MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

Biology



MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

REPUBLIC OF GHANA

Biology
Teacher Manual
Year One - Book One
BIOLOGY TEACHER MANUAL

Enquiries and comments on this manual should be addressed to:

The Director-General
National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA)
Ministry of Education
P.O. Box CT PMB 77
Cantonments Accra
Telephone: 0302909071, 0302909862
Email: [email protected]
website: www.nacca.gov.gh

©2024 Ministry of Education

This publication is not for sale. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced without prior written permission from the Ministry of
Education, Ghana.
 Contents

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
SCOPE AND SEQUENCE 10
SECTION 1:INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY, THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, ORGANISMS
AND MICROSCOPES 11
Strand: Exploring Biology in Society 11
Sub-Strand: Biology as the Science of Life 11
Theme or Focal Area 1: Importance of Biology 13
Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Branches of Biology. 14
Theme or Focal Area 3: Fields of Work Related to Biology 15
Theme or Focal Area 1: The Scientific Method 17
Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Steps or Techniques Used in the Scientific Method 19
Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain the Following Terms as Applied in Symmetry,
Orientation and Sectioning. 21
Theme or Focal Area 2: Identify Different Types of Microscopes and
Describe the Parts and Functions of the Light Microscope. 25
Theme or Focal Area 3: How to Care for a Light Microscope and Slides 27

SECTION 2: FISH FARMING, PROCESSING AND CONSERVATION 32

Strand: Exploring Biology in Society 32
Sub-Strand: Biology and Entrepreneurship 32
Theme or Focal Area 1: Biological Practices and Tools Used in the Nursery
and Out-grow Stages in Fish Farming. 34
Theme or Focal Area 2: Harvesting, Processing and Marketing Fish 36
Theme or Focal Area 3: The Various Ways of Fish Stock Management and Conservation 38

SECTION 3: CELL BIOLOGY 40

Strand: Life in the Fundamental Unit 40
Sub-strand: Cell Structure and Function 40
Theme 1: Introduction to the Cell Membrane 42
Theme 2: Movement of Substances in and out of the Cell thorough the Cell Membrane 44

SECTION 4: ORGANISMS 47
Strand: Diversity of Living Things and Their Environment 47
Sub-strand: Ecology 47
Theme or Focal Area 1: Biological keys, how to make them and how to use them. 49
Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain How Simple or Lower Organisms are
Classified into their Taxonomic Groups 53
Theme or Focal Area 2: Describe the Various Major Ranks or Taxa in
Hierarchical Classification 56

iii
Contents

Theme or Focal Area 3: Identify Key Features of the Binomial Nomenclature 57

Theme or Focal Area 1: Discuss the life processes and
Economic Importance of Amoeba proteus 60
Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Life Processes and
Economic Importance of Euglena Viridis 61
Theme or Focal Area 3: Discuss the life processes and
Economic Importance of Spirogyra porticalis. 62

SECTION 5: ECOLOGY 65
Strand: Diversity of Living Things and Their Environment 65
Sub-strand: Ecology 65
Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain the Term Ecology and the Various Ecological Terms 67
Theme or Focal Area 2: Identify Ecological Concepts in Some Major Habitats 70
Theme or Focal Area 1: Interdependency of Living Organisms in Various Ecological
Habitats 74
Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Outcome of the Interdependency
of Living Things in Their Environment 77
Theme or Focal Area 1: Identifying the Various Ecological Tools and
How They are Used to Estimate Population Size and Density. 79
Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain Direct Counting, Gut Examination and Radioactive
or Tracer Methods of Determining the Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem 82
Theme or Focal Area 1: Determination of Ecological Pyramids and Comparing
the Efficiency of Energy Flow in Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass and Energy. 84

iv
 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) has developed a new Senior High
School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) Curriculum. It aims to ensure that all learners achieve their potential by equipping
them with 21st Century skills, competencies, character qualities and shared Ghanaian values. This will
prepare learners to live a responsible adult life, further their education and enter the world of work.
This is the first time that Ghana has developed an SHS Curriculum which focuses on national values,
attempting to educate a generation of Ghanaian youth who are proud of our country and can contribute
effectively to its development.
This Teacher Manual for Biology covers all aspects of the content, pedagogy, teaching and learning
resources and assessment required to effectively teach Year One of the new curriculum. It contains
this information for the first 12 weeks of Year One, with the remaining 12 weeks contained within
Book Two. Teachers are therefore to use this Teacher Manual to develop their weekly Learning Plans
as required by Ghana Education Service.
Some of the key features of the new curriculum are set out below.

LEARNER-CENTRED CURRICULUM
The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum places the learner at the center of teaching and learning by
building on their existing life experiences, knowledge and understanding. Learners are actively
involved in the knowledge-creation process, with the teacher acting as a facilitator. This involves
using interactive and practical teaching and learning methods, as well as the learner’s environment
to make learning exciting and relatable. As an example, the new curriculum focuses on Ghanaian
culture, Ghanaian history, and Ghanaian geography so that learners first understand their home and
surroundings before extending their knowledge globally.

PROMOTING GHANAIAN VALUES

Shared Ghanaian values have been integrated into the curriculum to ensure that all young people
understand what it means to be a responsible Ghanaian citizen. These values include truth, integrity,
diversity, equity, self-directed learning, self-confidence, adaptability and resourcefulness, leadership
and responsible citizenship.

Integrating 21st Century Skills and Competencies

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum integrates 21st Century skills and competencies. These are:
• Foundational Knowledge: Literacy, Numeracy, Scientific Literacy, Information
Communication and Digital Literacy, Financial Literacy and Entrepreneurship, Cultural
Identity, Civic Literacy and Global Citizenship
• Competencies: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving, Innovation and Creativity, Collaboration
and Communication
• Character Qualities: Discipline and Integrity, Self-Directed Learning, Self-Confidence,
Adaptability and Resourcefulness, Leadership and Responsible Citizenship

Balanced Approach to Assessment - not just Final External Examinations

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum promotes a balanced approach to assessment. It encourages
varied and differentiated assessments such as project work, practical demonstration, performance
assessment, skills-based assessment, class exercises, portfolios as well as end-of-term examinations
and final external assessment examinations. Two levels of assessment are used. These are:

1
Introduction

o Internal Assessment (30%) – Comprises formative (portfolios, performance and project work)
and summative (end-of-term examinations) which will be recorded in a school-based transcript.
o External Assessment (70%) – Comprehensive summative assessment will be conducted by the
West African Examinations Council (WAEC) through the WASSCE. The questions posed by
WAEC will test critical thinking, communication and problem solving as well as knowledge,
understanding and factual recall.
The split of external and internal assessment will remain at 70/30 as is currently the case. However,
there will be far greater transparency and quality assurance of the 30% of marks which are school-
based. This will be achieved through the introduction of a school-based transcript, setting out all
marks which learners achieve from SHS 1 to SHS 3. This transcript will be presented to universities
alongside the WASSCE certificate for tertiary admissions.

An Inclusive and Responsive Curriculum

The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum ensures no learner is left behind, and this is achieved through
the following:
• Addressing the needs of all learners, including those requiring additional support or with special
needs. The SHS, SHTS, and STEM curriculum includes learners with disabilities by adapting
teaching and learning materials into accessible formats through technology and other measures
to meet the needs of learners with disabilities.
• Incorporating strategies and measures, such as differentiation and adaptative pedagogies
ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities for all learners.
• Challenging traditional gender, cultural, or social stereotypes and encouraging all learners to
achieve their true potential.
• Making provision for the needs of gifted and talented learners in schools.

Social and Emotional Learning

Social and emotional learning skills have also been integrated into the curriculum to help learners to
develop and acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge essential for understanding and managing their
emotions, building healthy relationships and making responsible decisions.

Philosophy and vision for each subject

Each subject now has its own philosophy and vision, which sets out why the subject is being taught
and how it will contribute to national development. The Philosophy and Vision for Biology is:
Philosophy: The next generation of scientists can be empowered through observation, curiosity,
innovation, and exposure to practically related concepts and opportunities that leverage hands-on
activities in a learner centred environment
Vision: Biology learners equipped with 21st Century Skills and Competencies to explore, understand,
and apply creative and critical thinking processes in nature inspired-situations for the conservation
and sustenance of life and the environment.

2
 Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Professor Edward Appiah, Director-General of the National Council for Curriculum
and Assessment (NaCCA) and all who contributed to the successful writing of the Teacher Manuals for
the new Senior High School (SHS), Senior High Technical School (SHTS) and Science Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) curriculum.
The writing team was made up of the following members:

Subject Writer Institution

Home Economics Grace Annagmeng Mwini Tumu College of Education

Imoro Miftaw Gambaga Girls’ SHS
Love Boateng Juaso SHS
Jusinta Kwakyewaa (Rev. Sr.) St. Francis SHTS
Religious Studies Richardson Addai-Mununkum University of Education Winneba
Dr. Bonsu Osei-Owusu West Africa SHS
Prince Osei Adjei Adventist SHS, Bantama
Dr Francis Opoku Valley View University College
Yaw Sarkodie Agyemang University of Cape Coast
Aransa Bawa Abdul Razak Uthmaniya SHS
Godfred Bonsu Prempeh College
RME Anthony Mensah Abetifi College of Education
Joseph Bless Darkwa Volo Community SHS
Clement Nsorwineh Atigah Tamale SHS
Arabic Murtada Mahmoud Muaz AAMUSTED
Abas Umar Mohammed University of Ghana
Adam Abubakar Uthmaniya SHS
Mahey Ibrahim Mohammed Tijjaniya Senior High School
French Osmanu Ibrahim Mount Mary College of Education
Maurice Adjetey
Mawufemor Kwame Agorgli Akim Asafo SHS
Performing Arts Latipher Osei Appiah-Agyei University of Education Winneba
Desmond Ali Gasanga Ghana Education Service
Yaw Owusu Asiamah Adventist SHS, Bantama
Chris Ampomah Mensah Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo

3
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Art and Design Dr. Ebenezer Acquah University for Education Winneba
Studio and
Dr. Osuanyi Quaicoo Essel University for Education Winneba
Foundation
Seyram Kojo Adipah Ghana Education Service
Jectey Nyarko Mantey Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Yaw Boateng Ampadu Prempeh College
Kwame Opoku Bonsu Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dzorka Etonam Justice Kpando SHS
Applied Joseph Asomani AAMUSTED
Technology
Dr. Prosper Mensah AAMUSTED
& Design and
Communication Dr. Sherry Kwabla Amedorme AAMUSTED
Technology Esther Pokuah Mampong Technical College of
Education
Wisdom Dzidzienyo Adzraku AAMUSTED
Kunkyuuri Philip Kumasi SHTS
Antwi Samuel Kibi SHTS
Gabriel Boafo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Josiah Bawagigah Kandwe Walewale Technical Institute
Emmanuel Korletey Benso SHTS
Isaac Buckman Armed Forces SHTS
Daniel K. Agbogbo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Tetteh Moses Dagbon State SHS
Awane Adongo Martin Dabokpa Technical Institute
Business Studies Emmanuel Kodwo Arthur ICAG
Dr. Emmanuel Caesar Ayamba Bolgatanga Technical University
Ansbert Baba Avole Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Faustina Graham Ghana Education Service, HQ
Nimako Victoria SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Agriculture Dr Esther Fobi Donkoh University of Energy and Natural
Resources
Prof. Frederick Adzitey University for Development Studies
Eric Morgan Asante St. Peter’s SHS

4
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Agricultural David Esela Zigah Achimota School

Science
Prof J.V.K. Afun Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Kwadwo Amankwah Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Alex Adu Frimpong Benso SHTS
Mrs. Benedicta Foli
Government Josephine Akosua Gbagbo Ngleshie Amanfro SHS
Augustine Arko Blay University of Education Winneba
Samuel Kofi Adu Fettehman SHS
Economics Peter Anti Partey University of Cape Coast
Charlotte Kpogli Ho Technical University
Joseph Agbevanu Kinbu SHS
Adams Abdul-Somed Kalponin SHS
Benjamin Agyekum Mangoase SHS
Geography George Boateng Berekum College of Education
Dr. Esther Yeboah Danso-Wiredu University of Education Winneba

Dr. Matthew Krusah University of Education Winneba

Raymond Nsiah Asare Methodist Girls’ High School
History Kofi Adjei Akrasi Opoku Ware School
Anitha Oforiwah Adu-Boahen University of Education Winneba
Prince Essiaw Enchi College of Education
Ghanaian David Sarpei Nunoo University of Education Winneba,
Language Ajumako
Catherine Ekua Mensah University of Cape Coast
Ebenezer Agyemang Opoku Ware School
Physical Education Paul Dadzie Accra Academy
and Health
Sekor Gaveh Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Anthonia Afosah Kwaaso Junkwa SHS
Mary Aku Ogum University of Cape Coast
Social Studies Mohammed Adam University of Education Winneba
Simon Tengan Wa SHTS
Jemima Ayensu Holy Child School

5
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Computing and Victor King Anyanful OLA College of Education

Information
Raphael Dordoe Senyo Ziavi SHTS
Communication
Technology (ICT) Kwasi Abankwa Anokye Ghana Education Service, SEU
Millicent Heduvor STEM SHS, Awaso
Mohammed Abdul-Samed Dagbon State SHS
Dr. Gaddafi Abdul-Salaam. Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
English Language Esther Armah Mangoase SHS
Kukuaa Andoh Robertson Achimota School
Cecilia Amponsah Presbyterian Boys’ SHS
Alfred Quaittoo Kaneshie SHTS
Benjamin Orsoo Islamic SHS
Fuseini Hamza Tamale Girls’ SHS
Intervention Roberta Emma Amos-Abanyie Ingit Education Consult
English
Prof. Charles Owu-Ewie University of Education Winneba
Perfect Quarshie Mawuko Girls SHS
Sampson Dedey Baidoo Benso SHTS
Literature in Blessington Dzah Ziavi SHTS
English
Angela Aninakwah Ghana Education Service
Dr. Emma Sarah Eshun University of Education Winneba
Samuel Kwame Kassah St. Peter’s SHS
Juliana Akomea Mangoase SHS
General Science Dr. Comfort Korkor Sam University for Development Studies
Saddik Mohammed Ghana Education Service
Robert Arhin SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Chemistry Ambrose Ayiku St. Francis College of Education
Awumbile Patrick Nsobila Bolgatanga SHS, Winkogo
Bismark Tunu Opoku Ware School
Gbeddy Neurus Anthony Ghanata SHS
Physics Linus Labik Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Henry Benyah Wesley Girls’ SHS
Sylvester Affram Kwabeng Anglican SHS

6
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Biology Damoah Paul Prempeh College

Maxwell Bunu Ada College of Education
Ebenezer Delali Kpelly Wesley Girls’ SHS
Doris Osei-Antwi Ghana National College
Mathematics Edward Dadson Mills University of Education Winneba
Zacharia Abubakari Sadiq Tamale College of Education
Faustina Nana Ackob Mfantsiman SHS
William Ababu Swedru SHS
Collins Kofi Annan Mando SHS
Additional Dr. Nana Akosua Owusu-Ansah University of Education Winneba
Mathematics
Gershon Mantey University of Education Winneba
Very Rev. Prof. William Obeng Kwame Nkrumah University of
Denteh Science and Technology
Charles B. Ampofo Kibi College of Education
Bismark Twum SDA SHS, Akyem Sekyere
Innocent Duncan KNUST SHS
Intervention Florence Yeboah Assin Manso SHS
Mathematics
Mawufemor Adukpo Ghanata SHS
Jemima Saah Winneba SHS
Mohammed Shani Abdulai Yendi SHS
Robotics Dr. Eliel Keelson Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Nii Longdon Sowah University of Ghana
Kwabena Osei-Kusi Prempeh College
Michael Wilson CSIR
Isaac Nzoley Wesley Girls’ SHS
Engineering Daniel K. Agbogbo Kwabeng Anglican SHTS
Prof. Abdul-Rahman Ahmed Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Griffth Serlorm Klogo Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Japheth Kwadwo Bumusi Mawuli School
Valentina Osei-Himah Atebubu College of Education

7
Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Aviation and Opoku Joel Mintah Altair Unmanned Technologies

Aerospace
Engineering Dr. Eunice Akyereko Adjei Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. David Kofi Oppong Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Sam Ferdinand Afua Kobi Ampem Girls’ SHS
Biomedical Dr. Dorothy Yakoba Agyapong Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science Science and Technology
Jennifer Fafa Adzraku Université Libre de Bruxelles
Dr. Isaac Acquah Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
David Ayah St. John’s Grammar School
Dr. Eric Worlawoe Gaba Br. Tarcisius Prosthetics and Orthotics
Training College
Manufacturing Benjamin Atribawuni Asaaga Kwame Nkrumah University of
Engineering Science and Technology
Dr. Samuel Boahene Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Issahaku Iddrisu Ada SHS
Dr. Mizpah Ama D. Rockson Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Prof Charles Oppon Cape Coast Technical University
Spanish Setor Donne Novieto University of Ghana
Franklina Kabio University of Ghana
Mishael Annoh Acheampong University of Media, Art and
Communication
Assessment Benjamin Sundeme St. Ambrose College of Education
Victor Gideon Obeng Retired
Prof. Eric Francis Eshun Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Dr. Ruth Annan-Brew University of Cape Coast
Dr. Isaac Amoako Atebubu College of Education

8
 Acknowledgements

Subject Writer Institution

Curriculum Writing Paul Michael Cudjoe Prempeh College

Guide
Prof. Winston Abroampa Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology
Cosmos Eminah University of Education Winneba
Ahmed Amihere University of Education Winneba
Evans Odei Achimota School
Ellen Abakah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Hasiyatu Abubakari CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Eyram Eric Kwasi Fiagbedzi CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Deborah Atobrah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Ayine Akoglo CEGENSA, University of Ghana
Theodora Akweley Asiamah CEGENSA, University of Ghana
NaCCA Matthew Owusu Ebenezer Ankamah
Reginald Quartey Alice Abbiw Donkor
Rebecca Abu Gariba Abigail Birago Owusu
Anita Collision Samuel Owusu Ansah
Joachim Honu Richard Teye
Joana Vanderpuije Joseph Barwuah
Uriah Otoo Anthony Sarpong
Nii Boye Tagoe Jephtar Adu Mensah
Eric Amoah Nancy Aseiduwaa Gyapong
Francis Agbalanyo Godwin Senanu
Dennis Adjasi Godfred Mireku
Samuel Amankwa Ogyampo Juliet Owusu-Ansah
Sharon Antwi Baah Thomas Kumah Osei
Ayuba Sullivan Seth Nii Nartey

9
Scope and sequence

SCOPE AND SEQUENCE

Biology Summary  

S/N STRAND SUB-STRAND YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3

CS LO LI CS LO LI CS LO LI
1 Exploring Biology as the 4 4 5 1 1 2 - - -
Biology in Science of Life
Society Biology and 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 4
Entrepreneurship
2 Life in the Cell structure and 1 1 2 2 2 5 5 5 7
Fundamental Functions
Unit Movement of 1 1 3 1 1 1 - - -
substances in
living organisms
3 Diversity of Living Organisms 3 3 3 3 4 6 1 1 2
living things Ecology 5 5 7 1 1 2 2 2 4
and their
Environment Diseases and 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
infections
4 Systems of life Mammalian 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 4
Systems
Plant Systems 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 4
Total 18 18 29 12 13 24 13 13 29

Overall Totals (SHS 1 – 3)

Content Standards   41
Learning Outcomes   42
Learning Indicators   84

10
 Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

SECTION 1:INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY,

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, ORGANISMS AND
MICROSCOPES

Strand: Exploring Biology in Society

Sub-Strand: Biology as the Science of Life

Content Standards:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of Biology, the various branches and fields of
study and their benefits in everyday life.
2. Understand and apply the method through which biologists work to solve problems.
3. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of symmetry, orientation, sectioning and
biological drawing of specimens.
4. Demonstrate knowledge, skill and safety in the use of the microscope.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the importance of Biology and its branches and relate this to everyday life.
2. Solve everyday problems using the scientific method.
3. Apply knowledge of symmetry, orientation, and sectioning of various organisms in
studying the structure of living things.
4. Explain the safe ways of using the light microscope and the functions of its parts.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

Biology is a unit in the sciences that focuses on the study of living things and their inter-relationships
within the environment. It has three major branches which are botany, zoology and microbiology.
The learning of Biology is based on data obtained from research through empirical studies to solve
everyday problems. All over the world, scientists, including biologists, solve problems identified in the
environment by employing a special technique called the scientific method. To thoroughly understand
how to use the scientific method to solve everyday problems, specific pedagogies and exemplars,
key among which are collaborative learning strategies, inquiry and research-based learning, group
learning and presentations, help learners acquire the necessary knowledge and skills required. In
mixed-ability, gender-balanced groups, learners will be made to support one another by ensuring
that learners of different levels (that is, those approaching proficiency (AP), those that are proficient
(P), and those that are highly proficient (HP)) are mixed up in the various learner groups. With this
approach, the highly proficient learners will provide support for the approaching proficient (AP) and
the proficient (P) learners, so that each learner will improve considerably over the study period.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

This section aims to introduce learners to the foundation of Biology.
Several pedagogies are employed to ensure learners develop good social skills in addition to their
scientific knowledge.

