caused by the fact that these salts are
insoluble. the soon forms a protective layer on the surface of the solids stopping any further
reactions
Precipitation: refers to the sudden formation of a solid either when two solutions are mixed or when a
gas is bubbled into a solution

Steps in salt preparation by precipitation

A. Mix two soluble salts together example , to prepare barium sulfate , an insoluble salt, a soluble
salt of barium solution (barium nitrate )is mixed with a soluble sulfate e.g. sodium sulfate . the
insoluble barium sulfate is formed immediately
B. Filtration of the precipitate ,washed with distilled water and then dried

Barium nitrate + sodium sulfate = barium sulfate + sodium nitrate

IDENTIFICATION OF IONS AND GASES

Experimental descriptions

Gases:

Carbon dioxide: bubbled into lime water; white precipitate forms / lime water turns milky

Ammonia: dump litmus paper; turns blue

Hydrogen; burning splint; produce a squeaky pop sound

Oxygen; glowing splint; relights

Non-metal ions

Chloride ions: addition of soluble salt of silver e.g. silver nitrate; white precipitate forms

Ammonium ions; addition of strong alkali e.g. sodium hydroxide; gas with pungent smell and turns
dump litmus paper blue

Sulfate ions: addition of soluble salt of barium; white precipitate forms

 Metal ions

add sodium hydroxide solution

is the precipitate coloured

if no , and white precipitate
forms ,then add excess of
sodium hydroxide
if yes which colour

does the white

precipittate re-
dissolves if yes ,it implies the
the ions is eithe r
aluminium ions or zinc
reddish-brown if no it implies the ions
precipitate is repeat the test with
green light blue magnesium ions or ammonium solution
calcium ions
does the precipitatet
dissolves in excess

if no then it is aluminium
if yes then it is zinc ions ions
 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Atom: smallest part of an element that take part in chemical reaction.

ELEMENT: are substances that cannot be chemically broken down into simpler substances (substance
made up of only one type of atom)

COMPOOUND: pure substances made from two or more, elements chemically combined together

MIXTURES: made up of two or more substances not chemically combined and can be separated by
chemical means.

Atomic structure

Sub – atomic Symbol Relative charge Relative mass Location

particles
Proton P + 1 Nucleus
Neutron N 0 1 Nucleus
Electron E - 1 Shells /energy
1804 levels

Proton number (atomic number Z): number of protons in an atom of an element ( equals the number of
electrons in a neutral atom)

Nucleon number (mass number A): summation of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom of an
element.
A
Atomic representation Z X

Isotopes: atoms of same element with same atomic number but different nucleon number (different
number of neutrons )
Types of isotopes

 radioactive isotopes
 non- radioactive isotopes

Uses of radioactive isotopes

 medical use :
 treatment of internal cancer tumors in humans
 sterilizing medical instruments ,dressings and syringes
 industrial use :
 use of uranium isotope in nuclear power stations to generate electricity
 detecting leaks in gas or oil pipes
 checking thickness of sheets of plastics ,paper or metal foil

Electronic configuration: arrangement /distribution of electrons within the energy levels (electron
shells)

CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

Energetics of a reaction

Exothermic reactions: heat given out in chemical reaction

Result: energy content product at a lower energy level than the reactants, surrounding temperature
increases reactants

Energy

Products

Progress from reaction

Endothermic reactions: heat energy gained from the surrounding

Result: energy content of the products at higher energy level than the reactants

Products
Energy

Reactants

Progress of reaction

Bond breaking: breaking chemical bonds takes in energy from the surrounding hence is an endothermic
process

Bond forming: making chemical bonds gives out thermal energy to the surrounding s ,hence this is an
exothermic process

Enthalpy change calculations using bond energy data

Bond Bond energy (KJ/mol)

C- H 435
O=O 497
C=O 803
H-O 464
C-C 347
C-O 358

Use the data to calculate the enthalpy change in combustion of methane

CH4 + 2 O = O = O = C = O + 2 O- H - O

Enthalpy change (heat of reaction)= bond breaking (reactants enthalpy) - bond making (products
enthalpy)

Bond breaking enthalpy :

C- H = 4 X 435 = 1740

O=O = 2 X 497 = 994

Total bond breaking energy = 2734

Bond making enthalpy:

 C=O = 2 X 803 = 1606

H- O = 4 X 464 = 1856

Total bond making enthalpy: = 3462

Therefore enthalpy change = bond breaking – bond making

2734 – 3462 = - 728kj/mol

NOTE:

 Negative enthalpy change = exothermic reaction

 Positive enthalpy change value = endothermic reaction

ENERGY PRODUCTION

Energy production : achieved through burning fuels

Hydrogen as fuel

 Produces only water when burnt

 Produces more energy per gram than any other fuel

Hindrance to use of hydrogen as fuel

 Problems of storage and transportation because of low density

 Expensive to produce ( main method of production is via electrolysis of water which is not
economically friendly )

Use of hydrogen as potential fuel (fuel cell) – diagram not important

 Efficient way of changing the chemical energy into electrical energy by use of fuel cell.
 The hydrogen fuel cell operates continuously with no need for recharging
 Hydrogen + oxygen = water + thermal energy

Advantages

 Virtually emission free ( cleanest source of energy)

 Zero emissions of CO2
 Non toxic

Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Large fuel tanks required
  No filling stations

Production of electrical energy from simple cells ( two electrodes in an electrolyte )

Electrochemical cells

 Involves use of two metals with different reactivities dipped into an electrolyte
 The further apart the metals are in the reactivity series the greater the cell voltage becomes
 Example cell made using zinc and copper give = 1.1V , while cell made using magnesium and
copper give = 2.7 V since they are further apart

Oxidation and reduction in electrochemical cells

 Most reactive metal undergo oxidation ( loses the electrons to become positive ion ) and
become the cathode ( negative terminal of cell)
 Zinc and copper cell; the zinc undergoes oxidation
−¿¿
 Zn=Zn2+¿+2 e ¿
 The least reactive metal undergo reduction (gain electrons to become metal atoms) and
become the anode (positive terminal of the cell)
 Copper being less reactive ,the copper ions gain electrons and become copper atoms
−¿=Cu ¿
¿
 Cu2+¿+2 e

The overall cell reaction

2+ ¿+Cu ¿
¿
Zn+ Cu2+¿= Zn
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
States of matter and kinetic theory (inter-conversions in terms of kinetic theory)

 common properties for the states of matter : all have volume and mass

State Volume Density Shape Fluidity

Solid Fixed High Definite Does not flow
Liquid Fixed Moderate to high Take shape of Generally flows
container easily
Gas No fixed Low Take shape of Flows easily
volume,-expands the container
to fill the
container

Inter-conversion

All three states of matter show an increase in volume (an expansion) when temperature is increased and
a decrease in volume (contraction) when the temperature is lowered. Effect much bigger with gases.

Melting and freezing: melting is change of state from solid to liquid. Occurs at melting
point(temperature at which a pure substance turns to a liquid )

Freezing is the reverse of melting and occurs at precisely the same temperature (freezing point)

Melting point = freezing point

NOTE : at melting , the temperature stays constant . This is because the energy put in is used to
overcome the forces holding the lattice together

Sublimation: change of state from solid to gas directly (no melting involved) examples of substances
that sublime: iodine, solid carbon dioxide

Evaporation: change of state from liquid to gas (occurs at the surface of the liquid)
Note : at boiling the temperature stays constant . the energy put in makes the particles move faster and
overcomes the forces holding the liquid together .

Condensation: reverse of evaporation and is brought about by cooling

KINETIC THEORY AND INTERCONVERSION

Kinetic theory describes changes of states in terms of movement of particle s

According to kinetic theory :

 all matter is made up of very small particles

 the particles are moving all the time ( the higher the temperature , the higher the average
energy of the particles
 the freedom of movement and arrangement of particles is different for the three states of
matter

State Description Effect of temperature increase

Gas The gas particles are
 arranged totally
irregularly
 spread very far apart
compared to solids and
liquids
 able to move randomly
Gas The liquid particles are The particles move faster and
 closely packed together the liquid expands .
 in an irregular In the liquid ,some particles have
arrangement enough energy to escape from
 able to move past each the surface – evaporation takes
other place
At boiling point the particles
have enough energy to break the
forces attracting them together –
the particles move very fast and
separate from each other – the
 liquid boils
Solid The particles in solid are The particles gain energy and
 packed close together vibrate more strongly ;the
 in a regular particles occupy more space –
arrangement,( lattice) this causes the solid to expand
 not able to move around
past each other Eventually the particles have
enough energy to break the
forces holding the lattice
together and they can move
around – the solid melts

