Avestia Publishing

International Journal of Civil Infrastructure (IJCI)

Volume 7, Year 2024
ISSN: 2563-8084
DOI: 10.11159/ijci.2024.001

On The Compression Behaviour of Unsaturated Silty

Tailings: An Experimental Investigation
Gianluca Bella1, Dorota Czerski2, Christian Ambrosi2, Manuel Lüscher2, Matteo Giani1-2
1 Pini
Group SA, Department of Tunnels and Underground Works
Via Besso 7, Lugano, Switzerland, 6900
[Link]@[Link]
2 University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI)

Via Flora Ruchat-Roncati 15, Mendrisio, Switzerland, 6850

[Link]@[Link], [Link]@[Link], [Link]@[Link], [Link]@[Link]

Abstract - A detailed characterization of tailings under 1. Introduction

unsaturated conditions is essential to reproduce their stress- Tailings storage facilities (TSF) are geotechnical
strain response and represents a key tool for assessing reliable structures used to store water and wastes that come as
stability analysis of tailing dams both during the design phase,
by-products from mining activities. Mechanical and
the mining activities, and after operations cease. Given these
aspects, this research shows the main results of an chemical processes are used to grind up rock into fine
experimental campaign carried out on quarzitic tailings to sand to extract valuable minerals or metals from the
analyse their hydro-mechanical behaviour under unsaturated patent ore. All the uneconomic and unrecoverable
conditions. The investigation consists of oedometer remnants from this process are waste, also known as
compression tests on the silty fraction of Stava tailings under ‘tailings’ and include water, finely ground rock particles,
constant water content conditions. The effects of the matric and chemical minerals. Depending on the extraction
suction and sample preparation technique on the 1d-Normal process used, tailings can be liquid, solid, or a slurry of
Compression Line (1d-NCL), the compressibility, and the fine particles. TSFs consist of a step-raised earth/rock
occurrence of a transitional behaviour are studied, with the embankment and a basin. A high permeability portion
suction level evaluated based on the water retention tests
made of coarse sediments is usually placed close to the
(WRC). The experimental results are compared with those
obtained under saturated conditions and with literature data discharge point/dam, a lower permeability zone made
dealing with fine soils in an unsaturated state. The Basic of fine particles would exist far from the dam, and
Barcelona Model (BBM) was proved to successfully describe the between them, there is a ‘beach’ with an intermediate
dependency of the soil compressibility, the pre-consolidation permeability. The position of the water table within the
stress, and the recompression also of tailing materials on their basin is governed by several external factors due to the
suction level. interactions with the atmosphere, resulting in a large
portion of tailings in unsaturated conditions.
Keywords: Tailings, unsaturated soils, 1d-NCL, Owing to the complexity, a comprehensive
compressibility, pre-consolidation stress, Water characterization of tailings under unsaturated
Retention Curve conditions is an essential tool for assessing reliable
stability analysis ([1-4]). Guaranteeing the stability of
© Copyright 2024 Authors - This is an Open Access article tailing storage facilities represent one of the most
published under the Creative Commons Attribution challenging tasks in mining engineering. Indeed, these
License terms ([Link]
basins are vulnerable to collapse for the following
Unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium
are permitted, provided the original work is properly cited. reasons: i) dams are made of locally derived filling
material such as tailings, soil, overburden material from
mining operations; ii) dams are raised over time as
Date Received: 2024-03-05 1
Date Revised: 2024-03-19
Date Accepted: 2024-03-25
Date Published: 2024-04-08
solid material with a relevant increase in effluent, i.e. unique Normal Compression Line. Despite this
plus runoff from precipitation; iii) there is a lack of evidence, [10] performed oedometric tests on the same
regulations on specific design criteria; iv) their large tailings, also with different gradings, and found no
surface makes criticality identification difficult, and transitional behaviour. Recently, [11] carried out simple
would require a continuous/extensive monitoring, shear tests on gold tailings and observed a transitional
which is time consuming and expensive; v) the cost of behaviour, as well also [12] reported transitional
remediation works after the closure of mining activities behaviours in several other tailings.
is high ([5]). Many tailing dams’ failures are related to There is also some debate about whether the
the static liquefaction phenomena triggered by intense initial fabric - resulting from different sample
rainfall or rapid snowmelt which represent one of the preparation methods - affects the soil response, as well