11
Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

Mixed ability and gender-responsive groups are used to address content-proficiency and gender-
related issues and help learners develop team spirit, tolerance and cooperation during group work.
Research-based learning will also be used to help learners solve problems in their school environment
and community as a whole.
Enquiry-based approaches also induce the spirit of curiosity, independent learning and critical
thinking, much needed by the biology learners.
Experiential and differential learning is a strategy directly incorporated into the teaching and learning
process to ensure learners gain sectioning and manipulative skills to handle and work with the
microscope. These knowledge and skills acquired will be applied in various life situations.

12
 Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

Week 1
Learning Indicator: Observe and discuss the importance of Biology, its various branches and their
applications in everyday life.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Importance of Biology

Biology is the branch of natural science that is concerned with the study of living things, their structure
and function, and their interaction with the environment.
Biology is important in everyday activities such as food production, gardening, home hygiene, human
and animal health, conservation of natural resources and plant health.

Use the photographs below to discuss the importance of Biology.

i. Bee keeping ii. Salted fish/ ‘Kobi’ iii. Degraded land

Learning Task 1

1. Describe what is meant by ‘Biology’, limit content expectation to the definition of Biology.
2. Describe at least four ways in which the knowledge of Biology is useful in everyday life.
Extend content expectation to the discussion /explanation of how useful the knowledge of
Biology is in the following areas of food production, gardening, home hygiene, human,
animal and plant health, as well as conservation of natural resources.
3. Discuss the importance of Biology in the production of honey, dry fish/ ‘Kobi’, and bottled
fruit juice. Extend content response to the importance of Biology in the following areas
honey production, dry fish/’Kobi’ and bottled juice.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Collaborative Learning: Learners in mixed ability, gender-balanced groups, observe pictures and
videos of specimens relating to Biology (e.g., honey and dry tilapia) and share ideas with peers
and accept feedback. Learners in mixed-ability groups learn from each other and provide emotional
support to one another to achieve targets.
Talk-For Learning: learners in pairs discuss, analyse and share the contribution of biologists in the
development of society; learners learn from each other and improve upon their communication skills.
Communication and Collaboration: Learners speak politely and clearly as they share ideas on the video
and pictures they watched with their peers and accept constructive feedback from their peers. Critical
Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills: learners analyse the work of the biologist in the development
of products for human consumption.
Digital Literacy Skills: Learners use the internet to research the applications of the branches of biology
in everyday life.

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Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

Cultural Identity and Global Citizenship: By researching the application of biology to address
challenges within the community and the world at large, learners realise they are part of a global village.

Key Assessment -DoK

Level 1: What is Biology? Accept oral/written responses for different definitions of Biology.
Level 2: How is the knowledge of Biology applied in everyday life? Accept oral/written explanations
for four ways the knowledge of Biology is applied in everyday life.
Level 3: Discuss the importance of Biology in the production of honey, dry fish/ ‘Kobi’ and bottled
fruit juice. Accept oral/written discussion on the importance of Biology in honey, dry fish/’Kobi’ and
fruit juice production.
Level 4: Describe briefly how you will use the knowledge gained in Biology to reclaim degraded
land. Accept oral/written responses for four ways a degraded land can be reclaimed using knowledge
gained in Biology.

Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Branches of Biology.

The major branches of Biology include the following:
Zoology- Is the branch of Biology that is concerned with the study of animals.
Botany- Is the branch of Biology that is concerned with the study of plants.
Microbiology- Is the branch of Biology that is concerned with the study of microscopic organisms.

Learning Task 2

1. Identify some other branches of Biology, limit content expectation to the identification of up
to five branches of Biology.
2. Briefly describe what the branches identified entail. Extend content expectation to five
branches of Biology not mentioned above.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Inquiry-based Approach: In mixed-ability, all-inclusive groups, learners research from the internet,
textbooks, scientific journals, and other related sources to find out the importance of the branches of
Biology in everyday life and present their findings within a given time in a written report as feedback.
Learners improve communication through group discussion. Learners develop forbearance and hence
tolerate views from other peers.
Task-based: approach is used to encourage learners to search for different branches of biology and
their application in everyday life from multiple sources such as textbooks, scientific journals and
online searches and share their findings with colleagues.

Key Assessment -DoK

Level 1: Identify the various branches of Biology, accept responses for the identification of the three
major branches of Biology and any five others.
Level 2: Describe everyday applications of three to five branches of Biology. Accept a page description
of at least three branches of Biology and their applications in everyday life.

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 Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

Level 2: Which branch of Biology is linked to the mode of transmission and treatment of diseases?
Accept the identification of three branches of Biology linked to the mode of transmission and treatment
of diseases.

Theme or Focal Area 3: Fields of Work Related to Biology

How is the concept of Biology applied in the following units/areas in the community?
1. Hospitals
2. Industries
3. Agricultural farms
4. Educational institutions
5. Markets
6. Homes

Learning Task 3

1. Discuss how Biology is related to at least five other fields of work, limit content expectation
to the identification of other fields of work related to Biology.
2. Outline at least two branches of Biology associated with the production of tinned milk and
describe how they are involved.
3. Give a hypothetical scenario where learners tease out other fields of Biology in addition to
the main field identified. Example: A patient visits the doctor for a checkup on heart-related
issues. Write out all the fields of work related to Biology from her visit to the hospital.
Extend content expectation to deductions and teasing out other fields of work related to
Biology in the hypothetical scenario.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Enquiry-Based Approach: In mixed-ability, all-inclusive groups, research from the internet, textbooks,
scientific journals, and other related sources to find out other fields of study relating to Biology and
their importance in everyday life and present their findings within a given period in a written report as
feedback. Learners improve communication through group discussion, learners develop forbearance
and hence tolerate views from other peers. In mixed-ability, gender-responsive groups guide learners
to use digital tools to watch videos on different production units to identify fields of work related to
Biology in areas that employ the use of knowledge and concepts in Biology. Using enquiry-based
approaches encourage learners to explore their environment by taking a field trip around their school
compound, identifying different units and how the units employ knowledge and concepts in Biology.

Key Assessment-DoK
Level 1: Identify five other fields of work related to Biology. Accept written/oral response for the
identification of five fields of work related to Biology.
Level 2: Explain at least one way knowledge and concepts in Biology are applied in the following areas:
a. Hospitals
b. Industries
c. Agriculture farms

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Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

d. Homes
Accept written/oral explanations on how knowledge and concepts in Biology are applied in the
following areas; Hospitals, Industries, Agriculture farms, and Homes.
Assessment Level 4: A student fell very sick and was sent to the hospital. He was diagnosed by
the doctor with the following ailments: diarrhoea, blood in urine, stomach pain, ruptured tissues
and a tumour in the brain. Identify the various fields of work related to Biology that makes the
diagnosis possible. Accept oral/written responses from deductions made through critical thinking of
the hypothetical scenario.

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Week 2
Learning Indicator: Solve Everyday Problems Using the Scientific Method.

Theme or Focal Area 1: The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method and its Importance

The scientific method is an empirical method for investigating natural phenomena by formulating
hypotheses and testing them through experimentation. The method has been widely used and modified
by scientists over the centuries. As scientists, biologists also use the scientific method in solving
problems. Biologists start investigations by making observations around them; that is, anything that
draws the attention of the biologists. Observation leads to questioning or identification of a problem,
and this will lead to further questions or inquiries. The biologist then sets to work to find answers to
the problem using the steps or techniques involved in the scientific method.
The scientific method uses both inductive and deductive reasoning methods. Inductive thinking is
when one makes a generalised conclusion from a specific observation or pattern. An example of
inductive reasoning is when a biology student concludes that sunlight is necessary for plant growth
because he or she observes that plants that receive light grow taller. Deductive reasoning is the kind
that involves starting with a general principle and applying it to specific situations to predict and
test the hypothesis. It moves from a broader idea and narrows to specific conclusions. An example
is when the biology student predicts that the sheep give birth to young ones live, although he or she
may not have observed this before but has learned that all mammals give birth to young ones live and
knows that sheep are mammals.
Note: Inductive thinking is from specific to general, while deductive thinking is from general
to specific.

Importance of the Scientific Method

1. It is a problem-solving tool that breaks down complex phenomena into simple components and
hypothesis testing to find the root causes of a problem.
2. It provides a structured approach to inquiry so that the conclusion of research work is based on
empirical evidence rather than personal belief.
3. The method should yield valid, reliable results that can be replicated by other scientists and
researchers.
4. It encourages critical thinking, as researchers question assumptions, evaluate evidence and
challenge existing theories.
5. It ensures innovation and progress by encouraging continuous refinement of theories and
hypotheses and experimentation.

Learning Task 1

1. Explain the scientific method. Limit content to telling what the scientific method is about
(learner not expected to mention and describe steps at this stage).
2. Examine the importance of using the scientific steps in solving problems. Learners are
expected to discuss the important roles the scientific method plays in solving problems.

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3. Briefly explain inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning as used by biologists in

applying the scientific method to solve problems. Limit content to briefly defining and
explaining inductive and deductive reasoning abilities,and how these approaches are used
in the scientific method to solve practical problems in daily life.
4. Give examples of inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning methods in Biology. Each
learner should give at least one example of each of the inductive and deductive thinking
methods.

Key Assessment-DoK
Level 3: As a resource person from the Ministry of Agriculture, you have been invited to speak on
the topic, "The use of biological principles in the harvesting and processing of fish”. Elaborate on at
least four basic principles used in the final processing of fish.
Level 3: A learner is provided with fingerlings and mature fish to cater for. Explain why these two
should be kept in a different rather than the same aquarium.
Level 4: Identify and describe the essential features of a healthy aquarium, discussing the practices
that would result in poor fish health.

Pedagogies and Exemplars

Consider the following activities:
Learners in mixed-ability, research-based learning, research to understand the basis on which the
scientific method is built, and how it is employed in solving problems in the school environment and
community at large. Learners learn to be team players in groups research activities and feel valued in
contributing to lessons.
Learners in research group presentations, identify and explain some common problems in the
environment, and the processes leading to the identification of these problems. By this, learners
become critical thinkers and observers.
Learners employ individual-based learning methods to individually research, problem identification
and try to independently identify some common problems. They develop individual learning
capabilities.

Key Assessment – DoK

Level 1: By which technique do biologists and other scientists solve problems identified in their
environment?
Learners are to give a simple answer, which is the scientific method.
Level 2: Explain why the biology learner should learn to use the scientific method in solving problems
encountered in everyday life.
Each learner is expected to describe at least three important aspects of the scientific method and
explain why the learner should use them in solving problems.
Level 3: Describe the two methods of thinking associated with the use of the scientific method and
give one example of each.
Learners are to provide clear descriptions of inductive and deductive thinking and give at least an
example for each.

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Level 4: Create a typical scenario that uses inductive and deductive reasoning abilities and relate
these to the scientific method.
Learners are free to think of hypothetical instances where inductive and deductive learning are applied
and discuss this in the light of the scientific method.

Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Steps or Techniques Used in the Scientific Method
There are several steps involved in using the scientific method, depending on how the biologist or
scientist uses the method and the problem involved. The seven major steps are:

1. Identifying the problem by observation/questioning.

Just like other scientists, biologists identify problems by making observations around the environment
and noting down their observations. They then begin to ask questions as to why these observations and
patterns are made in nature. This then leads to problem identification. Thus, some tools and techniques
employed in identifying problems include observation, problem-solving diagrams, problem-solving
mind maps, problem-solving software, fishbone diagrams and flowcharts.

2. Reading around the problem to understand its nature; researching and looking for
further information.
This is done by researching literature and related sources to have a clearer understanding of the
problem and how to solve the problem. It involves the following:
a. Making a hypothesis: A hypothesis is an “educated guess’’, or it is an assumption to a testable
statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is also defined as a proposed
explanation for an observed phenomenon in nature.
b. Experimenting: Experimentation refers to the process or procedure carried out under controlled
conditions to find an unknown effect or law, to test or establish a hypothesis, or to illustrate a
known law.
c. Analysing data: This is done using tables, graphs and charts (e.g., cumulative frequency
curves, bar charts, histograms, or pie charts) to put together and examine data to make meaning
out of them.
d. Concluding/deduction: This is the final decision, judgment, or opinion that is formed after a
scientific experiment or research.
e. Communication: Scientific communication refers to how ideas, methods, knowledge and
findings in scientific exercise are made known to people in an accessible and helpful way.

Learning Task

1. Describe the processes that lead to problem identification by biologists. Limit content to
mentioning and describing scientific skills and characters such as observation and curiosity
or inquisitiveness which lead the learner to question and seek to find answers.
2. Explain the steps involved in the scientific method. Content should cover a list of the steps
or techniques of the scientific method and their explanations.
3. Briefly explain the hypothesis and how to formulate this. The learner is expected to give a
general explanation of the hypothesis (e.g., the explanation of the hypothesis as ‘an educated
guess’) without its detailed description.

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Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

4. Use the scientific method to solve problems identified in everyday life. Limit content to
identifying a common problem in everyday life (e.g. crop damage, water shortage, mosquito
infestation) and describing how one can use the scientific method to find answers to these
problems.

Pedagogies and exemplars

1. Use inquiry-based learning to put learners in mixed-ability, gender-balanced groups to gather
more information about the scientific method and the steps or techniques it employs in
solving problems.
2. Put learners in research-based learning groups to research and discuss the basis on which the
scientific method is built, and how the steps it outlines are employed in solving problems in the
school environment and community at large. Learners learn from one another as they gather
information from different sources.
3. Learners in group presentations should indicate how they identify a problem (e.g., water
pollution, sanitation or power outages.) and explain how the steps in the scientific method
are used to find solutions to these problems. Learners learn teamwork and become problem-
solving-oriented.
4. Each learner uses an individual learning technique to find a peculiar problem he or she faces
and proposes how to mitigate this using the steps learned in the scientific method: Learners
develop self-confidence through this method.

Key Assessment – DoK

Level 1: List the steps/techniques in the scientific method.
Limit content to mentioning at least three of the steps/techniques used in the scientific method to
solve problems.
Level 2: describe with examples where possible, the steps or techniques involved in using the scientific
method and the need for that step.
Provide a clear description of the scientific method and the reason why each of these steps is taken in
solving problems.
Level 3: Sanitation is a major concern in Ghana. Using the scientific method, describe how you might
solve the problem of sanitation in your locality.
Systematically, describe how you will solve sanitation problems in the light of each step of the
scientific method, and the conclusions and recommendations you will make at the end of this exercise.
Level 4: Identify one major challenge in your locality and use the steps in the scientific method to
solve this problem.
Consider any one common challenge in your community and use the techniques of the scientific
method to propose how the problem could be solved permanently.

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Week 3
Learning Indicators:
1. Observe and identify the various body orientations, symmetries and sections of different
organisms.
2. Identify the parts of the microscope and state their functions.
3. Demonstrate the safe usage of the microscope to observe specimens.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain the Following Terms as Applied in Symmetry,

Orientation and Sectioning.
Explain the following terms as applied in body orientation, symmetry and sectioning.
1. Body Orientations: This refers to the positioning or alignment of a specimen or its sections in a
specific direction.

A diagram of a bony fish showing various views of body orientations

Types of Orientations:
Anterior: front or head region of a specimen.
Posterior: back or tail region of a specimen.
Lateral: sideways view/view from the side of a specimen.
Ventral: view from beneath/underside region.
Dorsal: view from above or the upper view.
2. Body Symmetry: Body Symmetry refers to the balanced arrangement and correspondence of
body parts and structures on both sides of a central axis. Examples include the distribution
of parts of a flower, seeds and fruits of plants and body parts such as limbs, eyes ears of
animals. Symmetry is the fundamental characteristic observed in various organisms across
different species. It is the quality of being made up of exactly similar parts facing each other
around an axis.

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Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

A diagram showing radial and bilateral symmetry of different specimens.

a. Types of Symmetry:
a. Bilateral symmetry: Organisms have an imaginary line cutting along only one plane
to get mirror images. (Left and right halves identical to each other).
b. Radial: Organisms have an imaginary line cutting along two or more planes to get
mirror images.
NB: Organisms without a line of symmetry are referred to as asymmetric
e.g. Fiddler crab and Amoeba proteus,

Diagrams of Fiddler crab and Amoeba proteus showing asymmetry

i. Sectioning: Sectioning is the process of cutting or slicing through a biological specimen to

examine its internal structures.
a. Types of Sectioning:
(i) Longitudinal Section: A cut that runs through the entire length of the specimen.

Diagrams of the longitudinal section of pawpaw and tomato fruit

(ii) Transverse Section: A cut across the whole of the specimen horizontally.

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 Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

Diagram of the transverse section of the mammalian eye and an orange fruit

Diagrams of vertical sections of the mammalian skin and heart

4. Key features of biological drawings:

Biological drawings should have the following features:
a. A biological drawing must have an underlined heading or caption above or below
the diagram.
b. The drawing should cover at least two-thirds (2/3) of the space provided
c. Guidelines should not carry arrowheads. They should be ruled with a straight edge. The
guideline must point exactly to the label, not hanging or exceeding.
d. The outline of drawings should be thin, firm and continuous. Avoid woolly and broken lines.
e. Drawing must have magnification or scale
f. A singular label should carry a singular guideline.
g. Labelling should not be above or below guidelines but should be beside guidelines if
space permits.
h. It is advisable to use a sharp HB pencil when labelling, since this can be erased easily when
mistakes are made.
A labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower

Scale: Life size [__20 mm__]

Safety Note: Take great care if using sharp instruments for sectioning specimens.
Advice is to use plants rather than animals.