Volatility: ease of evaporation of a liquid and depends on boiling points

A volatile liquid is one that evaporate easily and has relatively low boiling point

Melting points and boiling points and physical states

 Melting points and boiling points below 0oC = gaseous

 Melting point 0oC or below 0oC and boiling points above 0oC = liquid
 Melting point and boiling points above 0oC = solid

Description and explanation of diffusion

 Diffusion involves movement of particles from region of higher concentration towards a region
of lower concentration .
 At the end of diffusion, the particles will be evenly spread – i.e. their concentration is the same
throughout
 Diffusion does not take place in solids ( particles of solid cannot move around each other )
 Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases ,but is much faster with gases

Describe evidence for the movement of particle in liquids and gases

Diffusion in liquids : use of dissolving potassium manganate VII

The solid is placed at the bottom of a dish of water and left to stand . at first the water around the
particle is purple . Particle move off the surface of the crystal into the water and eventually all the liquid
become purple . this spreading of the potassium manganate VII throughout the liquid is a demonstration
of diffusion in liquids

Diffusion in gases : use of bromine vapor

Drops of bromine liquid are placed in a gas jar and lid placed . After a short time the gas jar become full
of brown gas . Gases diffuse to fill all the space available to them .

Description of dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass (treated quantitatively)

 Heavier particles move more slowly than the lighter particles at the same temperature ;larger
molecules diffuse more slowly than smaller ones ,example ammonia gas diffuse faster than
hydrogen chloride gas since its lighter.
 The average speed of the particles increases with an increase in temperature

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

Measurement

Physical quantities Apparatus

Volume of solutions Burette
Volume of solutions Pipette
Volume of solution Measuring cylinder
Mass of substance Weighing balance

CRITERIA FOR PURITY

Paper chromatography description:

Drop of concentrated solution is placed on a pencil line near the bottom. The paper is then dipped in the
solvent and solvent level must start below the pencil line

Solvents used: water, ethanol, ethanoic acid solution and propanone

NOTE: solvent used must dissolve the substances to be separated

SEPARATION: substances separate according to their solubility in the solvent and stickiness. Most
soluble goes the farthest while the least soluble the shortest distance, the insoluble remains at the
pencil line

Solvent front: furthest distance reached by the solvent

Importance: Helps to analyze the substances present in a solution and hence can tell whether a solution
has become contaminated
Interpretation of simple chromatograms

Rf values: ratio of the distance moved by the spot in a chromatogram to the distance between the pencil
line and the solvent front

distance moved by the substance (spot )

Rf value=
distance moved by the solvent front

Chromatography and colourless substances: the chromatogram is exposed to locating agents after the
chromatography run. The agents react with the samples to produce colored spots

Chromatography is now in analysis of biologically important molecules eg sugars, amino acids and
nucleotide bases

Identification of substances and assessing purity

 Use of chromatography

Tested using paper chromatography, pure substances give only one spot in the chromatogram

NOTE: The identity of the sample can be checked by comparing its Rf value to that of a sample we know
to be pure.

 Use of melting and boiling points

Pure substances have fixed known melting and boiling points

Presence of impurities will lower the melting points or raise the boiling points

NOTE: The identity of the unknown substance can be found by checking against the measured values
for known pure substances

Importance off purity in substances in everyday life (drug stuff and foodstuffs)

 Medicinal drugs must be of highest purity possible ,any contamination may have harmful side
effects
 In food industry, colored dyes (food coloring ) are added to foods and drinks to improve their
appearance and these need to be carefully controlled and of high purity
METHODS OF PURIFICATION (DESCRIPTION)

Filtration: separating insoluble solids from liquids, insoluble solid is collected as residue and the liquid as
the filtrate

Crystallization: separating salt solutions of different solubility’s

Simple distillation:

Separating funnel: separation of immiscible liquids example water and oil

Fractional distillation (use of fractionating column): separation of miscible liquids and separation based
on the difference in the densities of the components of the mixture

N/B: Suggestion of suitable purification techniques given information about the substances involved is
important

ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY

Electrolysis: decomposition of molten or solutions of ionic compounds using electricity

Terminologies

Electrodes: inert electrodes used (graphite and platinum electrodes appropriate) inert
electrodes do not react with the products of electrolysis and the electrolyte

Types of electrodes

Cathode: negatively charged electrode or the end connected to the negative terminal

Anode: positively charged electrodes or end connected to the positive terminal

Electrode reactions

Reduction: gain of electrons .occur at the cathode and characteristic of metal

ions (positively charged ions) and the hydrogen ions.