major causes of tailing dams’ collapse (Fig.1). as the liquefaction susceptibility. Experimental results
obtained by [13] and [14] on Nevada and Toyoura
sands showed that the undrained behaviours were
influenced by different preparation techniques, giving
temporary strain softening for moist tamped and dry
deposited samples and strain hardening response for
water pluviated samples. Similar results have been
obtained by [15-16] and [17]. For tailings materials, the
effect of the soil fabric on the mechanical response of
gold tailings was investigated by [18] through scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). They show that slurry
deposition produced a uniform fabric and moist
tamping created an aggregated fabric. They observed
relevant differences in the soil response for the coarsest
tailings but for the medium and finest sized tailings, the
effect of sample preparation technique was negligible.
Figure 1. Distribution of the number of failures with On the other hand, many authors concluded that the
respect to their causes in the world (modified from [5]). sample preparation technique alone does not produce
different structures that result in a non-convergence of
Recently, safety problems have concerned many the compression paths, and so they pointed out that the
researchers studying tailings dams, as they have a high sample preparation method has no effects on the
risk of failure due to static or dynamic liquefaction. transitional behaviour of soils, among them [6-7] and
Existing investigations of liquefaction in tailing wastes [19-20].
within a critical state framework have relied on the In recent years researchers have been attempting
Critical State Line (CSL) being unique in the volumetric to analyse unsaturated soil behaviour in terms of
plane, but recent advances have highlighted a so-called constitutive relations linking volume change, shear
“transitional” behaviour in which the location of the deformation, and strength in a single elastoplastic
Normal Compression Line and CSL depends on the model. The Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) proposed
density of the soils at deposition. Indeed, some recent by [21], is one of the most widely adopted elastoplastic
experimental studies have highlighted that many soils critical state constitutive models for unsaturated soils.
have a so-called “transitional” behaviour ([6-8]), in Representing an extension of the Modified Cam Clay
which samples of initially different void ratios show Model, the BBM is intended to model low-moderate
non-unique Normal Compression Lines in compression plasticity fine-grained soils and it can account for
and non-unique Critical State Line in shear, so resulting aspects of the mechanical behaviour of soils in
in difficulty to characterize soil response under the unsaturated conditions in the (p, q, s) space by using
critical state framework. Some researchers have shown matric suction and net stress as independent stress
that transitional behaviour can also be found in some variables. Within the frame of BBM, the compression
types of tailings. Among them, [9] analysed data for index decreases with suction. The model proposed
Stava tailings and showed that silty tailings taken from by [22] is like BBM, but some simplifications are
different depths, but with similar grading did not have a introduced to have a more flexible model. In Wheeler’s

2
model, the normal compression lines are fitted using
experimental data at different suction, with an increase
of the compressibility index with suction since large
pores could occur during the drying process. Within the
model proposed by [23], the behaviour of unsaturated
soil is interpreted using the average soil skeleton stress
(the difference between the total stress and the mean
value of the fluid pressures weighted with the degree of
saturation) as an effective stress. In the net mean
stress-specific volume plane, the NCL is no longer linear
and the compression index decreases with suction but Figure 2. The Stava tailing dams before the
increases with net stress always remaining smaller than collapse ([26]).
the saturated compression index.
Within this context, the current research shows
the results of an experimental campaign to investigate
the mechanical response of quarzitic tailings collected
after the Stava dam failure occurred in 1985. The
mechanical behaviour under unsaturated and nearly
saturated is studied by performing both oedometric and
water retention tests. The effects of a wide suction
range and the sample preparation technique on the
compressibility/re-compressibility index, on the
Normal Compression Line, and on the yield stress are
Figure 3. The Stava embankment after the
investigated. The outcomes are interpreted using the failure ([26]).
Basic Barcelona Model and compared to those obtained
under saturated conditions and with literature data on
different soils or tailings.