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Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

Learning Task

1 Identify the various orientations, symmetries and sections of different specimens. Accept
identification of various symmetries, orientations and sections of different specimens.
2 Identify six of the key features of biological drawings.
3 Draw and label correctly natural orientations/views, symmetry and sections of different
specimens. Accept biological drawings with at least five key rubrics.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Group project-based learning: In mixed ability, gender-responsive, task-based groups, ask each
group to sample 5 to 10 biological specimens (e.g. fruits, flowers, and leaves of orange, Crotalaria
and Allamanda, insects such as cockroaches, butterflies) from their environment.
NB: Safety measures must be observed while sampling and handling specimens.
Each group displays on a table and identifies each of the specimens collected. Learners are to select
one specimen within the group for the group presentation on their key findings and accept feedback
from their peers and teacher. In every group presentation, the teacher should ensure that all individuals,
introverts and extroverts play a role in building confidence and team spirit.
Critical thinking and problem-solving: Learners think deeply to determine the lines of symmetries
of organisms and their organs and make the right sections of specimens.
Observational and experiential learning: Learners in their groups critically observe and identify
the orientations and symmetries of the collected specimens. Each group member draws and labels any
one of the specimens collected.
Initiate talk for learning: Learners in mixed-ability groups discuss individual specimens drawn by
each group member and critic the specimen drawing of each member. Here, learners improve on their
communication and collaborative skills.
Communication and collaboration: Learners work together and discuss the orientation, symmetry
and different types of sections of specimens.
Leadership and personal development: Learners gain leadership and personal development skills
by assigning roles and responsibilities to each of the learners during the group activities.
Observational and experiential learning: Learners in their groups critically observe and identify
the specimens given. Group members take turns to make different sections of the specimens collected.
Each group member draws and labels any one of the specimens sectioned.

Key Assessment- DoK

Level 1: Give the view identified in the following orientations or positions of the body of an organism;
a. Head view
b. Tail view
c. Underside view
d. Backside view
e. Side view

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Accept identification of at least any three correct views.

Level 2: Give four reasons why biologists need knowledge of body orientation symmetry and
sectioning. Accept up to three correct reasons given.
Level 2: List between five to ten features of a good biological drawing or diagram.
Accept at least any five correct features of a good biological drawing.
Level 3: Draw the flowers of Crotalaria and Allamanda, and critically examine the differences in
them concerning their lines of symmetry.
Accept any two distinctions concerning their lines of symmetry.
Level 3: Identify 10 - 15 living things from the school compound and state whether each is bilaterally
or radially symmetrical, giving reasons for your answers.
Level 3: Name three living things that are asymmetrical and draw one of them.
Level 4: With your knowledge in orientation, explain the statement "No organism has a fixed or
permanent orientation."
Accept posters/presentations of various natural orientations and views of some selected specimens
collected.

Theme or Focal Area 2: Identify Different Types of Microscopes and Describe the Parts
and Functions of the Light Microscope.

The Microscope
The microscope is an instrument used in viewing or observing microscopic specimens like viruses,
bacteria, cells and other living things not visible to the unaided eye.
There are two main types of microscopes namely:

The light microscope The electron microscope

Maximum magnification around 1,500x Maximum magnification around 1 million x.

Although in schools and colleges only around 400x

Parts of the Light Microscope;

(a) Eyepiece Lens: lens at the top that you look through to observe specimens. Magnification of
the eyepiece lens is usually (x10 or x15) The eyepiece lens may be monocular (one lens) or
binocular (two lenses).
(b) Tube: connects the eyepiece lens to the objective lenses.
(c) Objective lenses: together with the eyepiece lens, the objective lenses are used for viewing
specimens. Magnification of the objective lenses ranges from (X4, X10, X40). The total
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Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

magnification of a specimen viewed is obtained by multiplying the magnifying power of the

objective lens used by that of the eyepiece lens.
(d) Arm: part connecting the base to the eyepiece. It is held when carrying or tilting the light
microscope.
(e) Revolving nose piece: holds or houses the three objective lenses. It is movable and rotated to
select the desired objective lens. Always start with low power first.
(f) Coarse Adjustment knob: used for general focusing.
(g) Fine Adjustment Knob: used for fine-tuning, bringing specimen into sharp focus.
(h) Stage: firm platform on which specimen/slide is placed for viewing.
(i) Clips: holds the specimen/slide in place.
(j) Aperture: this is a hole in the stage of the microscope, through which light is transmitted to
the stage.
(k) Condenser: lenses that collect and focus light from the illuminator to the specimen on the stage.
(l) Illuminator: the source of light located below the condenser, is either a mirror or an electric
bulb. If a mirror, an external light source is required. Not direct sun.
(m) Diaphragm: controls the amount of light entering/reaching the specimen.
NB: The diagram of the microscope below can be used by the teacher to re-enforce the identification
of the various parts (especially in situations where the actual microscope is not readily available)

Learning Task

1 State the parts of the light microscope and their functions. Limit content expectation to the
identification of various parts and relate each part of the light microscope to its functions.
2 Demonstrate at least five safe ways to use the light microscope to observe specimens.
Extend content expectation to the correct handling of the microscope to observe specimens
and make labelled drawings of what was observed.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Task-based group learning: In a mixed-ability, socially inclusive, task-based groups, learners
examine the various parts of the microscope (with emphasis on the eyepiece lens, objective lens, stage,

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 Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

clips, revolving nose piece, diaphragm, limb, base/foot). Mixed ability grouping ensures respect for
every learner regardless of their social background.
Observational learning and talk for learning: Learners critically observe and examine each part of
the microscope in relation to its function and share their observations in group discussions. Learners
improve on the skill of oratory through group discussions and learn from one another.
Experiential learning approach: In mixed-ability, task-based groups, learners mount different types
of slides provided on the stage of the microscope and observe the specimen on the slide.
Learner gains first-hand personal experience with the use of the microscope and can relate lessons to
real-world situations.
Communication and collaboration: Learners talk among themselves, and collaborate, as they
discuss the parts and functions of the microscope. Learners in mixed-ability groups exchange slides
with different groups and examine other types of slides following the same procedure: draw the
images obtained at sharp focus and gain support from each other as they work in groups to develop
team spirit.
Personal development: Learners develop deep manipulative skills in demonstrating the use of the
microscope and drawing the sharp images observed.
Differential learning approach: In their groups, learners mount different slides on the stage
and observe and discuss the images formed; learner develops the skill of critical observation and
inquisition.

Key Assessment- DoK

Level 1: Name two types of microscopes and state the maximum magnification of each.
Accept the names of the two types of microscopes and approx. correct magnification.
Level 2: Describe briefly how any four parts of the light microscope contributes to its effective
functioning.
Accept the description of four correct parts of the light microscope and the role of each part
mentioned.
Level 3: If available, manipulate the microscope to achieve sharp, bright images of the slides provided.
Sketch and label what was observed.
Accept at least the coarse focus of the specimen under the light microscope and some of the
specimens observed and drawn.

Theme or Focal Area 3: How to Care for a Light Microscope and Slides
Ways to care for the microscope include the following precautions and steps that are necessary for
handling the light microscope to ensure its proper functioning and longevity.
a. Do not touch the glass parts of the lenses with your fingers. Use lens tissue to clean the lens.
b. Always carry the microscope with both hands with one hand supporting the base.
c. Microscope slides and slide covers are small and delicate. Always handle the slides with care,
as they can easily be shattered or scratched.
d. Never drop slides or slide covers. Set them down only on clean countertops.
e. Cover when not in use.
f. Store in a clean, dry place.
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Section 1:introduction to biology, the scientific method, organisms and microscopes

g. If the microscope uses electricity or a battery as the source of light, the bulb must be allowed to
cool down before packing.
h. Never use direct sunlight as a source of light for the mirror
i. The user manual must be kept for reference.
Types of Microscope Slide
Microscope slides are used to examine single-celled organisms and to look up close at very small
parts of organisms. There are two types of prepared slides: Dry mounts and Wet mounts. Each type
of preparation method is used for mounting different types of cells and tissues.
If the specimen for a wet mounting is particularly pale or translucent, it must be stained to ensure it is
visible under the microscope. e.g. with iodine, eosin or methylene blue
Iodine and Methylene Blue are poisonous and should never be ingested. They will also stain skin
(temporarily) and clothing (permanently), so wear clothes that you don’t care about when handling
the chemicals.
NB: The teacher should ensure each learner acquires the skills of preparation of temporary slides and
can operate the light microscope, if available.
The general steps involved in the preparation of a wet mount include the following:
Gathering of Materials:
1. The following materials and procedures are needed for the preparation of a wet mount.
a. Microscope + slides
b. Coverslips
c. Specimen with a drop of water or stain
d. Staining dyes which can be used: iodine, eosin or methylene blue
e. Dropper or pipette
f. Razor blade or scalpel
2. Clean materials: Ensure that both the microscope slides and coverslips are clean and free from
dust or debris. A lens paper or a soft cloth must be used to wipe them if necessary.
3. Preparation of Specimen: the specimen is placed on a microscope slide. If the specimen is in a
liquid medium (like a drop of water containing microorganisms), a dropper or pipette is used to
place a small amount onto the centre of the slide. If the specimen is solid (like a piece of onion
epidermal tissue), a drop of water may be added to the specimen to help it adhere to the slide.
a. Addition of cover slip: A cover slip is gently lowered onto the specimen at a slight angle to
avoid trapping air bubbles. One edge of the cover slip is placed against the slide, and then
slowly lower the rest of the cover slip over the specimen. This technique helps minimize
the formation of air bubbles.
b. Addition of dye or stain: A dye such as eosin or methylene blue may be added to specimens
that are transparent to enhance contrast and visibility.
c. Removal of excess liquid: A piece of blotting paper or tissue paper may be used to wick
away any excess liquid around the edges of the coverslip. Extra care must be taken not
to press too hard, as this can cause the coverslip to shift or break, and potentially damage
the specimen.
d. Sealing the edges: optionally, the edges of the coverslip can be sealed with a small amount
of clear nail polish or commercial mounting medium. This helps prevent the specimen from
drying out and keeps the coverslip in place during observation. This is for long-term use.
e. Labelling of slide: It is good practice to label the wet mount with the type of specimen and
any other relevant information. This helps to keep track of observations and findings.

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f. Observation: The prepared wet mount is placed on the stage of the microscope and is
carefully brought into focus using the rough objective lens first, then the fine adjustment
knob to view the specimen clearly. The lowest magnification objective lens is used first,
and then other more powerful lenses to suit. Take care the high-power lens does not touch
the coverslip.
g. Cleaning up: After observing the specimen, the coverslip is carefully removed and the
microscope slide is cleaned for future use. The specimen is properly disposed of according
to laboratory protocols.

Learning Task (if microscopes are available in class)

1 Demonstrate at least five safe ways to use the light microscope to observe specimens.
2 Prepare a wet mount and observe under a light microscope.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Observational Learning and Talk for Learning: Learners critically observe and discuss safe ways
of caring for each part of the light microscope. Learners improve on the skill of oratory through group
discussions and learn from one another.
Experiential learning approach: In mixed-ability groups, learners prepare wet-mount and draw
what was observed. The learner gains first-hand personal experience with the use of the microscope
and can relate lessons to real-world situations.
Communication and collaboration: Learners talk among themselves, and collaborate, as they
discuss the safe ways to use the light microscope. Learners in one group exchange their wet mounts
with different groups and examine other types of slides following the same procedure. Labelled
drawings of the images obtained at sharp focus were made.
Personal development: Learners develop deep manipulative skills in demonstrating the safe use of
the light microscope.
Differential learning approach: Learners develop critical observation and inquisition skills as they
prepare different wet mounts on the stage and discuss the images observed.

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Key Assessment- DoK

Level 1: List four ways to care for the light microscope.
Accept any four ways to care for the light microscope.
Level 2: State with reasons, at least four safety precautions you should observe in handling the light
microscope.
Accept at least two precautions.
Level 2: Describe how to prepare a wet mount to be observed under the light microscope.
Accept at least four stages in the preparation of wet mounts of specimens to be observed
using the light microscope.
Level 3: Distinguish between a wet mount and a permanent slide.
Accept at least three distinctions between a wet mount and a permanent slide.

Additional Reading
• Biology GAST Textbook
• College Biology
• Online Resources.

References
• SHS Elective Biology Curriculum, Biology GAST Textbook, College Biology.

Section 1: Review
In the introductory section, we explored Biology's definition and its primary branches, along
with various sub-branches. Emphasis was placed on Biology's relevance to daily life and its
significance. Career opportunities in Biology were also explored. Subsequently, we delved into
the scientific method, its components, and its application in solving everyday issues.
Then we studied body orientation, symmetry, sectioning of specimens, and biological
drawing skills.
Finally, microscope types, parts, functions, safe usage, and slide preparation were discussed,
along with distinctions between wet mount and permanent slides.
The aim is for learners to apply this knowledge to address real-world challenges, supporting
both themselves and their communities.

References
1. Abbey, T. K., Alhassan, M. B., Ameyibor, K., Essiah, J. W., Fometu, E., & Wiredu, M.B.
(2008). Ghana association of science teachers integrated science for senior high schools.
Accra: Unimax MacMillan.
2. American Association for the Advancement of Science (1903). Science. Moses King. pp. 502–.
Retrieved 8 October 2010.
3. Asabere-Ameyaw, A., & Oppong, E. K. (2013). Integrated science for the basic school 5.
teacher I. Winneba: IEDE.

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4. Holmes, R.K, & Jobling, M.G. (1996). Genetics: Conjugation. In Baron S, et al., eds Baron's
Medical Microbiology. (4th ed. Pp 20-55). Univ. of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1
5. Mader, S. S. (1996). Biology. (5th ed). New York. Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
6. McFarland, D. (2000). "Preparation of pure cell cultures by cloning". Methods in Cell Science.
22 (1): 63–66. doi:10.1023/A:1009838416621
7. Mock, K.E., Rowe, C.A., Hooten, M.B., Dewoody, J., & Hipkins, V.D. (2008). "Blackwell
Publishing Ltd Clonal dynamics in western North American aspen (Populus tremuloides)".
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 17. Retrieved
2013-12-05
8. Nyavor, C. B. & Seddoh, S. (2006). Biology for senior secondary schools. (3rd ed.). Accra-
North: Unimax MacMillan Education Ltd.
9. Oddoye, E. O. K., Taale, K. D., Ngman-Wara, E., Samlafo, V., & Obeng-Ofori, D. (2011). SWL
integrated science for senior high schools: Students book. Accra, Ghana; Sam-Woode Ltd.
10. Peter J. R. (2005). Genetics: A Molecular Approach. San Francisco, California, United States
of America: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-8053-4665-7
11. Raven, P. H. & Johnson, G. B. (1999). Biology. (5th ed). New York. Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
12. Sarojini, T. R. (2009). Modern biology for senior secondary schools. (5th ed.). Onitsha-.
Nigeria: Africana First Publishers Ltd.

31
Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

SECTION 2: FISH FARMING, PROCESSING AND

CONSERVATION

Strand: Exploring Biology in Society

Sub-Strand: Biology and Entrepreneurship

Learning Outcome: Apply the knowledge of basic concepts in Biology to improve productivity in
fish farming

Content Standard: Demonstrate knowledge of the application of biological concepts and their
application to improve fish production

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

Biology and entrepreneurship are two distinct areas brought together to enable learners to combine
their biological knowledge with skills and knowledge in entrepreneurship. This combination of biology
and entrepreneurship is expected to produce self-motivated, proactive and action-oriented learners to
pursue an innovative product and service. Biology and entrepreneurship (bio-entrepreneurship) have
a huge potential to develop new techniques in feed production, care for fingerlings and the creation
of the right aquatic environment to increase fish production. Bio-entrepreneurship is frequently
credited as a major driver of economic growth, spurring transformation, the creation of bigger and
new markets, innovation and wealth creation.
At the end of this section, learners are expected to demonstrate knowledge of the application of
biological concepts and their application to improve fish production. Additionally, learners are
expected to identify the biological concepts that are used in the nursery and grow-out stages to improve
fish production. Knowledge gained in this section is related to other subjects such as Business, Home
Economics and Economics. Finally, learners are expected to be able to explain the use of biological
principles in the harvesting and processing of fish to improve production.
The week covered by the section is:
1. Week 4:
a) Fish farming management systems and practices.
b) Harvesting, processing and marketability of fish.
c) Discuss the various ways of fish stock management and conservation.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

This section requires learners to directly get involved in their learning. Learners should be offered the
opportunity to get direct practical experience as they apply their learning and learn from their failures.
Therefore, task-based learning, project-based learning, project-based and experiential learning
approaches and analytical learning approaches should be employed to facilitate these concepts. In
task-based learning for instance, learners should be placed in mixed-ability, all-inclusive groups,
allowed to watch videos and documentaries on fish farming. Similarly, if project-based learning
is successfully applied, learners will develop innovative skills and experience in fish farming and
become self-initiators.
Additionally, project-based and experiential learning approaches should allow learners to apply
suitable fish farming practices to feed and aerate the fishes in their holding facilities, while studying

32
 Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

their growth patterns and making notes on the changes. Finally, analytical learning approach should
encourage learners to collate results obtained from the project, analyse and discuss the findings.
Learners will develop communication and collaboration skills as they watch, discuss and share ideas
on the various techniques employed in fish production.
All learners, irrespective of their learning abilities, should be encouraged to participate fully in hands-
on activities and presentation of findings. However, considerations and accommodations should be
made for the different groups including learners with special educational needs (SEN).

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Every classroom is made up of learners with different abilities and different learning styles. Hence, the
assessments should largely cover levels 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the depth of knowledge (DoK). The concepts
under this section require learners to demonstrate conceptual understanding, including their real-life
applications. Again, the teacher should employ a variety of formative assessment (assessment “as”
and “for”) strategies such as brainwriting, oral/written presentations, pair-tasks, reports, and home
tasks, to gather information about learners’ progress and give prompt feedback to them. Specifically,
teacher should conduct the following assessments and record the performances of learners for
continuous assessment records and grading;
For example, through:
1. Multiple choice questions (MCQ), making sure content validity is attained.
e.g. MCQ: All the following tools are used to increase fish production except
A. an aerator machine
B. algae scrubbers
C. a pair of scissors
D. a weighing scale.
2. Class exercises (including individual worksheets) after each lesson
3. Homework
4. Practical group activities

33
Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

Week 4
Learning Indicators:
1. Identify the biological practices and tools that are used in the nursery and grow-out
stages to improve fish production
2. Explain the use of biological principles in the harvesting and processing of fish to
improve production
3. Identify the biological practices and principles that are used in the management and
sustainable exploitation of wild stocks to improve fish production.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Biological Practices and Tools Used in the Nursery and Out-
grow Stages in Fish Farming.
1. Some biological practices employed in the nursery stage in fish farming to include:
a. acquisition of fingerlings with best quality and health.
b. routine checking of water quality and level to maintain an optimal environment for growth
c. regular supply of essential feed and other inputs such as aeration and drugs when necessary
d. weaning of fry from natural feed to formulated feed
e. record keeping on all practices.
2. Some biological practices employed in the out-grow stage include the following:
a. Stocking
b. Feeding
c. Water quality management
d. Disease prevention and management
e. Monitoring and record keeping
f. Good harvesting and processing practices
3. Functions of tools and equipment used in nursery and grow-out stages to improve fish production:
a. Nets: Used for harvesting and transferring fish between ponds. They are also used for
removing debris from ponds, and used in making hapas or cages.
b. Graders: They are used to sort fish by their sizes in order to manage stock densities and
optimise growth.
c. Fish counters: They are used to count fish during harvesting and management practices.
c. Water quality test kits: for testing water quality such as pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia,
nitrite and nitrate levels.
d. Water pump: for pumping water in and out of the pond.
e. Pond liners: used to prevent water seepage and to facilitate proper water management in the
fishponds. Also used to prevent contamination by ground water.
f. Aeration machine: used to increase oxygen levels in the water.
g. Filtration systems: used to remove solid waste and organic matter from the fishpond thereby
increasing water quality.
h. Algae scrubbers: used to scrub/remove excess algae from pond in order to prevent algal
blooms and maintain water quality for healthy fish.
i. Weighing Scale: used to weigh fish accurately, and to monitor growth rate

34
 Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

Water pumping machine Fishing net

Algae scrubber Fish counter

Learning Task

1. Name at least three tools required in nursery and grow-out stages to improve fish production.
2. State one function of each of the tools mentioned above. NB: Limit content expectation to
identification and discussion of no more than three tools used in harvesting fish.