Oxidation: loss of electrons. Occur at the anode. Associated with the negatively
charged ions

Remember: OIL RIG (oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons)

Electrolyte: the substance that is being decomposed

 Condition: the electrolyte must be in liquid state (molten or solution form) for electrolysis to
occur. In solid state the ions are immobile, not free to move, however in liquid state the ions are
free to move.

PREDICTION OF ELECTROLYSIS PRODUCTS, ANODE AND CATHODE REACTIONS USING INERT

ELECTRODES

Electrolytes Ions Cathode Anode Products

present reaction and reaction
observations and
observation
s
Molten lead Pb2+ Deposition Reddish At
II bromide Br- of silvery brown anode :
metal vapor of Bromine
bromine At
−¿=Pb ¿

Pb2+¿+2 e ¿ cathode :
−¿¿
−¿=Br +2 e ¿
2 Br 2
Lead
−¿=H 2 ¿ −¿¿
−¿=Cl +2 e ¿
Concentrate Cl- 2 H +¿+2 e ¿
2 Cl 2
Chlorine
d H+ gas
hydrochloric OH- produced
acid at anode
and
hydrogen
gas at
cathode
−¿¿
Concentrate Na+ 2 Cl
−¿=Cl +2 e ¿
2
Hydrogen
−¿=H 2 ¿
d aqueous H+ 2 H +¿+2 e ¿ at
sodium OH- cathode
chloride Cl- And
chlorine
at the
anode
−¿¿
Dilute Na+ 4 OH
−¿=2 O +2 H O +4 e ¿
Oxygen
2 2

−¿=H 2 ¿
aqueous H+ 2 H +¿+2 e ¿ gas at
sodium OH- anode
chloride Cl- and
hydrogen
at the
cathode

Electroplating of metals:

Involves coating one metal with another

basic rules for electroplating an object with a metal M

 the object must be made the cathode

 the electrolyte must be a solution of a salt of the metal M
 the anode must be made of the strip of metal M

purpose for electroplating (uses of electroplating)

 Provision of a protective coating to the metal underneath ;example tin plating of steel cans to
prevent them from rusting
 chromium plating car bumpers, kettles, bath taps to protect them from rusting

Why chromium?

a) does not corrode

b) hard metal that resist scratching and wear
c) can be polished to give an attractive finish

Refining (purification) of copper by electrolysis

Electrodes used:

 Anode: pure copper rod

 Cathode: impure copper

Anode reaction

 Impure metal dissolves.

 The copper metal atoms lose electrons and pass into the solution as positive metal ions
 −¿ ¿
 Cu=Cu2 +¿+ 2e ¿

Cathode reaction

 Metal ions are attracted and discharged as the pure copper metal becomes plated
−¿=Cu ¿
¿
 Cu2+¿+2 e

Observations during the electrolysis process

 The cathode gain mass as cu is deposited on it

 Anode loses mass as copper dissolves from it
 The colour of the copper (II) sulfate remains blue since the concentration of Cu2+¿ ¿ ions remains
the same.

Electrolysis of copper (II) sulfate using inert electrodes (graphite or platinum)

Anode reaction

 OH- ions attracted to the anode and discharge

−¿¿
−¿=2 O2+2 H 2O +4 e ¿
 4 OH

Cathode reaction

 The Cu2+¿ ¿ ions discharged as copper metals

2+¿ ¿
−¿=Cu ¿
 Cu
2+¿+2 e ¿

Observations

 The blue color of the copper ii sulfate fades away (electrolyte becomes clear )
 Bubbles of oxygen gas at the anode
 Deposits of red -brown copper metal at the cathode
 The electrolyte becomes more acidic as the concentration of H+ ions in the solution increases