2. Testing material

2.1 Geotechnical characterization

Tailings under investigation were collected from
the lower portion of the upper dam after the Stava
dam's collapse occurred in 1985 (Fig.2-3), leading to
268 fatalities, and environmental damages. A poor
drainage, the high phreatic level, and the
unconsolidated state of tailings were supposed to be the
main factors that caused the static liquefaction, leading
to the collapse of the Stava embankment ([4],[24]). The
material investigated is the fraction passing through
ASTM sieve n°200 since it represents the finer tailings
fraction deposited into Stava basins. The grain size
Figure 4. Grain size distribution of the silt fraction of the
distribution is given in Fig.4 and the clay fraction is 8%
Stava tailings (modified from [10]).
of the total solid mass. The liquid, plastic limit, and
plasticity index are wL=27.4%, wP=18.0%, PI=9.4%
Experimental studies performed by [27] and [28]
([10],[25]). Hydraulic conductivity and specific gravity
allowed to estimate the shear strength properties of the
are k=10-7m/s and GS=2.83, while quartz, calcite, and
silty fraction of Stava tailings, c=0kPa and φcv≈32°
fluorite are the main mineral constituents.
(Fig.5).

3
 osmotic suction is appreciable in high plastic clays or
when the pore fluid contains dissolved salts.
According to [28], Stava silty tailings are low
plasticity-inorganic soils, so that the osmotic suction is
a small amount of the total suction, therefore ψ ≈ s.

3. Methodology

3.1 Sample preparation and experimental

device
The experimental campaign was carried out at
the soil testing laboratory of the University of Applied
Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI) on
unsaturated samples (Sr≤90%) and nearly saturated
Figure 5. CSL for Stava silty tailings (modified from [27-28]). samples (90%<Sr<100%) having d=50mm, h=20mm.
Specimen were prepared by hand-mixing a certain
2.2 Water retention response amount of dry soil with the required amount of
Previous researches ([1],[29]) investigated the demineralized, de-aired water to obtain the desired
water retention response of the soil studied in the initial water content ([31]). The mixture was then put
current research. The water retention properties of into a hermetic cylindrical mold, and statically
Stava silty tailings were found to depend void ratio. compacted (SC) by gradually applying an axial force
Such a dependency was interpreted through the WRC until the desired volume was reached. During the
model proposed by [30] whose calibrated parameters assembling of the mold, two plexiglas plates were
are provided in [1]. The dependency of the main drying placed on the bottom and the top face of the sample to
and main wetting branches on the void ratios of interest avoid the exchange of water, and grease was applied
for the current research are given in Fig. 6 where loose around the mold preventing water leakage. The
samples clearly exhibit lower air entry values, and so a oedometer tests were performed under constant water
lower water retention capability. content conditions, so no water was placed into the
reservoirs. Indeed, a mass-based analysis performed at
the end of each test showed negligible variations of the
water content during the entire compression test. An
axial loading sequence was imposed at regular intervals
(0.1MPa12MPa), followed by an unloading path. The
axial displacements experienced by the sample were
detected by using an external linear variable differential
transducer (full range 2.5mm; accuracy: ±2μm)
allowing the void ratio to be evaluated at each step.
3.2 Previous experimental studies
Previous investigations ([28]) on silty Stava
tailings were carried out by performing oedometer tests
on statically compacted, fully saturated samples. More
recently, [32] tested the same tailings in the form of
Figure 6. Influence of void ratio on the WRC of the silty slurry: the sample was prepared by imposing a known
fraction of Stava tailings (modified from [1] and [29]). amount of soil and a water content equal to the liquid
limit (‘remolded sample’). A back-analysis performed at
It is worth to note that the matric suction (s) is the end of the test allowed the estimation of the initial
assumed to be the main component of the total suction void ratio and degree of saturation (Sr=100%). Table 1
(ψ) in non-plastic soils with a pure pore fluid, while