Pedagogical Exemplars
The teacher should consider the following activities: using think-pair-share, assist learners to identify
and discuss the functions of at least three tools and equipment used in harvesting fish.
Using task-based learning, place learners in mixed-ability, all-inclusive groups, to watch videos and
documentaries on fish farming or embark on field trips to fish rearing and research centres. Confident
learners provide internal support to struggling colleagues. Teacher provides individual support to
learners with specific learning needs.

Key Assessment- DoK Levels

Level 1: List some tools that are required in nursery and grow-out stages to improve fish production.
Accept at least two tools used in harvesting fish.
Level 2: Describe the function of at least two tools for harvesting fish.
Accept description of the functions of at least two tools used in harvesting fish.

35
Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

Theme or Focal Area 2: Harvesting, Processing and Marketing Fish

What key considerations are needed to decide on harvesting?

1. When the fish have attained the right size to give maximum profit in the market
2. When the prevailing market opportunities (like Christmas and Easter) offer highest profit
Identify three pieces of equipment used in harvesting fish in a pond/aquaculture farm:
The methods and equipment for harvesting fish in their holding facilities depend on the size of the
pond, the type of harvest and the purpose of the harvest. They include the following:
1. Hook and line
2. Traps
3. Nets (Gillnets, Seine net, and Sweep net.)
Discuss some methods of processing and preserving fish:
Some methods of processing and preserving fish include the following:
a. Deep-frying in oil for immediate consumption.
b. Preserving in ice to keep them fresh for the market.
c. Processing (sun-dried, salted or smoked); and at higher industrial levels, may be filleted and
chilled for supermarkets or export.
d. Whenever possible, it is best to present fish for sale in their freshest form. Live fish are in the
freshest state.

Learning Task

1. List at least two methods of harvesting fish in their natural habitat. Limit content expectation
to listing of two methods of harvesting fish in their natural habitat.
2. Describe at least two techniques used in harvesting fish in their holding facilities. Encourage
learners with in-depth knowledge on the techniques of harvesting fish to orally explain the
various techniques to less experienced learners. Extend content expectation to describing at
least two techniques used in harvesting in their holding facilities.
3. Explain at least three ways of processing and preserving fish, highlighting the biological
principles involved in each case. Extend content expectation to describing at least three
ways of processing and preserving fish, highlighting the biological principles involved in
each case.
4. Individually, think critically about how to increase the market value of fish and share your
ideas within the group and with the whole class.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Using project-based and experiential learning approaches: learners should be placed in mixed-
ability groups and guided to apply suitable fish farming practices to feed and aerate the holding
facilities of fish, while studying their growth patterns and making notes on the changes.
In groups, learners list at least two methods of harvesting fish in their habitats. Struggling learners
should be supported where necessary.

36
 Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

Using think-ink-pair-share strategy: learners should describe at least two techniques used in
harvesting fish in their holding facilities.
Using the television talk show strategy: learners explain at least three ways of processing and
preserving fish, highlighting the biological processes involved in each case.
Teacher scaffolds help for learners with learning difficulties. Using an enrichment exercise, challenge
talented learners to build an aquarium using materials given to them.
Learners develop the skill of critical thinking and observation, and develop independent thinking.
Learners develop the ability of working and supporting one another in a teamwork.

Key Assessment-DoK
Level 3: As a resource person from the Ministry of Agriculture, you have been invited to speak on
the topic, "The use of biological principles in the harvesting and processing of fish”. Elaborate on at
least four basic principles used in the final processing of fish.
Level 3: A learner is provided with fingerlings and mature fish to cater for. Explain why these two
should be kept in different aquaria/ponds.
Level 4: Describe the essential features of a healthy aquarium, describing three bad practices that
would result in poor fish health.
Level 4: On a trip to two different fishing centres, A and B, a learner observed that the fingerlings and
mature fish produced at Centre A grew larger and healthier than those from Centre B. Describe the
factors that could lead to these two different scenarios.
Level 4: In harvesting fish to be processed and exported to another country, the following practices
were carried out by the harvesters:
a. Increasing fish feed two weeks before harvesting
b. Starving the fish on the day of harvesting
c. Draining the pond
d. Removing scales
e. Removing the intestines
f. Freezing the fish.
Suggest how and/or why each of these processes was carried out.
Accept an explanation of at least three ways of processing and preserving fish, highlighting the
biological processes involved in each case.

37
Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

Theme or Focal Area 3: The Various Ways of Fish Stock Management and
Conservation
Discuss management practices of fish populations in their habitats under the following headings:
a. In freshwater bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and springs.
b. In brackish-water bodies such as lagoons and restricted estuaries
c. In marine habitats such as mudflats, mangroves, coral reefs, oyster beds, and kelp forests
Artificial habitats include the following:
a. Aquaculture facilities where fish are raised for commercial purposes
b. Re-circulating aquaculture system (RAS). This is where water is continuously filtered and
reused to raise fish in a controlled environment
c. Artificial reefs: these are made from materials such as concrete and steel which are used under
water to provide a suitable habitat for fish and other marine organisms.
Some management practices of fish populations in their natural habitats include the following:
a. Keeping accurate and current data on the fish populations.
b. Regulating commercial fishing activities to avoid overfishing.
c. Enforcing enacted laws to protect fish populations.
d. Desilting and removal of weeds must be done periodically to ensure easy movement of fish and
adequate penetration of sunlight to the bottom of the water body. This will ensure increased
primary productivity and high dissolved oxygen concentrations, necessary for fish growth
and health.
e. Regular control of harvesting should be carried out to avoid overpopulation, cannibalism and
disease outbreaks.
f. Practising aquaculture to reduce over-dependency on wild fish stock.

Learning Task

1. Name at least two water bodies where fish populations can be found. Limit content
expectation by accepting two water bodies and their corresponding examples where fish
populations can be found.
2. Describe four management practices of fish populations in their natural habitats. Extend
content expectation to describing four management practices of fish populations in their
natural habitats and explain why such management practices should be encouraged

Pedagogical Exemplars
Using think-pair-share: Ask learners to name at least two water bodies and their corresponding
examples where fish populations can be found. Teachers should recognise the distinct needs of
learners and provide appropriate learning support.
Using the doughnut-sharing strategy: learners describe at least four management practices of fish
populations in their habitats, and state why such management practices should be encouraged.
Using an analytical learning approach: Learners in mixed-ability groups, collate results obtained
from the project of rearing fingerlings in an aquarium tank, and analyse and discuss the findings in-

38
 Section 2: fish farming, processing and conservation

class presentations. As learners work in groups, they provide emotional and psychological support to
one another to obtain the required results. Learners will subsequently develop analytical skills.

Key Assessment
DoK Levels
Level 3: Describe some practices that should be promoted or discouraged in sustainable fish farming.
Level 3: Explain the significance of biological practices and principles in the sustainable management
and conservation of fish. Accept oral or written explanations on at least two biological practices used
in fish conservation.
Level 4: Alidu and Dede carried out practices that included the removal of natural predators of fish and
preventing algal blooms, to increase the productivity of their school's fishpond. Explain the relevance
of these practices in aquaculture and give the biological terminology of these processes. Accept
posters/presentations on explanations of at least four management practices of fish populations in
their natural habitats and why such management practices should be encouraged.

Section 2 Review
In this section, learners have learned about the biological practices and tools used in the nursery
and grow-out stages in fish farming, and the functions of tools and equipment used in nursery
and grow-out stages to improve fish production. Additionally, learners learned about key aspects
of harvesting, processing and marketing of fish. Finally, the various ways of stock management
and conservation were also discussed.
Knowledge and skills acquired would assist learners to possibly develop and manage their fish
farms to boost fish production in Ghana. The knowledge and skills acquired will again help
learners to engage in further studies, and prepare them for adult life and the world of work.

39
Section 3: cell biology

SECTION 3: CELL BIOLOGY

Strand: Life in the Fundamental Unit

Sub-strand: Cell Structure and Function

Learning Outcome: Describe the various processes involved in the movement of substances in and
out of the cell, and the factors affecting them.

Content Standard: Demonstrate an understanding of the processes by which substances move

across the cell membrane.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

Cell biology is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of cells. Cells were
discovered by a British scientist, Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed cells in a cork slice under his
self-designed microscope and noticed honeycomb like compartments. He called them cells. Cells
are the basic building blocks of all living things. Some organisms are composed of only one cell,
others of many millions of cells. The human body is composed of trillions of cells. They provide
structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out
specialized functions. Cells come in discrete and easily recognizable packages. That's because all
cells are surrounded by a delicate envelope called the cell membrane, or plasma membrane, which
serves as a clear boundary between the cell's internal and external environments.
At the end of this section, learners are expected to demonstrate understanding of processes by which
substances move across the cell membrane.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

This section requires learners to be placed at the centre of the teaching and process. This is because
knowledge exists within the context of every learner. Hence, learners are to be guided or supported
to develop their own knowledge consistent with what is acceptable by the scientific community.
Therefore, individual-based learning differentiated project-based learning, talk for learning (TFL),
case-based consultative learning and group project-based learning should be used to facilitate the
concepts in this section. In individual-based learning for instance, learners in mixed-ability, gender
balanced groups revise previous lessons on cell organelles and cell structure with regards to their
nature and functions from JHS lessons on cells and each group discusses further for whole class
open discussions. To employ differentiated project-based learning, learners should form mixed ability
groups and each group is assigned to examine in detail the cell theory and 3 to 5 organelles with
respect to their shapes, structures and functions and prepare brief discussion notes for 10 minutes
presentation each in the next lesson and teacher provides feedback for each presentation
In talk-for learning, learners should be placed in mixed-ability groups to revise lessons on movement
of substances in and out of the cell (diffusion and osmosis). Besides, learners in mixed-ability groups
should brainstorm under teacher’s guide to discuss the cell membrane. Teacher then introduces
lessons on the cell membrane with regards to its structure, component and functions. Similarly, case-
based consultative learning should be applied where the teacher guides learners in groups to consult
and discuss among themselves the structure and components of the cell membrane linking them to
the fluid mosaic model using diagrams and pictures. And finally, in group project-based learning
strategy, learners in groups prepare charts and annotated diagrams on the structure and components

40
 Section 3: cell biology

of the cell membrane linking them to the fluid mosaic theory. Each learner in their groupings presents
and discusses their work with the whole class.
All learners, irrespective of their learning ability should be encouraged to participate fully in hands-
on activities and presentation of findings. However, considerations and accommodation should be
made for the different groups including learners with special educational needs (SEN).

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Every classroom is made up of learners with different abilities and different learning styles. Therefore,
the assessments should cover Levels 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the depth of knowledge (DoK). The concepts
under this section require learners to demonstrate conceptual understanding, including their real-life
applications. Again, the teacher should employ a variety of formative assessment (assessment “as” and
“for”) strategies such as brainstorming, oral/written presentations, pair-tasks, reports, home tasks, etc.
to gather information about learners’ progress and give prompt feedback to them. Specifically, teacher
should conduct the following assessments and record the performances of learners for continuous
assessment records and grading;
a) Multiple choice questions (mcq), making sure content validity is attained.
b) Class exercises (including individual worksheets) after each lesson
c) Homework
d) Practical group activities

41
Section 3: cell biology

Week 5
Learning Indicator(s):
1. Discuss the factors that affect the movement of substances across the cell membrane
2. Discuss the effect of the movement of substances across the cell membrane

Theme 1: Introduction to the Cell Membrane

Cells are full of membranes and are surrounded by a membrane called the cell membrane or plasma
membrane. Many organelles such as chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and the
nucleus itself are bounded by or composed of one or two membranes. Membranes are exceedingly
thin and are primarily made of phospholipids and proteins. The lipids form two layers of molecules
which are mobile. The proteins are found scattered as a mosaic in and on the lipid layers, and they too
can move around the membrane.
For this reason, the membrane is described as a fluid-mosaic. Membranes keep their shape because of
the hydrophobic and hydrophilic nature of their lipid molecules. One end of the molecule is repelled
by water (hydrophobic) and the other is attracted to water (hydrophilic). As a consequence of their
fluidity, they can often recover from minor physical damage. Lipids also allow small molecules such
as water molecules to pass through unaided. The surface area of cells or organelles can be increased
by the folding of membranes.
Because they are composed of proteins and lipids, membranes are easily damaged by heat, acids and
by fat solvents such as alcohol. This can be demonstrated in the classroom using cells which have a
coloured sap such as beetroot or red cabbage. When the membrane of these cells is damaged by heat,
acid or alcohol the coloured sap leaks out into the surrounding water.
Membrane proteins have many functions:
(a) There are enzymes present in membranes for many chemical reactions which take place on the
surface of the membranes. E.g. stages in protein synthesis, respiration and photosynthesis.
(b) There are receptor sites for hormones which then influence the activity of the cell.
(c) There are proteins which act as a skeleton for the membrane to give it shape and to allow it to
move. For example, the membrane moves during phagocytosis and when cilia waft to and fro.
(d) There are proteins which actively transport materials across the membrane using chemical
energy obtained from the cell in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
(e) There are proteins which form pores in the membrane through which substances can pass.
Because cells are full of hundreds of different enzymes and millions of molecules which react every
second, it is important that the internal environment of the cell is kept as constant as possible. In this
respect the outer cell/plasma membrane plays a very important function by regulating what enters
and leaves the cell. It allows some substances to pass through unaided, while others are transported
actively and some substances are entirely prevented from passing through. For this reason, membranes
are said to be selectively permeable.

42
 Section 3: cell biology

Below is a diagram of a section of cell membrane showing the phospholipid bilayer in orange.

Scale: The membrane is around 5 to 10 nanometres thick, and a nanometre is one billionth of
a metre. [ 10-9 m]

Learning Task

(a) Name the outermost envelope-like structure which surrounds the cell.
(b) Identify three cell organelles that are bounded by two membranes
(c) Mention at least three key structural features of the cell membrane and state the role they
play in the structure and function of the membrane
(d) Name at least three key structural features of the cell membrane and describing why the
model of the membrane is described as a ‘fluid mosaic’.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Teacher should consider the following activities;
Individual-Based Learning: In individual-based learning for instance, learners in mixed-ability,
gender balanced groups revise previous lessons on cell organelles and cell structure with regards to
their nature and functions from JHS lessons on cells.
Differentiated Project-based Learning: to employ differentiated project-based learning, guide
learners to form mixed ability groups, and each group should be assigned to examine in detail, the
cell theory and up to five organelles with respect to their shapes, structures and functions, and prepare
brief discussion notes for 10 minutes presentation each in the next lesson. The teacher must provide
feedback for each presentation.
Talk-For-Learning (TFL): In a talk-for-learning strategy, learners should be placed in mixed-ability
groups to revise lessons on movement of substances in and out of the cell by diffusion and osmosis.
Learners in mixed-ability groups should brainstorm under the teacher’s guide to discuss the cell
membrane, its structure and function.

Key Assessment- DoK

Level 1: Identify at least two characteristics of the cell membrane.
Level 3: Describe with an illustration the structure of the cell membrane and state the key features in
relation to the movement of substances in and out of cells
Level 4: Explain why it is important that the cell cytoplasm is kept in homeostasis.

43
Section 3: cell biology

Theme 2: Movement of Substances in and out of the Cell thorough the Cell Membrane
Diffusion and Osmosis: Atoms and molecules of gases and liquids have the ability to move about
at random. As a result, they tend to spread themselves from areas of high concentration to areas of
low concentration. This process is called diffusion. Osmosis is the term used to describe the diffusion
of water across a membrane from a weak solution (high proportion of water molecules) to a strong
solution (low proportion of water molecules). A solution which is weaker than another solution is
said to be hypotonic to the other stronger solution. The stronger solution is hypertonic to the weaker
solution. Solutions of the same strength are said to be isotonic.
Because all cells are surrounded by a membrane, water can diffuse into and out of cells with ease.
Animal cells and plant cells behave differently however, because animal cells do not have a strong
supportive porous cell wall surrounding them. The table shows what can happen to animal and plant
cells when placed in water solutions of different strengths.

Hypotonic solution (very little or Hypertonic solution (salty)

no salt)
Animal cells Burst shrink
Plant cells become turgid (firm) become flaccid (limp)

Plasmolysis
Plant cell walls are composed principally of cellulose fibres which allow free passage of molecules
through the gaps between them. These walls give strength and structure to the plant cell, which
animal cells do not have.
If plant cells are placed in very strong solutions, much water leaves the cell. In fact, the cytoplasm and
vacuole shrink so much that the cell membrane can be pulled away from the cell wall. The cell is then
said to be plasmolysed. This can be shown with pieces of potato or red onion placed in a range of salt
solutions and in fresh water. The cells and tissues can then be examined after an hour’s immersion.
All cells rely on the process of diffusion to absorb and secrete materials. However, diffusion on its
own is not sufficient to transport all substances. There are many other ways cells can move substances
across membranes.
Sometimes substances have to be moved against the way in which they would move naturally by
diffusion. i.e. against the concentration gradient. This requires energy which is supplied by the cell.
The process is called active transport, and specialised proteins in cell membranes act as carriers,
moving molecules from one side of the membrane to the other using the chemical energy of a
compound called Adenosine Tri-phosphate (ATP).

Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Another way of moving substances across a membrane is for the membrane to flow round the
substance and form a tiny sac or vesicle as it is called. If the vesicle is formed inside the cell, then
releases its contents to the exterior the process is called exocytosis. The import of materials in the
opposite direction is called endocytosis. Phagocytosis is an example of a form of endocytosis on a
large scale, where whole bacteria are surrounded by white blood cells and ingested.
Functions of the cell membrane
a. The cell/plasma membrane functions as a physical barrier between the external environment
and the cytoplasm or the contents of cell organelles.

44
 Section 3: cell biology

b. The cell membrane is selectively permeable and therefore only allows the movement of selected
molecules in and out of the cell.
c. It functions by facilitating communication and signalling between the cells.
d. The plasma membrane plays a vital role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape and
structure to the cell.