ELECTROLYSIS OF CONCENTRATED SODIUM CHLORIDE (BRINE)

The ions present:

 Na+ and H+ ions flow to the cathode

 OH - and Cl-, ions, both travel to the anode

Cathode reaction

An H+ ion easily accept electrons than sodium ions and are discharged in preference to sodium ions
−¿=H 2 ¿

2 H +¿+2 e ¿
Observation: hydrogen gas bubbles off at the cathode

Anode reaction

Cl- ions discharge more readily than the OH- ions. This is because the concentration of chloride ions is
high in the electrolyte
−¿¿
−¿=Cl2 +2 e ¿
2 Cl

Observation: pale green Cl 2 gas bubbles off at the anode

Results electrolyte

 Sodium ions and hydroxide ions are left behind in the electrolyte. This makes the sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)
 The electrolytes thus become alkaline. This can be proven by addition of an indicator to the
solution

Products of electrolysis of brine (concentrated sodium chloride)

 chlorine gas
 hydrogen gas
 sodium hydroxide

Applications: use in chlor-alkali industry

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN SODIUM CHLORIDE

Ions: sodium ions and chloride ions only

Product: chlorine gas and sodium metal

ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS DILUTE SODIUM CHLORIDE

Ions present. : Sodium ions, hydrogen ions, chloride ions and hydroxide ions

Products:

 Oxygen at the anode since OH- ions discharge in preference to chloride ions. This is because
OH-ions give up electrons easily than Cl- ions.
 Hydrogen gas at the cathode
NOTE:
AT THE CATHODE

The more reactive a metal, the more it tends to stay as ions and not be discharged. The H+ ions will
discharge instead. Hydrogen molecules will be formed leaving the ions of reactive metals, for example
Na+ ions, in solution

In contrast, the ions of less reactive metals, for example, Cu2+ ions, will accept electrons readily and
form metal atoms. In this case, the metal will be discharged, leaving H+ ions in solution.

AT THE ANODE

If the ions of a halogen (Cl-, Br- or I-) are present in a high enough concentration, they will give up
electrons more readily than OH- ions will. Molecules of chlorine, bromine or iodine are formed. the OH-
ions remain in solution

If no halogen ions are present, the OH- ions will give up electrons more easily than any other non-metal
anion. Sulfate and nitrate ions are not discharged in preference to OH- Ions. When OH- ions are
discharged, oxygen gas is formed.
 STOICHIOMETRY
Elements symbols and compounds formula

 Use of periodic table advised for elements

 Identify the number of electron the element needs to gain or lose to acquire the electronic
configuration of group 8 elements
 Remember ,metals react by losing electrons while non-metals by gaining electrons

For radicals

 Sulfate : SO-24 valency 2

 Nitrate NO3- valency 1
 Hydroxide OH- valency 1
 Ammonium NH+ valency 1
 Carbonate CO32- valency 2
 Iron III valency 3
 Iron II valency 2
 Copper II valency 2
 Copper I valency 1

For elements in periodic table

 Group 1 valency =1
 Group 2 valency = 2
 Group 3 valency = 3
 Group 4 valency = 4
 Group 5 valency = 3
 Group 6 valency = 2
 Group 7 valency = 1
  Group 8 valency = 0

Deducing the formula of compounds

 Write the elements forming the compounds side by side with the valency on top, then switch
the valencies to obtain the compounds formula
 Example aluminum sulfate (valency of sulfate is 2 and aluminum is 3, the two entities switch
their valencies to give Al2(SO4)3

Construction of word equations and simple balanced chemical equations

 Knowledge of valencies is important

 In chemical equations , the atoms on product and reactant sides must balance
 State symbols (liquid,gas,aqueous or solid) should be indicated

Definition of terms

Relative atomic mass: average mass of the naturally occurring atoms of the element

Relative molecular mass: sum of the relative atomic masses of atoms forming the compound ( used to
refer to molecular compounds e.g. carbon dioxide

Relative formula mass: also the sum of relative atomic masses of atoms in an ionic compound , example
copper( ii) sulfate

Calculations involving reacting masses (mole concept not involved)

Example: mass of 1 mole of CuSO4

Cu = 64

S = 32

O = 16 x 4 = 64

The mass of one mole of copper sulfate = 64+32 + 64 = 160g

THE MOLE CONCEPT

Definitions

The mole: unit used in chemistry to express the amount of a substance taking part in a reaction
One mole of any substance contains the same number of constituent particles per mole (avagadro
constant) whether they are atoms ,molecules or formula units

The avagadro constant: refers to the number of constituent particles per mole of any substance

One mole of any substance contains 6.02 X 1023 (the avagadro constant) atoms ,molecules of or
formulae units depending on the substance considered.