4
gives the initial state of the Stava silty samples tested in All the tests performed on the saturated samples are
the current research, in [32] and in [28]. given in Fig.8: results obtained by [28] on SC samples
are represented by black curves, while the red curve
Table 1. The initial state of the Stava samples. refers to the test performed by [32] on the RS sample.
e0 Sr Prep. At high stresses 4-12MPa, the two sets of curves tend to
Sample Comments
(-) (%) Meth. converge toward a unique 1-d NCL regardless of the
edo_0.517-093 0.510 93 SC sample preparation technique: the compressibility
edo _0.593-091 0.593 91 SC index is estimated 0.104, leading to confirm the absence
edo _0.528-078 0.528 78 SC Current of a transitional behaviour. The term “transitional” is
edo _0.568-074 0.568 74 SC research intended to refer of the behaviour of
edo _0.650-066 0.650 66 SC reconstituted/remoulded materials where the initial
edo _0.520-0.28 0.520 28 SC structure of the soil leads its compression or shearing
edo _0.760-100 0.760 100 RS [32] response even at very high stresses and strains. It is
edo _028 0.772 100 SC important to notice that, according to [33], the term
edo _020 0.885 100 SC “structure” in soil mechanics is intended as a
edo _019 0.925 100 SC [28] combination of the inter-particle forces (“bonding”) and
edo _018 0.750 100 SC the particle arrangement (“fabric”). In this frame,
edo _017 0.930 100 SC transitional soils represent an example of the effect of
the robustness of the initial structure, particularly the
4. Experimental results fabric, during compression and shearing. The
As a preliminary effort, the suction level reached uniqueness of the 1d NCL regardless of the preparation
by each unsaturated sample during the compression method of the fully saturated Stava tailings investigated
tests is evaluated from its WRC (Fig.7). Indeed, in this research finds a good agreement with the
knowledge of the water ratio ew=Sr·e (which considers experimental outcomes shown by [34] for some fine
the combined effect of both the degree of saturation and iron tailing specimens prepared through different initial
void ratio) allowed to define a vertical hydraulic path densities and different methods, i.e. slurry, wet or wet
because of the constant water content conditions compaction (Fig.9). Also in that case, the curves
imposed during the oedometric test. The hydraulic path converge toward a unique 1-d NCL at stress range
crosses the WRC main wetting branches evaluated at between 2MPa and 10MPa. If tests performed on SC
the void ratio reached by the 1d-NCL, therefore the nearly saturated samples (green lines) are plotted in
suction level is obtained as the average value. A suction the compression plane together with SC fully saturated
level equal to 13kPa and 35kPa were estimated for samples (black lines), a certain transitional behaviour
unsaturated samples edo_0.528-078 and edo_0.650- can be observed (Fig.10) at high stresses (4-12MPa).
078, respectively (Fig.7).

Figure 7. Samples edo_0.528-078 and edo_0.650-066: Figure 8. Stava tailings: effect of the preparation
evaluation of matric suction level during compression test. method.