Learning Task

a. Why is the cell membrane described as a semi-permeable or selectively permeable

membrane?
b. Describe at least three functions of the cell membrane.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Teacher should Consider the activity below;
Case-Based Consultative Learning: case-based consultative learning should be applied where
the teacher guides learners in groups to consult and discuss among themselves the structure and
components of the cell membrane, linking them to the fluid mosaic model using diagrams and pictures.
Group Project-Based Learning: similarly, in group project-based learning strategy, learners should
be placed in groups to prepare charts and annotated diagrams on the structure and components of the
cell membrane, linking them to the fluid mosaic theory. Each learner in their groups presents and
discusses their work with the whole class.

Key Assessment-DoK
Level 1: State three ways by which substances can move in and out of cells.
Level 2: Describe four functions of membrane proteins.
Level 3: Explain why plant cells and animal cells behave differently when placed in fresh water.

Section 3: Review
In this section learners have learnt about the features of the cell (plasma) membranes which are
found bounding many organelles and the cell itself. They learned about the ‘fluid mosaic’ model
of the membrane structure, the compounds from which it is composed and how substances are
moved in and out of the cell by diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.

References
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(2008). Ghana association of science teachers integrated science for senior high schools.
Accra: Unimax MacMillan.
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3. Asabere-Ameyaw, A., & Oppong, E. K. (2013). Integrated science for the basic school teacher
I. Winneba: IEDE.

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Section 3: cell biology

4. Lederberg, J. & Tatum, E.L. (1946). "Gene recombination in E. coli". Nature 158 (4016): 558.
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North: Unimax MacMillan Education Ltd.
9. Oddoye, E. O. K., Taale, K. D., Ngman-Wara, E., Samlafo, V., & Obeng-Ofori, D. (2011). SWL
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10. Raven, P. H. & Johnson, G. B. (1999). Biology. (5th ed). New York. Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
11. Sarojini, T. R. (2009). Modern biology for senior secondary schools. (5th ed.). Onitsha-.
Nigeria: Africana First Publishers Ltd.

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 Section 4: organisms

SECTION 4: ORGANISMS

Strand: Diversity of Living Things and Their Environment

Sub-strand: Ecology

Content Standard:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the use of biological keys in identifying living
organisms.
2. Demonstrate understanding of the principles of classification of organisms.
3. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the life processes of living things.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Apply the knowledge of biological keys to identify living things.
2. Apply the principles of classification to group living things.
3. Describe the life processes and economic importance of lower organisms.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

The diversity of living things is vast, comprising a wide array of organisms including microscopic
life forms from bacteria to macro-organisms such as trees, elephants and whales. Good knowledge
and understanding in this area is required to ensure the protection, conservation and sustainable
exploitation of ecosystems within the biosphere. Biological keys are essential tools in identifying and
classifying these organisms, based on their characteristics.
Classifying organisms allows biologists to study these fundamental life forms to delve deeper into
the intricacies of complex life forms. Carolus Linnaeus introduced the binomial system of naming
in the 18th century, and this system gives every organism two-term Latin or Greek names, which are
the genus and species names. e.g. Homo sapiens These names provide a universal means by which
biologists communicate about living things in an attempt to understand all life forms.
The weeks covered by this section are:
Weeks 6: Constructing and using simple keys to identify organisms, leading to a study of the
classification of organisms.
Week 7: The classification of organisms
Week 8: Discuss the life processes and economic importance of a selection of plants and
animals found in Ghana.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

A variety of pedagogies are introduced to ensure that learners of all levels are fully involved in
lessons. Among the pedagogies used are experiential learning techniques, project-based approach,
group learning, talk for learning, and digital literacy learning approaches that will assist the learner
to fully understand and appreciate lessons in the construction and use of keys, classification and
its application to Biology and everyday life activities. Other exemplars are field trips to observe
biodiversity, and hands-on exploration of populations and communities of living things. Pedagogical
exemplars were carefully selected to take into account the interest of learners with special education
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Section 4: organisms

needs, so that these groups of students do not feel different and discriminated by other learners, and
to encourage the essential 21st century skills and competencies required to transform the learner into
a global citizen.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Assessments in lessons of classification are mainly in formative oral questions and responses, quizzes,
concept maps, and observation checklists to guide learner understanding and progress. Assessment
on classification has been prepared to accommodate all levels of learners, including the approaching
proficiency (AP), proficient (P) and highly proficient (HP). For P and HP learners, more complex
assessments such as projects, scientific writings and presentations, and experiential design tasks, have
been utilised to deepen understanding, critical and analytical thinking skills. Additionally, learners
with special education needs (SEN) are catered for through the use of several educational strategies
such as time-extension and differentiated learning. This is to be achieved through extended time,
simplified instructions, and less complex alternative formats for assessments to support the SEN
learner in demonstrating his or her knowledge and skills in classification effectively. Thus, assessment
in the lessons has been formed to be GESI responsive, to suit the learning needs of all learners, and to
make the biology learner appreciate fully the lessons taught about classification of organisms. With
these diverse assessment modes, all learners are assured of showcasing their understanding in the
concept of classification and its application in Biology and everyday life.

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 Section 4: organisms

Week 6
Learning Indicator: Identify living Organisms Using Biological Keys.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Biological keys, how to make them and how to use them.
An example of a simple paired-statement key
The following is a simple key to identify six common invertebrates.

No legs ---------------------- go to 2
1
Legs ----------------------- go to 3

Shell -------------------------- Snail

2
No shell ---------------------- Slug

Six legs ----------------------- go to 4

3
More than six legs ---------- go to 5

Wings -------------------------- Bee

4
No wings ---------------------- Springtail

Eight legs ---------------------- Spider

5
Many pairs of legs ------------ Millipede

Why keys are important?

We can identify unfamiliar organisms in the field using a key. The advantage of using a key is that it
requires careful observation of an organism to check whether a particular feature is present or absent.
As a result, we become more familiar with the organisms we have identified.
We should also be able to construct keys to enable other users to use these keys to identify organisms.
The ability to construct a key is an important skill, testing knowledge, understanding and problem-
solving skills.

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For example, a key could be constructed to identify six birds native to Ghana shown below, using the
colour of their feathers, the length of their legs, and the length of their tails.

African Green Pigeon Abyssinian Roller Afep Pigeon

African Jacana Black-crowned Tchagra Yellow-fronted Tinkerbird

Long tail ----------------------------------------- 2

1
Short tail ------------------------------------------------ 3

Brown feathers and black bar on head ------------- Black-crowned Tchagra

2
Forked tail and bright blue breast feathers -------- Abyssinian Roller

Green feathers----------------------------------------- African Green Pigeon

3
Feathers not green ------------------------------------ 4

Legs as long as body with four long toes --------- African Jacana
4
Legs shorter than body ------------------------------- 5

Small bird with yellow breast feathers ------------- Yellow-fronted Tinkerbird

5
Large bird with dark blue/grey feathers all over -- Afep pigeon

As well as being useful for identifying organisms and describing their features, keys can be used to
help us understand the classification of animals and plants.
The following key enables you to identify the main groups of plants present in the world + fungi,
(Fungi are not really plants in the true sense)

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 Section 4: organisms

Some examples are given in brackets after each group.

No leaves, stems or roots ------------------- 2

1
Leaves, stems and roots -------------------- 3

Photosynthetic -------------------------------Algae (seaweed)

2
Non-photosynthetic ------------------------ Fungi (toadstools and mushrooms)

No seeds ------------------------------------- 4
3
Seeds ----------------------------------------5

Roots and stem with vascular tissue ----- Ferns

4
Simple single leaf or leaves only --------- Mosses and Liverworts

Naked seeds in a cone ---------------------- Conifers (pine and fir trees)

5
Covered seeds, and flowers ---------------- 6

One seed leaf -------------------------------- Monocots (grasses)

6
Two seed leaves ----------------------------- Dicots (broad-leaved plants)

Learning Task:

1. Practise constructing a key for some common items: e.g. Coin, Pin, Button, Rubber/Eraser,
Paperclip, Rubber band, Cork
2. Collect some leaves from different plants in the school grounds and construct a key to
identify them by their shape and colour.
3. Collect some pictures of common farm animals found in Ghana and construct a key to
identify them.
4. Construct a key to identify a group of pupils in your class, using visible features only. e.g.
type of hair, gender, left or right-handed, how they fold their arms: left over right, or right
over left; ear lobes or no ear lobes; can they roll their tongues into a tube? Don’t use clothes
as an indicator, because they change from day to day.

Note that these examples all consist of paired statements. That need not be the case.

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You can have more than two statements if you wish, as in (3) below
The key below outlines the main groups of animals in the world;

Backbone-------------------------------------------- 2
1
No backbone ---------------------------------------- 5

Fur or hair ------------------------------------------- Mammals

2
No fur or hair ---------------------------------------- 3

Scales ------------------------------------------------- 4

3 Feathers ----------------------------------------------- Birds

Naked skin with no covering ----------------------- Amphibians (e.g. toads and frogs)

Wet/slimy scales ------------------------------------- Fish

4
Dry scales --------------------------------------------- Reptiles
5
This leads to all Invertebrates (animals without a backbone), a group consisting of a vast
number of different animals.

In the following week, we will look at the principles of classification of animals and plants.

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 Section 4: organisms

Week 7
Learning Indicator: Explain how lower organisms are classified into their taxonomic groups.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain How Simple or Lower Organisms are Classified into
their Taxonomic Groups

Background of classification in lower organisms

The scientific classification of living things, called taxonomy, dates back to ancient civilisations
such as those of the Greeks (as done by Aristotle) and Roman eras. They classified living things
based on their observable characteristics. However, it was not until the 18th century that the Swedish
botanist and physician, Carolus Linnaeus (Carl Linnaeus) developed a more comprehensive system
of classification. He introduced a hierarchical classification, thereby organising into groups called
taxa (singular is called taxon) based on their shared characteristics. He put organisms into seven taxa,
starting from kingdom, a broader and more general group, and ending on species (specific epithet),
which is made up of closely related organisms. He also introduced the binomial nomenclature, a
system that gives two names to an organism, the genus name and the species name. His system laid
the foundation of modern classification. Linnaeus is considered as the father of modern classification.
Simple (lower) organisms, like other living things, are classified using a variety of characteristics.
Examples of lower living things are prokaryotes (bacteria) and protoctists such as the Amoeba,
Euglena and Spirogyra. They also include fungi and some simple plants and animal forms.
Factors Used in Classification of Simple/Lower Organisms:
1. Morphology – This involves physical characteristics or features such as shape, size, colour and
structure of the organism.
2. Physiology – this is when living things are grouped based on the functions and processes (such
as metabolism, reproduction, growth and response to stimuli) occurring within them.
3. Genetic information – This is when living things are classified based on the differences
and similarities in their DNA and gene composition. This offers a more accurate and detailed
classification of living things.
4. Ecological information – This is the grouping of organisms based on their ecological roles
such as their habitat, behaviour and interactions with other living things.
5. Evolutionary relationships – This involves classification where closely related organisms are
grouped based on a common ancestry.

Forms of Classification
1. Hierarchical Classification – this is when living things are classified based on nested
orders from a broader group to a smaller and specific group. This is the most common type
of classification and was used by Linnaeus in classification. Thus, the modern hierarchical
taxa from broader groups to the more accurate group are Domain, Kingdom, Phylum/Division,
Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species (use the mnemonics, Dear King Philip Came Over for
Good Soul Or Do Kindly Please Choose One for Goodness Sake).
2. Cladistics – This type of classification is based on evolutionary relationships and puts organisms
into groups based on shared characteristics, regardless of traditional taxonomic ranks.
3. Phylogenetic Classification – This refers to the use of molecular data to reconstruct evolutionary
relationships between organisms

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Section 4: organisms

4. Numerical Classification – This refers to the use of quantitative data such as measurements and
statistical analysis to classify organisms based on their similarities.

Natural And Artificial Classification

Natural classification is based on natural relationships among living organisms. These natural
relationships include their evolutionary history and shared characteristics.
Artificial Classification is based on arbitrary standards chosen for convenience and is often based on
easily observable features.
Differences between Natural and Artificial Classification

Feature Natural Classification Artificial Classification

1. Bases of classification Based on natural relationships Arbitrary criteria by chosen by
such as shared characteristics humans
2. Criteria for classification Considers overall similarities Considers specific easily
and evolutionary history. observable features chosen
3. Flexibility Flexible as more information Less flexible and may not
about the organism becomes reflect true relationships among
available living things.
4. Purpose Aims to understand natural Often used for practical
relationships and diversity of purposes such as identification.
life.

Processes Involved in Classifying Organisms

1. Observation and collection of data on the characteristics of organisms (e.g. genetic, morphological
and behavioural data).
2. Comparing the observed characteristics among different organisms to identify patterns
(similarities and differences).
3. Sort or group organisms based on shared characteristics to form an initial classification.
4. Arrange groups into hierarchical orders from broad to specific.
5. Validate classifications through further analysis (e.g. through DNA analysis and comparative
anatomy) to ensure accuracy.
6. Document scheme of classification (e.g. description of taxa and criteria of classification).
7. Periodic review and revision of classification based on discoveries and evidence.
Importance Of Classifying Organisms
1. It provides a systematic way to organise the huge diversity of life.
2. It allows easy communication about organisms among biologists.
3. It allows the identification of endangered species and ecosystems for the conservation of
biodiversity.
4. Taxonomy offers a broader understanding of interactions among living things and energy
transmission among them through food chains and webs.
5. It allows biologists to predict the characteristic traits, behaviour and ecological interactions of
organisms.

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 Section 4: organisms

Learning Task

1. Discuss the background of classification, linking it to simple living organisms, and the
factors that are considered in classifying them. Limit content expectation to discussing the
background of classification briefly before Linnaeus and listing at least three factors used in
the process.
2. Discuss the various forms of classification among living things. Content should cover brief
discussions on at least three forms of classification and how these are done.
3. Examine the differences between natural and artificial classification of simple living things.
Limit content to listing and describing at least three basic differences between natural and
artificial forms of classification.
4. Analyse the steps to be taken to classify a newly discovered simple living organism, hence
discuss why it is necessary to classify living things. Limit content to discussing the major
steps that taxonomists follow to classify and name newly discovered species.

Pedagogies Exemplars
Consider The Following Activities:
Using experiential learning put learners in mixed-ability, gender-balanced groups to embark on tours
around the school community to observe and collect data on some simple living things (e.g. lower
plants and common invertebrates). This offers learners the direct experience of basic taxonomic
processes.
Use research-based learning to put learners in mixed-ability groups to research from textbooks and
available sources (e.g. audio and video documentaries) to understand the basis of classifying lower
living things into various taxa. Research exercises keep all learners focused on participating in
learning, as there are differentiated roles.
Use project-based learning groups to assign learners into mixed-ability groups, give each group a
project exercise on simple living things and their classification, and ask them to submit these for
feedback to be provided. This strategy ensures that every learner has a significant role to play and,
hence feels important in the lesson.

Key Assessment/DoK Levels

Level 1: Identify the key factors required in creating a system for the identification and classification
of simple living things.
Accept a list of at least three key factors required for identifying and classifying simple living things.
Level 2: Explain why you think it is important that a biology learner should have a good basis in
classifying living things.
Accept an explanation of why learners should have a good foundational understanding of taxonomy.
Level 3: discuss the strengths and limitations of natural and artificial classification.
Accept discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of natural and artificial classifications, using
factors such as the bases of classification, criteria of classification and flexibility.
Level 4: Collect samples (10-20 specimens) from your school community and group them under
their various taxa as far as possible, assigning reasons as to why a particular organism is placed in
a specific group. Accept project up to at least specimens and their identification and classification,
including reasons for their classification.

55
Section 4: organisms

Theme or Focal Area 2: Describe the Various Major Ranks or Taxa in Hierarchical
Classification
The major ranks/taxa/groups used in the hierarchical system of Classification, from the largest to the
smallest taxon are: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
1. Domain and Kingdom: Organisms are first categorized into one of the three domains: Bacteria,
Archaea, or Eukarya. Lower organisms typically fall under the Eukarya domain. Then, they are
grouped into one of the major kingdoms, such as Protista, Fungi, Plantae, or Animalia.
2. Phylum (Division for plants): Each kingdom is further divided into phyla or divisions (for
plants) based on major evolutionary differences. For example, the Animalia kingdom includes
phyla like Arthropoda (insects, spiders) and Chordata (vertebrates).
3. Class and Order: Within each phylum or division, organisms are grouped into classes and orders
based on more specific characteristics. For example, in the Animal Kingdom, cockroaches are
insects that belong to the order Blattodea.
4. Family and Genus: The next taxonomic levels are family and genus. Families group together
related genera. Genus is a more specific category that includes species that are closely related
to each other. For instance, the genus Panthera includes species like lions, tigers, and leopards.
5. Species: The smallest and most specific taxonomic group is species. Species consists of
individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. For example, the species name for
cashew is Anacardium occidentale.
Classify Amoeba Proteus as An Example of Single-Celled Organism
• Domain: Eukarya (It has cells with nuclei)
• Kingdom: Protista (It is a unicellular eukaryote)
• Phylum: Amoebozoa (Organism that moves by internal cytoplasmic flow)
• Class: Tubulinea (It is a tubular Amoeba)
• Order: Euamoebida (It is a type of tubulinea)
• Family: Amoebidae (It is a type of Amoeba)
• Genus: Amoeba (It belongs to the genus Amoeba)
• Species: Amoeba proteus (The specific species name)
Characteristics of Taxa
1. Organisms with shared characteristics are placed in the same taxa.
2. Numbers decrease down the taxon whilst shared characteristics increase down it.
3. Organisms put at the species group can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
4. The introduction of binomial nomenclature at the genus and species level ensures uniformity in
classification.

Learning Task

1. Describe the 8 taxa/ranks in modern classification with examples of common organisms.

Limit content expectation to naming and describing the 8 taxa of modern classification and
use particular organisms to show how they are grouped from the largest to the lowest taxa.
2. Explain how you will classify a named species of simple organism into its taxa. Limit
content expectation to understanding how simple living things are assigned the various taxa
from the largest to the smallest.
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 Section 4: organisms

Pedagogical Exemplars
Use experiential learning method to embark on a tour around the community to observe and collect
some common, harmless organisms: Learners obtain hands-on practical lessons through experiential
learning to understand lessons better.
Use inquiry-based learning groups to research from textbooks and at the library and other research
centres to obtain good insights into hierarchical classification and the various taxa within it. This
learning strategy makes the learner ambitious inquirer.
Use project-based learning to assign learners in to collect and identify some common simple organisms
that are easily assessable. Project-based learning ensures that all learners are involved in at least one
aspect of the project.

Key Assessment – DoK

Level 1: Define the term taxon, as related to classification in living things, and give examples of some
taxa and animals that belong to them.
Accept the definition of taxon as used in the classification of living things and give some examples of taxa.
Level 2: Describe the eight taxa identified in hierarchical classification.
Accept a list of the eight modern groups of classification by levels and describe each group.
Level 3: Discuss the concept of taxa and show how this makes classification of lower organisms
convenient to the biologists.
Accept the explanation of taxa and how this process makes it easier for biologists to work among
living things.
Level 4: Design a flowchart of the hierarchies in classification and select one common example to
identify each of the eight taxa it belongs.
Accept an annotated diagram of the various steps involved in classification and how specific organisms
are put under these groups.