CALCULATIONS

The molar mass

 Write down the formula of the compound example ethanol is C2H5OH

 Work out the relative formula mass of the compound by summing up the relative
atomic mass of the constituent atoms ( Mr for ethanol : 2X12 + 6X1 +16 = 46
 Express the answer in grams per mole ,example molar mass of ethanol is 46g/mol
mass
 number of moles=
molar mass

Empirical and molecular formula

Empirical formula: this is the simples whole number ratio formula

 Find the number of grams or percent amount of the elements that combine
 Find the number of moles of atoms of each element that combine
 Find the simplest whole number ratio
 Example

Elements Mg O
Mass combined 0.24 0.16
Molar mass 24 16
Number of moles 0.01 0.01
Simplest mole ratio 1 1
Formula MgO
Molecular formula : this is the actual formula of the molecule ( gives the exact number of elements in
the formula of the compound )

 Solve the empirical formula first, the multiply the formula mass of the elements in the formula
by a constant and equate the answer to the relative molecular mass given
 Obtain the value of the constant ,then use it to multiply the empirical formula

Example; a sample of anti-freeze has the composition by mass: 38.7% carbon, 9.7% hydrogen, 51.6%
oxygen

Calculate its empirical formula

The relative molecular mass of the compound is 62,what is its molecular formula

Elements C H O
Percentage by mass 38.7% 9.7% 51.6%
Mass in 100g 38.7g 9.7g 51.6g
Molar mass 12g/mol 1g/mol 16g/mol
Number of moles 3.225 9.7 3.225
Simplest ratio 3.225 9.7 3.225
=1 =3 =1
3.225 3.225 3.225
Empirical formula CH3O

Sum of atomic masses in the empirical formula : 12 + 3X1 + 16 = 31g/mol

n ( ∑ of atomic masssesof empirical ) =relative molecular mass

n ( 31 )=62 ; n=2

therefore molecular formula=n ( empirical formula )

molecular formula=2 ( C H 3 O ) =C2 H 6 O2

PERCENTAGE YIELD AND PERCENTAGE PURITY

Loss of mass in a chemical reaction

Causes:

 Reaction may not be totally complete

 Errors made in weighing the reactants or products
 Material lost in carrying out the reaction or in transferring and separating the product

actual yield
percentage yield = ×100
expected yield (theoretical yield )

mass of pure sample

percentage purity= × 100
mass of impure product

MOLAR GAS VOLUME

This is the volume occupied by one mole of any gas and is equivalent to 24dm3(24litres ) at room
temperature and pressure

The molar volume of any gas therefore has the value 24dm3/mol at rtp
 3
Rem : 1dm = 1litre = 1000cm3
This rule applies to all gases

volume of gas
number of moles=
molar gas volume

CONCENTRATIONS

Measurement of concentration

Mass concentration = involve measuring mass of a solute in grams; measurements given in

g/dm3

Molar concentration = involve measuring the amount in moles; given in mol/dm3

number of moles of solute

concentr ation= 3
volume ∈dm

Catalytic converter

The pollutants in car exhaust fumes

 Carbon monoxide (CO)

 Nitrogen II oxide (NO)
 Unburnt hydrocarbon

How catalytic converter helps in getting rid of them

Catalysts in the converter speeds up conversion of these pollutants to harmless products

A. Carbon monoxide: oxidized to carbon dioxide

a. CO + O2 2CO2
B. Nitrogen II oxide : reacts with the carbon monoxide to produce nitrogen and carbon dioxide

Also decomposes to produce nitrogen and oxygen which are less

harmful

2NO + 2CO N2 + 2CO2

2NO N2 + O2

C. Unburnt hydrocarbon : oxidized to carbon dioxide and water

a. HC + O2 CO2 + H2O