5
 different curves, estimated by the water retention
curves, are due to the combined effect of the void ratio
and water content of the samples during the oedometric
compression. If just the effects of the saturation on the
soil compressibility are analysed, samples edo_0.528-
078 (red line) and edo_0.520-028 (purple line) can be
considered. Indeed, they have a similar initial void ratio
(e0=0.52), but different initial water content (or degree
of saturation): the compression index decreases from
λ=0.059 to λ=0.049 when the water content turns from
w(s:13kPa)=15% to w(s:700kPa)=5%. The variation of
the compression index is supposed to be due to the
relevant increase of the soil stiffness with the water
content reduction. On the other hand, if mainly the
effects of the density on the soil compressibility are
Figure 9. Literature data: effect of the preparation investigated, samples edo_0.528-078 (red line) and
technique on saturated samples. ([34]). edo_0.568-074 (blue line) should be observed since
they have quite similar initial water content (w0=14-
15%), but different initial void ratio: the compression
index increases from λ=0.052 to λ=0.055 when the
initial void ratio turns from e0=0.53 to e0=0.57. In this
case, the compression index variation is supposed to be
due mainly to the decrease of the soil stiffness with the
density reduction. It was found from the experimental
results that the compressibility index is a function of
suction. The value of λ(s) decreased with increasing
suction. This behaviour is consistent with the model
of [21] who proposed that the slope of isotropic
normal consolidation line λ(s) decreases
monotonically with increasing suction from saturation
condition. The Basic Barcelona Model was then adopted
to get the theoretical compression index with suction.
Results are given together with the experimental data
Figure 10. Stava tailings: effect of the initial density on the (Fig.13): a fast decrease of λ can be appreciated with the
mechanical response of nearly saturated SC sample. suction increase, until reaching an asymptotic value
(compressibility index reduction≈50%). The study
This preliminary experimental evidence suggests that, performed by [35] on the Jossigny silt also led to the
for Stava tailings, the void ratio affects the mechanical observation of a gently decrease of λ (about 10%)
response of the soil in terms of transitional behaviour within a wide suction range 0→1600kPa. These
when the saturation state is lower than the unit. Further outcomes find good agreement with the experimental
investigations in this direction, could deal with results of the current research. Similar considerations
unsaturated samples having larger differences in the were accomplished by [36] for unsaturated silt tested
initial void ratio, but paying attention to avoid any using an osmotic controlled-suction apparatus (Fig.13):
segregation of the soil at water content that are too also in that case, the compressibility index slowly
high. According to [21], an increase of the decreased (approx. 75%) with the same suction range
compressibility index can be observed as the matric from 0kPa to 1600kPa.
suction decreases, as shown by the slope of the 1d-NCL
given in Fig.11 for a suction range between 13kPa and
700kPa. The suction levels corresponding to the

6
 in Fig.15. In general terms, these results can be
compared with those obtained by [37] for the
unsaturated Po silt for a wider suction range. The
authors performed isotropic tests using two suction-
controlled devices, a triaxial cell and a resonant column
torsional shear cell. In that case, a more gently decrease
of the recompression index with suction was observed.
Finally, the LC yield curve was computed from the
yield points given by the isotropic consolidation curves
as shown in Fig.14. Starting from the yielding stress
under fully saturated conditions, an increase with
suction was observed. The shape of the LC yield curve is
consistent with that proposed in the [21] model and it is
Figure 11. Stava tailings: influence of the suction on also in good accordance with the results of researchers
the 1d-NCL. such as [22] and [38].

a)
Figure 12. Stava tailings: experimental/theoretical Figure 14. Stava tailings: evolution of the recompression
compressibility index as predicted by the BBM. index with suction.

Figure 13. Literature data: influence of the matric suction Figure 15. Stava tailings: yielding stress with suction
on the compressibility index of silt ([35-36]). according to the BBM and experimental data.

The recompression index on the Stava tailings 5. Conclusion

was also estimated, showing a maximum value for the Results from an experimental program consisting
fully saturated samples (k=0.01), and then decreasing of a series of oedometric tests were used to investigate
with suction with minimum values k=0.001, as shown

7
the effect of suction on subsequent mechanical Engineering, An Int'l Journal, Vol. 26, no. 02, pp.
behaviour of unsaturated silty tailings. Based on the test 117-132, 2021.
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