Theme or Focal Area 3: Identify Key Features of the Binomial Nomenclature

Binomial Nomenclature
Organisms are given a unique scientific name using the binomial nomenclature, which combines the
genus name and the species name. For example, humans are Homo sapiens, where "Homo" is the
genus and "sapiens" is the species. This system was introduced and used by Carolus Linnaeus (Carl
Linnaeus) in the 18th century. The two-part names are represented in italics when in text or printed
material and are underlined separately when hand-written. The generic name begins with a capital
letter, followed by the species name (species epithet), which begins with a small letter. In some cases,
the organism may have been domesticated. In such instances, the organism is usually given a three-
part name. The first name is the genus, the second is the species, while the last is the sub-species
name. In texts and writing, the same rules are applied. The genus name begins with a capital letter,
while the species and sub-species names begin with small letters. One important usage of binomial
nomenclature is that it allows biologists to communicate smoothly about organisms with limited or
no barrier in communication.

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Section 4: organisms

Some common examples of organisms and their binomial names are provided below.
Some Important Animals in Ghana/Africa and Their Binomial Nomenclatures

Common name Genus name Species name Sub-species name

Chicken Gallus Gallus domestica
Goat Capra aegagrus hircus
Sheep Ovis aries --------
Dog Cannis Lupus familiaris
Rhesus monkey Macaca mulatta --------
Human Homo Sapiens --------

Some Important Crops Grown in Ghana and Their Nomenclatures

Common name Genus name Species name

Cassava/Manioc Manihot esculenta
Maize Zea mays
Rice Oryza sativa
Shea butter Vitellaria paradoxa
Cocoa Theobroma cacao

Factors That Influence Binomial Names Assigned to Species

1. Scientific accuracy; for example, the binomial of the giant panda was changed from the raccoon
family to the bear family (thus, based on genetic evidence.
2. Consistency and clarity in communication; this allows biologists from different regions and
specialties to communicate effectively.
3. International acceptance; for example, the gray wolf is internationally accepted as Cannis lupus.
4. Cultural and historical norms and origin of species; for example, the Ethiopian bamboo is named
as Oxytenanthera abyssinica, reflecting the historical name of Ethiopia (that is Abyssinia).
5. Taxonomic revision; for example, the discovery of a new species of flowering plant, Ethiopian/
African pepper) in the rainforests of Ghana led to the adoption of the binomial name, Xylopia
aethiopica to reflect its status as a distinctive species.
6. Formal nomenclature rules; for example, the binomial name for the lion, Pantera leo, follows
the rules in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

Significance Of Binomial Nomenclature.

1. Taxonomic ranks ensure organisms with shared characteristics are placed on the right taxa.
2. Numbers decrease down the taxon whilst shared characteristics increase.
3. Binomial nomenclature ensures uniformity in naming and identifying living things amongst
biologists the world over.

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 Section 4: organisms

Learning Task

1. Explain binomial nomenclature in taxonomy and give some common examples. Limit
content to explaining the term binomial nomenclature and give the binomial names of at
least three common living things.
2. Explain why some nomenclatures are two termed names but others may be three.Limit
content to explaining the concept of sub-species, resulting in some species bearing trinomial
names due to their sub-species names.
3. Discuss the factors that affect binomial names assigned to living things.Limit content to
discussing at least three factors to consider when giving binomial names to living things.
4. Describe the process leading to the discovery of some recently discovered living things and
`describe how they were classified and named binomially. Limit content to discussing the
naming of at least one new species discovered within the past five years.

Pedagogies Exemplars
Consider The Following Pedagogical Exemplars:
In experiential learning groups, learners in mixed-ability, gender-balanced groups embark on tours
around the school community and lab exercises to observe and collect specimens. Learners become
well acquainted through hands-on- learning activities.
In research-based learning groups, learners research from textbooks and available sources (e.g. audio
and video documentaries) to find and understand the binomial nomenclatures of these organisms.
Through research learning groups, learners develop the spirit of cooperation and become team players.
Using individual-based learning method, ask learners to individually collect at least 3 specimens
and find out their binomial names and why they were given those names. When learners take up
individualised research, they become independent and focused.
Where possible, use individual presentations to allow learners to present and share their findings to
boost public speech and confidence.

Key Assessment – DoK Levels

Level 1: Explain the term binomial nomenclature.
Accept a brief explanation of binomial nomenclature and how organism are assigned this name.
Level 2: Discuss the factors that affect the assigning of binomial names to new species, and give
example in each case.
Accept learners giving and explaining at least three factors that could influence how binomial names
are provided to living things.
Level 3: As a taxonomist, why will you prefer to use the binomial names of living things in your
study, and not their common names?
Accept discussion of the advantages and implications of binomial names over common names.

59
Section 4: organisms

Week 8
Learning Indicator: Discuss the life processes and economic importance of the micro-organisms:
Amoeba, Euglena and Spirogyra

Theme or Focal Area 1: Discuss the life processes and Economic Importance of
Amoeba proteus
Life Processes in A. proteus includes the following:
1. Nutrition: Amoeba is a heterotrophic organism, meaning it feeds on other organisms. It captures
food, such as bacteria and other small particles, by surrounding them with its pseudopods (false
feet) and forming a food vacuole. The food is then digested and absorbed within the cell.
2. Respiration: Amoeba undergoes cellular respiration to produce energy by breaking down food
molecules and using oxygen.
3. Reproduction: Amoeba reproduces asexually through a process called binary fission, where
the cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
4. Excretion: Waste products are eliminated from the cell through the cell membrane.
5. Response to Stimuli: Amoeba can respond to changes in the environment, such as moving
towards a food source or away from harmful substances.
The Economic Importance of A. Proteus Are:
1. They assist in nutrient recycling by consuming microorganisms such as bacteria and algae to
maintain ecological balance.
2. They serve as model organisms in scientific research in areas such as cytology, genetics and
microbiology in scientific.
3. They form an important component of the food chain of an ecosystem.
4. They serve as indicator species in a habitat, as the changes in amoebae populations are an
indication of interference in water quality levels.
5. Some species of Amoeba are parasitic and pathogenic and cause diseases to humans and
damage to crops.

Learning Task

1. Name at least three life processes of Amoeba and the special adaptations for these processes.
Limit content expectation to the identification at least three life processes in Amoeba, and
the adaptive features to perform these life processes.
2. Describe how Amoeba undergoes movement and nutrition. Limit content to describing how
Amoeba moves around in its habitat, and how it obtains it food in the water. Provide extra
support for struggling learners.
3. Discuss the economic importance of Amoeba in its habitat. Limit content to the beneficial
and harmful sides of the presence of Amoeba in a habitat.

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 Section 4: organisms

Pedagogical Exemplars
Teacher should consider the following activities;
Use task-based Learning for learners to observe the Amoeba under the light microscope from
temporary slides prepared from freshly fetched water from a ditch or pond; make diagrams of these in
sketch books. Learners acquire critical observation skills; learners develop their technological skills
through the use of the microscope.
Use talk for learning approach for learners in mixed-ability groups to Amoeba describe their
observations findings and record them. The more confident and outspoken learners should describe
their observation to reinforce understanding learners that learn slowly.
Use collaborative learning among learners to analyse microscope and video tape observations of
Amoeba and discuss results in their various groups. Open discussion learning allows all levels of
learners to share what they observe with others in the group, thereby building good communication
and confidence.

Key Assessment- DoK

Level 1: List at least three life processes of Amoeba, briefly describing each.
Level 2: Describe any two of the following processes in Amoeba: nutrition, movement, excretion,
reproduction
Level 3: Outline the economic importance of Amoeba in a named ecosystem.
Accept discussion on the beneficial and harmful aspects of Amoeba in any named ecosystem.

Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Life Processes and Economic Importance of
Euglena Viridis
Life Processes:
1. Nutrition: Euglena viridis is a unique organism as it can be both autotrophic (capable of
photosynthesis) and heterotrophic (eats other plants or animals).
2. Photosynthesis: Euglena contains chloroplasts which allow it to perform photosynthesis and
produce its food in the presence of sunlight.
3. Respiration: Euglena undergoes cellular respiration to derive energy from the breakdown of
food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
4. Reproduction: Euglena. reproduces asexually through binary fission, like Amoeba. It can also
undergo a form of sexual reproduction called conjugation, where genetic material is exchanged
between two individuals.
5. Excretion: Waste products are eliminated through the pellicle, a semi-rigid outer covering.
6. Response to Stimuli: Euglena. has a light-detecting eyespot that allows it to sense and move
towards light, enabling it to perform photosynthesis efficiently.
Economic Importance of E. viridis
Euglena sp. have potential economic significance due to their ability to perform photosynthesis and
produce a carbohydrate compound called paramylon. Paramylon has some health benefits, including
lowering blood cholesterol levels.

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Section 4: organisms

Learning Task

1. Describe the life processes of Euglena and the special adaptations for these processes. Limit
content expectation to the identification of three life processes in Euglena, and the adaptive
features to perform these life processes.
2. Describe the unusual nutrition of Euglena and how Euglena finds light for photosynthesis.
Limit content to describing how Euglena moves around in its habitat, and how it obtains its
food in the water. Provide extra support for struggling learners.
3. Discuss the economic importance of Euglena in its habitat. Limit content to the beneficial
and harmful sides of the presence of Euglena in its habitat.

Pedagogical Exemplars
The teacher should consider the following activities:
Use task-based ‘learning for learners’ to observe Euglena under the light microscope from temporary
slides prepared from freshly fetched water from a ditch or pond; make diagrams of these in sketch
books. Learners acquire critical observation and technical skills using the microscope.
Use ‘talk for learning’ approach for learners in mixed-ability groups to Euglena describe their
observations and findings and record them. The more confident and outspoken learners should
describe their observations to reinforce the understanding of learners who learn slowly.
Use collaborative learning among learners to analyse microscope and video tape observations of
Euglena and discuss results in their various groups.
Open discussion learning allows all levels of learners to share what they observe with others in the
group, thereby building good communication and confidence.

Key Assessment-DoK
Level 1: List three life processes of Euglena, and briefly explain each.
Accept three life processes with brief explanations of each.
Level 2: Describe at least one of the following processes in Euglena: nutrition, movement, excretion,
reproduction
Level 3: Describe the economic importance of Euglena in a named natural habitat
Accept description of the economic importance of Euglena in a named natural habitat
Level 4: Discuss whether Euglena or Amoeba is the more advanced protoctist, indicating the
parameters used for the comparison.
Accept a list of at least three life processes in these two organisms, with a comparison of each

Theme or Focal Area 3: Discuss the life processes and Economic Importance of
Spirogyra porticalis.
Life Processes:
1. Nutrition: Spirogyra porticalis is a photosynthetic organism. It contains chloroplasts that
enable it to synthesize its food using sunlight, carbon dioxide and water.
2. Respiration: Spirogyra porticalis undergoes respiration to obtain energy from the breakdown
of stored sugars.

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3. Reproduction: Spirogyra porticalis reproduces both asexually through fragmentation (breaking

into pieces that grow into new individuals) and sexually through the conjugation process.
4. Excretion: Waste products are eliminated through the cell membrane.
5. Response to Stimuli: Spirogyra porticalis exhibits a slow, passive movement in response to
environmental changes.
Economic Importance: Spirogyra porticalis plays a vital role in aquatic ecosystems as it contributes
to oxygen production through photosynthesis. Additionally, Spirogyra serve as a food source for
certain aquatic organisms, supporting the aquatic food chain. In research and education, Spirogyra
porticalis is a commonly studied organism for understanding plant cell structure.

Learning Task

1. Give the life processes of Spirogyra and the special adaptations for these processes. Limit
content expectation to the identification of at least three life processes in Spirogyra, and the
adaptive features to perform these life processes.
2. Describe how Spirogyra undergoes movement and nutrition. Limit content to describing
how Spirogyra how it manufactures food. Provide extra support for struggling learners.
3. Discuss the economic importance of Spirogyra in its habitat. Limit content to the benefits of
the presence of Spirogyra in its natural environment.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Use task-based ‘learning for learners’ to observe the Spirogyra under the light microscope from
temporary slides prepared from freshly fetched water from a ditch or pond; make diagrams of these
in their sketchbooks. Learners acquire critical observation skills; learners develop their technological
skills through the use of the microscope.
Use ‘talk for learning’ approach for learners in mixed-ability groups to describe their observations
and findings and record them. The more confident and outspoken learners should describe their
observations to reinforce the understanding of learners who learn slowly.
Use collaborative learning among learners to analyse microscope and video tape observations of
Spirogyra and discuss results in their various groups. Open discussion allows all levels of learners to
share what they observe with others in the group, thereby building confidence.

Key Assessment-DoK
Level 1: List at least three life processes of Spirogyra, and briefly explain each.
Accept at least three life processes with brief explanations of each.
Level 2: Describe at least one of the following processes in Spirogyra: nutrition, movement, excretion,
or reproduction
Level 3: Examine the economic importance of Spirogyra in a named natural habitat
Accept description of the economic importance of Spirogyra in any named natural habitat.
Level 4: Discuss whether Spirogyra or Euglena is the more advanced protoctist.
Indicate the parameters used in your analysis.
Accept a list of at least three life processes in these organisms as the indicators.

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Section 4: Review
In this Section, we have discussed the construction and use of biological keys and the
classification of organisms. We narrowed this down to hierarchical classification to describe
the eight taxa in modern classification to ensure that the learner acquires the relevant basic skills
and competencies in the learning attitude. We looked into binomial nomenclature, tracing its
brief history and dwelling more on some common examples important to the growth of Ghana’s
economy. We discussed how binomial names are assigned to living things considering factors
such as DNA, morphology and behaviour.

REFERENCES
1. Abbey, T. K., Alhassan, M. B., Ameyibor, K., Essiah, J. W., Fometu, E., & Wiredu, M.B.
(2008). Ghana association of science teachers integrated science for senior high schools.
Accra: Unimax MacMillan.
2. American Association for the Advancement of Science (1903). Science. Moses King. pp. 502–.
Retrieved 8 October 2010.­
3. Elective Biology curriculum, College Biology, Online Resources.
4. McFarland, D. (2000). "Preparation of pure cell cultures by cloning". Methods in Cell
5. Science. 22 (1): 63–66. doi:10.1023/A:1009838416621
6. Nyavor, C. B. & Seddoh, S. (2006). Biology for senior secondary schools. (3rd ed.). Accra-
North: Unimax MacMillan Education Ltd.
7. Oddoye, E. O. K., Taale, K. D., Ngman-Wara, E., Samlafo, V., & Obeng-Ofori, D. (2011). SWL
integrated science for senior high schools: Students book. Accra, Ghana; Sam-Woode Ltd.
8. Raven, P. H. & Johnson, G. B. (1999). Biology. (5th ed). New York. Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
9. Sarojini, T. R. (2009). Modern biology for senior secondary schools. (5th ed.). Onitsha-.
Nigeria: Africana First Publishers Ltd.
10. Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., Reece, J.B., & Campbell, N.A.
(2017). Campbell Biology. Eleventh Edition. New York, NY, Pearson Education Inc.

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 Section 5: ecology

SECTION 5: ECOLOGY

Strand: Diversity of Living Things and Their Environment

Sub-strand: Ecology

Content Standards:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of ecological terms and the significance of
ecological concepts.
2. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how the living and non-living components of
the environment interact to ensure the sustenance of life.
3. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the use of ecological devices and methods such
as the quadrat, pitfall trap, pooter, and Lincoln’s index to study populations of organisms.
4. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of methods of determining energy flow in an
ecosystem.
5. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of energy flow and efficiency in an ecosystem
with emphasis on ecological pyramids.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Apply the knowledge of ecological terms to describe the concept of ecology.
2. Explain how the living and non-living components of the environment interact to ensure
the sustenance of life.
3. Show how various simple ecological tools can be used to estimate the populations of
species in each habitat.
4. Explain the relevance of direct counting, gut examination and radioactive/tracer
methods of determining the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
5. Explain the methods of determining and comparing the efficiency of energy flow in
pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy.

INTRODUCTION AND SECTION SUMMARY

Ecology, a vital branch of Biology, is the study of the intricate relationships between living organisms
and their environment. It explores interactions among plants, animals, microorganisms and abiotic
factors like air, water and soil. Learners grasp ecological terms significance and understand how living
and non-living elements sustain life and employ tools like quadrats and methods such as Lincoln’s
index to estimate species populations. They learn to utilize ecological devices and methods to study
populations and explain energy flow in ecosystems through direct counting, gut examination and
radioactive techniques. Learners compare energy flow efficiency in pyramids of numbers, biomass,
energy and study ecosystem dynamics. This knowledge aids in developing sustainable agriculture
systems, resource management, biodiversity conservation, and addressing climate change, to ensure
the health and stability of ecosystems for future generations.

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The Section covers the following weeks:

Week 9:
a. The study of ecology, along with the various ecological terms.
b. Examples of different habitats
Week 10:
a. Interdependence of organisms in various habitats.
b. The outcome of the interdependence of living organisms in their environment.
Week 11:
a. Ecological tools and sampling techniques for estimating population size and density.
b. Direct counting, gut examination and radioactive/tracer methods of determining the flow of
energy in an ecosystem.
Week 12: The relevance of each of the methods used in determining energy flow in an
Ecosystem.

SUMMARY OF PEDAGOGICAL EXEMPLARS

This section advocates for practical learning experiences such as nature walks and field trips, along
with field and laboratory activities. It emphasizes pedagogical methods including individual-based and
experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, critical thinking and problem-solving. Communication,
collaboration, group-based learning, leadership and personal development are encouraged through
diverse roles within groups. Cultural identity and global citizenship are promoted by relating learned
concepts to various ecosystems worldwide. Digital literacy is fostered through the use of technology
to explore ecosystems. Safety precautions are stressed for both field and laboratory activities, with
support provided for learners with special educational needs. Overall, the approach aims to provide
learners with hands-on experiences, critical thinking skills, cultural awareness and technological
proficiency in ecology.

ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Assessments in this section are mainly formative oral questions and responses, quizzes and observation
checklists to guide learner understanding and progress. The assessments have been prepared to
accommodate all levels of the depth of knowledge (DoK) of learners. Complex assessments such as
projects, scientific writings and presentations and experiential design tasks have been given as mixed-
ability group work to deepen the understanding, critical and analytical thinking skills of all learners
where the highly proficient ones serve as support for the others. Additional support must be given to
learners with special education needs (SEN), through extended time, simplified instructions and less
complex alternative formats of assessments to support the SEN learner to also demonstrate his or her
knowledge and skills in ecology effectively. The assessments in this section suit the learning needs of
all learners, so each can fully appreciate ecology. With these diverse assessment modes, all learners
are assured of showcasing their understanding of ecology and its application in everyday life.

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Week 9
Learning Indicators:
1. Demonstrate knowledge of various ecological terms
2. Describe the importance of ecological concepts in named habitats.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain the Term Ecology and the Various Ecological Terms
Ecology: This is the branch of biology that deals with the scientific study of interactions between
organisms and their environment. It encompasses a wide range of terms and concepts that help us
understand the relationships and processes that occur within ecosystems. Here are some important
ecological terms explained.
Biosphere: This refers to the global sum of all ecosystems, encompassing all living organisms (biota)
and their interactions with each other and with the abiotic (non-living) components of Earth's surface,
such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Simply put it is the Earth and all its parts where
life exists.
Biomes: Biomes are large ecological areas characterized by distinctive climates, vegetation, and
animal life. Examples include tropical rainforests, deserts, grasslands, and tundra.
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms)
interacting with each other and their physical environment (abiotic factors) within a defined area.
Examples include forests, grasslands, coral reefs and ponds.
Biotic Factors: Biotic factors are all the living components of an ecosystem, including plants, animals,
fungi and micro-organisms. They interact with each other and the abiotic factors in the environment.
Abiotic Factors: Abiotic factors refer to all the non-living physical and chemical components of an
ecosystem, such as sunlight, temperature, water, soil, air, and nutrients. These factors influence the
distribution and abundance of living organisms.
Population: A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in a specific area and
time, capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
Community: A community is a group of different populations of organisms living and interacting in
the same ecosystem. It includes all the living organisms present in the area.
Habitat: A habitat is a specific place within an ecosystem where an organism or a population naturally
lives and thrives. It provides the necessary resources for their survival.
Niche: A niche refers to the role and position of an organism or population within its habitat. It
includes how the organism uses resources, interacts with other species, and responds to environmental
conditions.
Food Chain: A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which energy and nutrients are
transferred in an ecosystem. It shows the flow of energy from one organism to another based on their
feeding relationships.
Food Web: A food web is a more complex representation of feeding relationships within an
ecosystem. It consists of multiple interconnected food chains, showing the various pathways through
which energy and nutrients flow.

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Producer/Autotroph: Producers are organisms, mostly plants and some bacteria, capable of
producing their food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. They form the basis of the food
chain/web.
Consumer/Heterotroph: Consumers are organisms that obtain their energy and nutrients by
consuming other living organisms. They can be herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, or decomposers.
Herbivores: Herbivores are primary consumers that feed on plants and other producers.
Carnivores: Carnivores are secondary or tertiary consumers that primarily consume other animals.
Omnivores: Omnivores are consumers that eat both plants and animals.
Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that break down dead organic
matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Predators: Predators are organisms that hunt, kill, and consume other organisms (prey) for food.
They play a crucial role in regulating population sizes and maintaining ecosystem balance.
Prey: Prey refers to organisms that are hunted and consumed by predators. They are an essential part
of the food chain, serving as a source of energy for the predators.
Competition: Competition is the struggle between individuals or species for limited resources, such
as food, water, and shelter. It can be intraspecific (within the same species) or interspecific (between
different species).
Symbiosis: Symbiosis is a close and long-term interaction between two different species living
together. There are three main types of symbiosis: mutualism (both species benefit), commensalism
(one species benefits and the other is unaffected), and parasitism (one species benefits at the expense
of the other).
Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms and species within a particular area or on
Earth as a whole. High biodiversity is crucial for ecosystem resilience and stability.
Ecological Succession: Ecological succession is the process of change in the species composition
and community structure of an ecosystem over time. It occurs after disturbances like wildfires or in
abandoned fields.
Primary Succession: Primary succession occurs in a newly formed or bare area, such as a volcanic
island or glacial retreat, where no soil exists. Pioneer species (like lichens and mosses) colonize the
area, paving the way for other plant and animal communities.
Secondary Succession: Secondary succession happens in an area that has been disturbed but still
retains some soil, such as abandoned farmland or a cleared forest. It starts with colonizing species,
including grasses and shrubs, and progresses toward a mature ecosystem.
Ecological Footprint: The ecological footprint measures the human impact on the environment by
calculating the number of natural resources and land required to support an individual, community,
or country's lifestyle and consumption patterns.
Carbon Footprint: The carbon footprint is a specific type of ecological footprint that measures the
amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted because of human activities, such as
burning fossil fuels for energy.
Conservation: Conservation refers to the protection and sustainable use of natural resources,
biodiversity, and ecosystems to maintain their health and function for present and future generations.

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Learning Task

1. Explain the term ecology Limit content expectation to the definition or brief explanation of
ecology.
2. Explain at least four ecological terms Extend content expectation to correct explanation of
at least four ecological terms
3. Distinguish between any two closely related ecological terms. Encourage learners to
distinguish between closely related ecological terms.

Pedagogical Exemplars
The teacher should consider the activities below;
Individual-based learning: Learners individually research textbooks, the internet and other relevant
sources to understand the meaning of various ecological terms (e.g., ecology, biosphere, environment,
ecosystems, community, population, habitat, biome, biotic and abiotic factors).
Using group-based learning: learners in mixed-ability groups discuss the various ecological terms
and note down the correct explanation for each. Learners become analytical and critical thinkers
through systematic examination and differentiation of closely related ecological terms. Learners learn
to accept peers from different social, emotional, psychological and economic backgrounds. They also
learn from one another and accept the contributions of others during group work.
Critical thinking and problem-solving: Learners engage in thorough thinking as they examine the
importance of ecological concepts.
Communication and Collaboration: Learners express themselves and learn to tolerate others’ views
and collaborate during ecological tours and class discussions. Learners broaden their scope of
understanding of ecology and real-life situations. Learners become technologically inclined as they
acquire knowledge in the operation of laptops and projectors.

Key Assessment- DoK Levels

Level 1: Describe briefly the term ecology
Accept an explanation with any three keywords:
a. branch of biology
b. study
c. interaction between
d. living organisms
e. environment.
Level 1: List ecological terms you are familiar with and describe any two.
Accept at least any four terms listed and any two correctly described
Level 3: Distinguish between the following:
a. Environment and ecosystems
b. Niche and habitat
c. Biosphere and biome
d. Food chain and food web
e. Primary succession and secondary succession.
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Accept any three correctly differentiated terminologies

Theme or Focal Area 2: Identify Ecological Concepts in Some Major Habitats

1. Grasslands: Grasslands, whether they are prairies, steppes, or savannas, are important
ecosystems where grasses are the dominant vegetation. They support a variety of life, from
grass-eating herbivores to predators.
The concept of herbivory, where animals (like bison or gazelles) feed on plants (grasses), is key
to these ecosystems. These animals help control the grass population and provide a food source
for predators.
Fires, both natural and human-induced, are part of the disturbance regime in many grasslands.
They help maintain the ecosystem by preventing the invasion of tree species and triggering the
growth of fire-adapted grasses.
2. Deserts: Deserts are harsh and arid environments, and the concept of adaptations is prominent
here. Organisms in deserts have evolved specific adaptations to cope with extreme conditions
of temperature (heat and cold), scarcity of water, and other challenging conditions. There are
two types of deserts. These are hot and dry deserts and cold and dry deserts.
The water cycle is a critical concept in deserts, as water is scarce and the availability of this
precious resource dictates the distribution of life. Plants and animals have adapted to conserve
and utilize water efficiently. For example, cacti have thick, waxy skins and spines to reduce
water loss. Interactions between predators and prey are significant in desert ecosystems, as
resources are limited. Animals like snakes, scorpions and birds of prey have adapted specialized
hunting techniques to find and catch their prey.
3. Forests: Forests are rich in biodiversity. This habitat serves as a haven for many species of
plants and animals. The concept of a food web is crucial here, as forests host a complex network
of organisms that rely on each other for food. Decomposition is another vital ecological process
in forests. Dead plant and animal materials are broken down by decomposers like fungi and
bacteria. This process recycles nutrients back into the soil, promoting healthy plant growth.
Forests also exemplify the concept of ecological succession, as disturbances like wildfires can
lead to a gradual change in the types of species present in the forest over time.
Forest habitats are the epitome of biodiversity. The concept of species richness is evident here,
as these habitats host an incredible variety of plants, animals, and micro-organisms.
The intricate mutualistic relationships between various species are vital in tropical rainforests.
For instance, many plants depend on specific animals for pollination and seed dispersal, while
those animals rely on plants for food and shelter.
The rainforest canopy and forest floor exemplify vertical zonation, where different layers of
vegetation support various organisms, each adapted to its unique niche.
4. Freshwater bodies: Freshwater bodies such as lakes, rivers and ponds are characterized by
their low salt concentration.
The flow of water in these ecosystems influences the distribution of organisms and the movement
of nutrients and organic matter. Riparian zones, the transitional areas between land and water,
are vital components of freshwater ecosystems.
a. Food and shelter: These zones provide habitat, food and shelter for various species and
their vegetation plays a crucial role in stabilizing stream banks and preventing erosion.
Aquatic organisms rely on one another for various resources and services shaping complex
webs of interactions. These interactions include the following:
b. Provision of oxygen and food: For instance, algae and aquatic plants remove dissolved
carbon dioxide and provide oxygen and food for other organisms through photosynthesis.

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In turn, herbivorous species like certain fish and invertebrates graze on these primary
producers.
c. Predation and Decomposition: Predators such as larger fish and birds feed on herbivores,
regulating their populations. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi break down organic
matter, recycling nutrients essential for plant growth.
d. Symbiosis: Additionally, symbiotic relationships occur such as between certain fish species
and cleaning organisms that remove parasites. This interdependency ensures the flow
of energy and nutrients, maintains biodiversity and supports the overall health of river
ecosystems.
e. Anthropogenic activities: Eutrophication as a result of human activities can lead to harmful
algal blooms and disrupt the balance of the aquatic community. Other human activities
like pollution, habitat destruction and overfishing can disrupt these delicate balances,
threatening the stability of river ecosystems and the services they provide.
5. Arctic Tundra: The Arctic tundra is a cold and treeless biome found in the high-latitude
regions. The concept of permafrost is critical here, referring to permanently frozen ground.
Permafrost influences the availability of water and the types of plants that can grow in this
extreme environment. Climate change is a significant ecological concept impacting Arctic
tundra habitats. Warming temperatures can lead to the melting of permafrost, affecting plant
and animal communities and releasing stored carbon, potentially exacerbating global warming.
The concept of seasonal migration is prevalent in the Arctic tundra, where many animals, like
caribou and birds, undertake long-distance migrations to find food and suitable breeding grounds.
6. Mangroves: Mangroves are unique coastal ecosystems found in tropical and subtropical
regions. The concept of adaptations to saline environments is crucial here, as mangroves have
specialized root systems and mechanisms to cope with saltwater conditions. Mangroves provide
important nursery habitats for numerous fish species and other marine organisms. The complex
root systems offer protection and shelter, helping support diverse marine life. These ecosystems
act as buffer zones against storms and tidal surges, reducing the impact of coastal erosion and
protecting nearby communities and infrastructure.
7. Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth. The symbiotic
relationship between corals and algae (zooxanthellae) is central to the survival of these habitats.
The coral provides a safe home for the algae, and in return, the algae supply nutrients to the
coral through photosynthesis. Competition also plays a significant role in coral reef ecosystems.
Various species of fish, corals, and other organisms compete for limited resources, including
food, space and light.
Predator-prey dynamics are critical in coral reefs as well, keeping populations balanced and
preventing any one species from becoming too dominant.
8. Mountains: Mountain ecosystems encompass a wide range of habitats and altitudinal zones.
The concept of altitudinal zonation is prominent, as different elevations support distinct
vegetation and wildlife, with adaptations to varying temperatures and oxygen levels. Mountains
play a crucial role in maintaining water supply as they capture and store water, which gradually
releases downstream, contributing to river flow and supporting downstream ecosystems and
human communities.
9. Glacial habitats: Glacial environments are characterized by vast expanses of ice and snow,
with extreme cold temperatures and minimal vegetation cover. Glacial retreat is an important
ecological concept in mountainous regions affected by climate change. As glaciers melt and
recede, they impact water availability, ecosystems, and human activities downstream. Despite
the harsh conditions of extremely cold temperatures, glaciers support a variety of life forms,
including microorganisms, algae, invertebrates, and occasionally larger animals like birds and

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mammals. Glacial habitats also include features such as glacial lakes, ice caves, and icefalls,
which contribute to the overall biodiversity of these ecosystems.
10. Wetlands: Wetlands are valuable ecosystems that bridge the gap between terrestrial and
aquatic habitats. The concept of hydrology is essential here, as wetlands are characterized
by their unique water flow and hydrological patterns, which influence the types of plants and
animals that can thrive in these areas. Wetlands also demonstrate the concept of biogeochemical
cycling, where various elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, are cycled through
the ecosystem. Wetlands act as natural filters, purifying water and removing excess nutrients,
helping to maintain water quality. The migration of various bird species is a notable ecological
concept within wetlands. Many wetlands serve as crucial stopover sites for migratory birds
during their long-distance journeys, providing essential rest and feeding areas.

Learning Task

1. Identify some ecological concepts in the following habitats:

a) Grasslands
b) Forests
c) Freshwater bodies
d) Mangroves
e) Coral Reefs
f) Mountains
g) Wetlands
h) Arctic Tundra
i) Glacial habitats
j) Deserts

Pedagogical Exemplars
The teacher should consider the activities below;
Observational and experiential-based learning: In mixed ability, gender-responsive groups and
learners under the guide of the teacher, undertake a nature walk on the school compound to observe
the activities of living things within the community (insects serving as agents of pollination, fungi
and bacteria causing decomposition, and trees providing shade for animals). Learners develop critical
competencies such as teamwork, being very observant and improving their communication skills by
working in groups and sharing ideas. Teacher should give support to learners with special learning
needs and a fear of wildlife.
Communication and collaboration: Learners discuss in their groups how living things are supported
by the non-living components of an ecosystem and depend on one another for their survival. Learners
also develop global citizenship by comparing the interaction of biotic and abiotic components learned
in their ecosystems and other ecosystems in other parts of the world.

Key Assessment- DoK Levels

Level 1: List some ecological interactions found in a named habitat.
Accept at least four ecological interactions

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Level 3: Discuss the interactions of biotic and abiotic factors within an ecosystem.
Accept at least four named interactions of biotic and abiotic factors in a named habitat.
Level 4: Study the vegetative map of Ghana and discuss the ecological factors that account for the
observed distribution.
Accept reasons for three observed vegetative distributions.

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Week 10
Learning Indicators:
1. Analyse the interdependency of living organisms in their named habitats.
2. Explain the outcome of the interdependency of living organisms in their environment.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Interdependency of Living Organisms in Various Ecological

Habitats
The interdependency of living organisms refers to the reliance of different species on each other
for survival and well-being within an ecosystem. This interdependence is a fundamental aspect of
ecological relationships and plays a crucial role in shaping the structure and functioning of ecosystems.
It is a central feature of ecosystems and shapes the life patterns and population dynamics within them.
Below are some examples observed in different habitats.
1. Forests: The forests exhibit a high degree of interdependency due to their extraordinary
biodiversity. Plants, animals and decomposers in these ecosystems are intricately linked through
various ecological relationships such as:
a. Primary productivity and shelter: In forest ecosystems, trees play a foundational role.
They provide habitats, oxygen and food for a wide variety of organisms. Many bird and
insect species rely on specific tree species for nesting sites or food sources.
b. Provision of carbon dioxide and pollination: The animals, in turn, provide the trees with
the carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis. Many flowering plant species in forests
rely on specific pollinators for successful reproduction. For example, certain orchid species
depend on specific insect species for pollination.
c. Dispersal: Some animals, like frugivorous (fruit-eating) birds and mammals, are important
seed dispersers for many plant species. They eat fruits and then disperse the seeds through
their droppings, aiding in the dispersal and regeneration of plants across the rainforest.
d. Competition for light: Forest trees and climbers engage in fierce competition for light.
Trees dominate the upper canopy, shading out competitors below. Climbers, equipped with
strategies like rapid growth and flexible stems, exploit gaps to reach sunlight in the crowded
forest’s middle store. Undergrowth species, adapted to low light conditions, thrive beneath
the canopy. This competition drives vertical stratification, shaping the forest's diverse
structure and species composition.
e. Decomposition: Decomposers, such as fungi and bacteria, play a vital role in breaking down
dead organic material, converting it back into nutrients that plants can use, which shows the
dependency of plants on these organisms. The cycle of life and death in rainforests is highly
dependent on these decomposers.
f. Predation: Predators and their prey are interdependent, as predators control the population
of prey species, preventing overgrazing or overpopulation, which could negatively
impact the ecosystem.
g. Symbiosis: The forest harbours diverse symbiotic relationships crucial for ecosystem
balance. Mycorrhizal fungi form mutualistic associations with tree roots, aiding in nutrient
uptake and water absorption. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root nodules of certain
plants provide essential nutrients, benefiting both parties. Additionally, epiphytes, such
as mosses, ferns, and orchids, establish symbiotic relationships with trees, using them as
support structures while obtaining moisture and nutrients from the air and debris. Parasitic
interactions also occur; for instance, mistletoe extracts nutrients from host trees.

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2. Wetlands: Wetlands are home to specialized plant species like cattails and reeds, which can
tolerate water-saturated soils.
a. Nutrition and shelter: These plants provide food and habitat for various animal species,
such as insects, birds and mammals.
Many bird species are dependent on wetlands for breeding and as stopover sites during
migration. Some fish and amphibians also rely on the temporary pools created in wetlands
for spawning.
b. Decomposition: Wetlands also host numerous decomposer organisms, which breaks down
dead plant material and recycle nutrients through the ecosystem. These nutrients support
the growth of algae and other primary producers, which form the base of the food web in
these systems.
In each of these habitats, the various species depend on each other and the specific conditions
of their environment. Changes or disruptions to any part of these ecosystems, whether due to
human activity or natural events, can have significant impacts due to this interdependency.
3. Grasslands
a. Grazing: In grassland ecosystems, the relationship between herbivores and grasses is a
classic example of interdependency. Herbivores, such as zebras and bison, depend on grasses
as their primary food source. The grazing activities of these herbivores help maintain the
health and biodiversity of grassland habitats by preventing any single plant species from
dominating the landscape.
b. Predation: Grasslands are also home to many predators, such as lions and wolves, which
are dependent on herbivores for their survival. The presence of predators helps regulate
herbivore populations, ensuring that their grazing activities do not over-consume the
vegetation.
c. Symbiosis: Additionally, grassland ecosystems are also interconnected with the soil micro-
organisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi, which form symbiotic relationships with plant roots.
These fungi help plants absorb nutrients, particularly phosphorus, from the soil, making
them crucial for the growth and health of grasses.
4. Arctic Tundra: In the harsh environment of the Arctic tundra, interdependency is evident in
the relationships between species and their adaptation to extreme conditions.
a. Symbiosis: Arctic plants, like Arctic willow and mosses, grow low to the ground, forming a
dense carpet to protect against the cold temperatures and harsh winds. These plants provide
food for herbivores like lemmings and caribou.
b. Predation: The Arctic fox is a predator in this ecosystem, relying on small mammals like
lemmings for sustenance.
c. Migration: The tundra also hosts numerous migratory bird species that rely on the region's
abundant insect population for food during their breeding seasons.
5. Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are one of the most biodiverse habitats on the planet. Here, the
interdependency of organisms is highly complex.
a. Symbiosis: Corals and algae (zooxanthellae) have a symbiotic relationship. The corals provide
the algae with a protected environment and the algae provide energy-rich foods in return.
6. River: Aquatic organisms rely on one another for various resources and services, shaping
complex webs of interactions.
a. Provision of oxygen and food: For instance, algae and aquatic plants provide oxygen and
food for other organisms through photosynthesis. In turn, herbivorous species like certain
fish and invertebrates graze on these primary producers.
b. Predation and decomposition: Predators such as larger fish and birds feed on herbivores,
regulating their populations. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi break down organic
matter, recycling nutrients essential for plant growth.

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c. Symbiosis: Additionally, symbiotic relationships occur such as between certain fish

species and cleaning organisms that remove parasites. This interdependency ensures the
flow of energy and nutrients, maintains biodiversity and supports the overall health of river
ecosystems.
d. Anthropogenic activities: Human activities like pollution, habitat destruction and
overfishing can disrupt these delicate balances, threatening the stability of river ecosystems
and the services they provide.

Learning Task

1. Describe the interdependency of living things in a named habitat.

2. List the forms of the interdependency of living things in a named habitat.

Pedagogical Exemplars
The teacher should consider the activities below;
Observational and experiential-based learning: In mixed ability, gender-responsive groups,
learners, under the guide of the teacher undertake a nature walk on the school compound to identify
some of the interdependency of living things within the community such as pollination, predation,
decomposition, provision of food and oxygen through photosynthesis, parasitism other symbiotic
associations, recycling of nutrients by decomposers and several feeding relationships.
Learners develop critical competencies such as teamwork, being very observant and improving their
communication skills by working in groups and sharing ideas. Teacher should give support to learners
with special learning needs and a fear of wildlife.
Communication and collaboration: In mixed ability, gender-responsive groups, learners, identify
and discuss some of the interdependency of living things in the school’s ecosystem as they undertake
the nature walk on the school compound.

Key Assessment- DoK Levels

Level 1: Name a given habitat and make a list of five living things and five non-living things that
interact together and are interdependent on one another.
Accept the name of the habitat and at least give three living and three non-living things with their
interactions.
Level 3: Predict at least three possible consequences of each of the following human activities on
ecological systems.
a. Illegal mining
b. Bush fires
c. Disposal of sewage into water bodies.
Accept any two correctly predicted possible consequences in each case.
Level 3: Construct a food chain and a food web and use each to demonstrate how living things in an
ecosystem depend on one another for their survival.
Accept any correctly constructed food chain and food web.
Level 4: Mr Manu observed that his maize yield decreased yearly over a four-year farming period.
He was advised to apply organic manure and carry out irrigation, after which he had a good harvest.

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Describe the kind of interactions that occurred between the living and non-living things that allowed
a change in the soil components and made way for a good harvest.
Accept any three correctly described interactions in the soil that made way for the good harvest.

Theme or Focal Area 2: Discuss the Outcome of the Interdependency of Living

Things in Their Environment
The outcome of the interdependency of living organisms in their environment is the complex web
of life that sustains Earth's ecosystems, providing habitats for diverse species and essential services
for both nature and humanity. It is a delicate balance that sustains the functioning of ecosystems and
ultimately supports life on Earth. Recognizing and respecting these interdependencies is fundamental
for the conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems.
Some key outcomes include the following:
1. Ecological Balance: Interdependency helps maintain ecological balance by regulating population
sizes and preventing any one species from dominating an ecosystem. For example, predators
keep prey populations in check, preventing them from overgrazing or over-reproducing, which
could disrupt the balance of the ecosystem.
2. Biodiversity: Interdependency promotes biodiversity, as different species rely on each other for
survival. This diversity enhances ecosystem resilience and stability, making it more adaptable
to environmental changes.
3. Nutrient Cycling: Living organisms are interconnected through food webs and nutrient cycles.
Decomposers break down dead organic matter, releasing nutrients back into the environment for
other organisms to use. This cycling of nutrients is essential for the productivity of ecosystems.
4. Ecosystem Services: Interdependency supports the provision of ecosystem services essential
for human well-being, such as pollination, water purification and soil formation. These services
are often the result of complex interactions between multiple species within an ecosystem.
5. Adaptation and Evolution: The interdependency of organisms drives natural selection and
adaptation over time. Species evolve traits and behaviours that allow them to better exploit
resources or avoid predation, leading to a continuous coevolutionary process.
6. Resilience: Ecosystems with higher levels of interdependency tend to be more resilient to
disturbances. When one species is affected by a disturbance, the effects can ripple through the
ecosystem, but the interconnectedness often allows for recovery and stability over time.
7. Human Impact: Understanding the interdependency of living organisms is crucial for managing
human impacts on ecosystems. Human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, and
climate change can disrupt these interdependencies, leading to ecosystem degradation and loss
of biodiversity.

Learning Task

1. List the outcome of the interdependency of living things in an ecosystem.

2. Describe briefly the outcome of the interdependency of living things in an ecosystem.
3. Explain how negative human activities disrupt the stability of a named ecosystem.

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Pedagogical Exemplars
The teacher should consider the activities below;
Observational and experiential-based learning: In mixed ability, gender-responsive groups,
learners, under the guide of the teacher undertake a nature walk on the school compound to identify
the results of the interdependency of living things within the community such as the formation of
fruits, maintenance of ecological balance, recycling of nutrients by decomposers and biodiversity.
Learners develop critical competencies such as teamwork, being very observant and improving their
communication skills by working in groups and sharing ideas. Teacher should give support to learners
with special learning needs and a fear of wildlife.
Communication and collaboration: In mixed ability, gender-responsive groups and learners identify
and discuss some of the outcomes of the interdependency of living things in the school’s ecosystem
as they undertake the nature walk on the school compound.

Key Assessment- DoK

Levels
Level 1: List five outcomes of the interdependency of living things in their environment.
Accept any three correctly listed outcomes of interdependency.
Level 2: Explain briefly the following:
a. Ecological balance
b. Nutrient cycling
c. Ecosystem service
Accept any two correctly explained outcomes of the interdependency of living things in their
environment.
Assessment level 4: Discuss how three forms of human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution
and overexploitation disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems.
Accept any two forms of human activities that disrupt the balance of an ecosystem discussed correctly.

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Week 11
Learning Indicator: Ecological tools and sampling techniques for estimating population size and
density.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Identifying the Various Ecological Tools and How They are
Used to Estimate Population Size and Density.
Ecological tools are instruments or methods used by ecologists and environmental scientists to study,
monitor, manage, and conserve ecosystems and biodiversity. These tools help researchers gather data,
analyse patterns, and make informed decisions regarding ecological management and conservation
efforts. Some common ecological tools and their uses include the following:
1. Quadrat: A quadrat is a square or rectangular frame used to sample vegetation and study plant
and animal populations. It helps to estimate abundance, density, and species composition in a
specific area.
2. Transect: A transect is a straight line or path used to study changes in ecological parameters
across a piece of land. Transects are used to gather data on vegetation, animal populations, or
environmental factors like temperature and moisture.
3. A pitfall trap: It is a simple trap used to capture small ground-dwelling animals, such as
insects, spiders, and other invertebrates. It consists of a container buried in the ground with its
rim at ground level, and a cover is often placed over the top to prevent rainwater filling it up.
4. Pooter: A pooter, also known as a suction sampler, is a small device used to collect very small
invertebrates without harming them. It consists of two tubes—one is used to gently suck air,
and the other tube collects the insect into a container.
5. Secchi disk: This is a simple device used to measure water transparency or turbidity in bodies
of water, particularly rivers, lakes or oceans. It consists of a circular disk, typically with four
white and black alternating quadrants, attached to a rope or pole. The disk is lowered into
the water until it disappears from view, and the depth at which it vanishes is recorded. This
measurement indicates water clarity and can be used to monitor changes in water quality or
assess the effects of pollution.
6. Sweep net: A sweep net is a tool used to collect small organisms from vegetation or water
in ecological surveys. It consists of a mesh net attached to a handle, which is swept through
vegetation or water to capture insects and other arthropods. Sweep nets are commonly used in
studies of insect biodiversity, population dynamics, and pest management.
7. Butterfly net: A butterfly net, as the name suggests, is a specialized net used to catch butterflies
and other flying insects. It typically consists of a long handle attached to a large, conical-
shaped net with a fine mesh. Butterfly nets are used by researchers, collectors, and enthusiasts
to capture butterflies for scientific study, identification, and conservation purposes. They are
often used in field surveys to assess butterfly populations, monitor species diversity, and study
butterfly behaviour and ecology.
8. GPS (Global Positioning System): GPS is used to precisely locate sampling sites, track animal
movements, map habitat types and monitor changes in land cover and land use patterns.
9. Water Quality Testing Kits: Water quality testing kits are used to measure parameters such as
pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, nutrient levels, and pollutants in aquatic ecosystems to assess
water quality and identify sources of pollution.

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10. Camera Traps: Camera traps are motion-activated cameras used to monitor wildlife
populations, study animal behaviour, estimate population densities, and assess the effectiveness
of conservation measures.
Lincoln Index: The Lincoln Index is a method used in ecology to estimate the population size of
a species, particularly when individuals are difficult to observe directly. It's named after Frederick
Charles Lincoln, an American biologist who developed the method in the early 1930s. It is based
on the capture-mark-recapture technique. The process involves capturing and marking or tagging a
sample of the population (e.g., with a unique identifier), releasing them back into the environment, and
allowing enough time for complete mixing of individuals. After, the complete mixing of individuals
in the population, another sample of individuals is captured from the same population. This second
sample includes both marked (previously captured) and unmarked individuals.
Calculation: The Lincoln Index uses the proportion of marked individuals recaptured in the second
sample to estimate the total population size.
The formula is given as: N = (M×C)/R
N =the estimated population size.
M = the number of individuals initially marked and released.
C =the total number of individuals captured in the second sample.
R =the number of marked individuals recaptured in the second sample.
Assumptions: The Lincoln Index assumes that the marking does not significantly affect the
behaviour or survival of the marked individuals, that the population is closed (no births, deaths, or
migration during the study period), and that individuals have an equal probability of being captured
on each occasion.

Learning Task

1. Identify and discuss the importance of at least five ecological tools used in the estimation of
the population size of organisms in a habitat.
2. Describe how the named ecological tools can be used to estimate the population size of
different plant and animal species.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Group learning: Watch a video or listen to a presentation on the estimation of population size and
density of organisms in a habitat using the Lincoln Index and other tools. Submit a written report on
the steps involved in the process.
Project-based learning: Select areas in the school compound or nearby community to estimate the
population of various organisms using quadrats, pitfall traps, sweep nets and/or pooters.
The teacher should consider the following activities;
In a mixed ability, gender-sensitive and all-inclusive group employ talk for learning to help learners
identify and discuss the importance of at least five ecological tools used in the estimation of population
size in a named habitat.
Pair strategic partners (more confident learners) with less able learners to provide needed support
with the task at hand. Give extra time for struggling students to finish the task and to enable advanced
learners to think through the task at hand deeply.

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Use a gamified program or an audiovisual aid (resource) and allow learners to watch /listen to a short
video/audio on how to use a named ecological tool to estimate the population size of organisms in a
named habitat using the Lincoln index.
Problem-based learning: Select areas in the school compound or nearby community to estimate the
population of various organisms using a quadrant, pitfall trap, sweep net and pooter.
Allow learners to continue working in groups and present their findings through the following means;
a. Written piece
b. Drawing
c. Diagram
d. Presentation or
e. Multimedia.
NB: The teacher must ensure the selected area is safe for all students, and must be present throughout
the fieldwork to supervise learners.
Provide special support for learners with special learning needs in terms of tools provided and
advancements in learning space to accommodate physically challenged students.

Key Assessment-Dok
Level 1: What is the primary function of a quadrat in ecological studies?
Level 2: Describe a pitfall trap and what it is used for.
Level 2: Describe how the pooter is used in estimating the population of organisms.
Limit content expectation to the identification, description and estimation of population size by using
a quadrat, pitfall trap and pooter respectively.
Assessment level 3: Describe how you will use a named ecological tool to estimate the population
size and species diversity effectively.
Extend content expectation to the description of the sampling technique used in the estimation of
population size.
Assessment level 3: After random sampling, 200 catfish are captured tagged and released. A week
later,180 untagged and 20 tagged catfish were captured. Use the Lincoln index to estimate the total
catfish population.
Accept oral/written responses for the procedure in using the Lincoln index to estimate the population
size of catfish.

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Week 12
Learning Indicator(s): Distinguish between the direct counting, gut examination and radioactive/
tracer methods of determining the flow of energy in an ecosystem

Theme or Focal Area 1: Explain Direct Counting, Gut Examination and Radioactive
or Tracer Methods of Determining the Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem
Direct counting, gut examination, and radioactive/tracer methods are different techniques used to
study and determine the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Each method has its relevance and provides
valuable insights into the interactions between different organisms and the energy transfer within the
ecosystem.
1. Direct counting: Direct counting involves the direct observation and counting of organisms
within an ecosystem. This method is particularly useful for studying simple ecosystems or
specific populations within a larger ecosystem. For example, researchers may count the number
of individuals of different species in a specific area, such as counting the number of herbivores,
carnivores, and producers in a grassland. By knowing the population sizes, scientists can
estimate the flow of energy from one trophic level to another.
Limitations: It's time-consuming, may not capture seasonal variations and might not be feasible
for very small or elusive organisms.
2. Gut examination: Gut examination involves analysing the stomach contents of organisms to
determine their diet and feeding habits. It is especially relevant for understanding the flow of
energy in food chains and food webs. By examining the gut contents of predators or consumers,
researchers can identify the prey or food items that contribute to their energy intake. This
information helps in understanding the pathways of energy transfer between different trophic
levels in the ecosystem.
Limitations: It only reveals recent feeding activity and may not provide an accurate picture of
the entire predator's diet. Additionally, some prey might be difficult to identify from partially
digested remains.
3. Radioactive/tracer methods: Radioactive or tracer methods involve using isotopes or tagged
substances to track the movement of energy through an ecosystem. In this technique, a specific
isotope or tracer is introduced into the ecosystem, and its movement is monitored as it passes
through different organisms or trophic levels. This method is highly precise and provides
detailed information on energy transfer rates and pathways. It allows researchers to study
complex interactions and the fate of energy within the ecosystem.
Limitations: Requires specialised equipment and expertise to handle radioactive materials.
Additionally, not all organisms readily take up the tracers.
The best method depends on the specific ecosystem, research question, and resources available.
a. Direct counting is often used for initial assessments or in simpler ecosystems.
b. Gut examination works well for studying predator-prey interactions.
c. Radioactive/tracer methods offer a more precise way to track energy flow through complex
food webs.
Ecologists often combine these methods for a more comprehensive understanding of energy
flow in an ecosystem.

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Learning Task

a) Identify at least two different techniques used to study and determine the flow of energy
in an ecosystem. NB: Limit content expectation to identification of at least two techniques
used to study and determine the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Guidance should be given
to learners who may struggle with the identification of different techniques used to study
and determine the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
b) Describe at least two different techniques used to study and determine the flow of energy in
an ecosystem. Limit content expectation to description of two different techniques used to
study and determine the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
c) Describe the three techniques used to the study and determine the flow of energy in an
ecosystem and provide justification for your selection of one of the methods as the best
technique. This task is an enrichment task for learners who show a high level of understanding
of the concept. Extend content expectation to description of three techniques used to the
study and determination of the flow of energy in an ecosystem and justification for selecting
one of the methods as the best technique.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Teacher should consider the following activities;
Using shower thoughts: Learners identify at least two techniques used to study and determine the
flow of energy in an ecosystem. Support should be given to learners who may struggle with the
identification of different techniques used to study and determine the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
Orally, learners explain at least two different techniques used to study and determine the flow of
energy in an ecosystem. Acknowledge learners’ progress and provide support where applicable.
Using inquiry-based learning strategy: Ask learners in small mixed-ability groups to research or
listen to presentations on the various methods of determining energy flow in an ecosystem.
Using radio reporter strategy: Ask learners to describe the three techniques used to the study and
determine the flow of energy in an ecosystem and provide justification for selecting one of the methods
as the best technique to be used.

Key Assessment- DoK Levels

Level 1: Identify three different techniques used to study and determine the flow of energy in an
ecosystem.
Accept identification of at least two different techniques used to study and determine the flow of
energy in an ecosystem
Level 3: Briefly describe each of the methods used in determining energy flow in a named ecological
habitat. A response on at least two techniques used to study and determine the flow of energy should
be accepted from learners.

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Section 5: ecology

Learning Indicator: Explore the methods of determining pyramids of numbers, biomass and
energy, and compare the efficiency of energy flow in them.

Theme or Focal Area 1: Determination of Ecological Pyramids and Comparing the

Efficiency of Energy Flow in Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass and Energy.
1. Pyramid of Numbers: This method represents the number of organisms at each trophic level
in an ecosystem. It is the simplest method and involves counting the number of individuals at
each trophic level and arranging them in a pyramid shape. In a typical pyramid of numbers,
the number of individuals usually decreases with increasing trophic levels. This reflects the
decreasing energy available as one moves up the food chain, due to energy losses through heat,
waste materials and the fact that not all parts are consumed by organisms at higher trophic
levels. Pyramids of numbers are not always true pyramids, because of the variation in size of
the organisms involved. Compare an oak tree with aphids and the insects that eat aphids.
2. Pyramid of Biomass: The pyramid of biomass represents the total dry weight (usually) of the
organisms at each trophic level. Biomass is a more accurate representation of energy available
since it takes into account the actual total mass of living organisms, rather than the numbers of
organisms. In a pyramid of biomass, the biomass always decreases at each trophic levels. This
biomass pyramid provides a better indication of energy flow efficiency than the pyramid of
numbers. Energy loss can be typically 90% or more from one level to the next.
3. Pyramid of Energy: The pyramid of energy represents the actual flow of energy through each
trophic level in an ecosystem. It quantifies the amount of energy transferred from one trophic
level to the next. The energy value is usually determined using the calorimetry method. This
involves measuring the heat released or absorbed during chemical reactions, including the
combustion of organic matter. By burning samples of biomass collected from different trophic
levels and measuring the heat produced. By this, one can estimate the energy content of the
biomass. This type of pyramid is always a proper upright pyramid. The pyramid of energy
offers the most accurate representation of energy flow through an ecosystem, but is the most
difficult to measure.

Learning Task

1. What does the pyramid of numbers represent in an ecosystem? Limit content expectation to
the definition of the pyramid of numbers.
2. Define biomass and explain its significance in ecological studies. Extend content expectation
to the definition of biomass and its importance in ecological studies.
3. Describe the direction of energy flow in a pyramid of energy. Extend content expectation to
the discussion on the direction of energy flow in the pyramid of energy.

Pedagogical Exemplars
Group-based Learning: Watch a video or a presentation on the methods of determining the various
ecological pyramids. Using field observations, allow students to observe and count different organisms
at different locations of the school compound to construct their own pyramid of numbers, biomass,
and energy.

Key Assessment-DoK
Level 1: What does the pyramid of numbers represent in an ecosystem? Accept the correct definition
for the pyramid of numbers.
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Level 1: Define biomass and explain its significance in ecological studies. Accept the definition of
biomass and explanations of the importance of biomass.
Level 2: Discuss the potential reasons for an inverted pyramid of numbers in an aquatic ecosystem.
Level 2: Explain why the pyramid of energy is always upright and what factors contribute to the
inefficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.
Level 3: How will human activities, such as deforestation or overfishing, affect the shape and stability
of a named ecological pyramid in an ecosystem?

Section 5: Review
In this section, learners have covered fundamental aspects of ecology, including defining key
terms such as ecology, ecosystem, habitat and factors like biotic and abiotic elements. They
also identified and studied a variety of ecological habitats. Weeks nine through to twelve saw
a progression from understanding interdependency in habitats to studying ecological tools for
population estimation and methods for determining energy flow within ecosystems. Discussions
in week twelve focused on the relevance of different energy flow determination methods, and
energy flow. These lessons equip learners to understand ecological concepts as they apply to
different habitats. Such skills are vital for advising ecologists and contributing to environmental
management, particularly in Ghana. Moreover, the acquired knowledge and skills prepare
learners for further studies and eventual integration into the workforce, enhancing their capability
to analyse and contribute to ecological research and environmental conservation efforts.

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Biology