INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY whatsoever.

●​ Etymologically, the word The First Principles (Law of Logic)

“philosophy” comes from two Greek ●​ PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY pertains
words, philo meaning “love” and to whatever it is, it is, and whatever
sophia, meaning “wisdom”. is not is not, everything its own being
and not being is not being. A thing
●​ Philosophy originally means “love is itself and is different from
of wisdom”. everything else.

●​ Philosophy is also defined as the ●​ PRINCIPLE OF

science that, by natural light of NONCONTRADICTION define as it
reason, studies the first causes or is impossible for a thing to be and
highest principles of all things. not to be at the same time and at the
same respect. The law of
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? non-contradiction is a rule of logic. It
states that if something is true
●​ SCIENCE. It is called science then the opposite of it is false.
because the investigation is
systematic. It follows certain steps or ●​ PRINCIPLE OR EXCLUDED
it employs certain procedures. MIDDLE a thing is either or is not,
●​ NATURAL LIGHT OF REASON. everything must be either be or not
Philosophy investigates things, not be, between being and not being,
by using other laboratory there is no middle possible ground.
instruments or investigate tools
neither on the basis of supernatural ●​ PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT
revelation, it becomes theology, the REASON nothing exists without
philosopher uses his natural sufficient reason for its being and
capacity to think or simply, human existence. This principles states that
reason alone or the so-called there is a force or reason for every
unaided reason. existence.
●​ STUDY OF ALL THINGS. This sets
the distinction between philosophy BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
from other sciences. All other
sciences concern themselves with a ●​ Metaphysics – literally means “after
particular object of investigation. For physics” or “beyond physics”. It is a
example, A Philosopher studies study of anything that lies beyond
human beings, society, religion, the physical world such as
language, God, and plants among existence, reality, creation, causality,
other concerns. transcendence and many more.
●​ PHILOSOPHY AS A FIRST CAUSE ●​ Ethics – a branch of philosophy that
OR HIGHER PRINCIPLE. A explores the nature of moral virtue
principle is that form in which and evaluates human actions.
something proceeds in any manner
 ●​ Epistemology – is the investigation • ANAXIMENES argued that air was the
of what distinguishes justified belief fundamental element through the process
from opinion. of refraction or compression, the air
●​ Logic – etymologically, it means a surrounds earth in a more or less
treatise on matters pertaining to compressed state.
human thought. It does not provide
us knowledge of the world directly, • HERACLITUS claimed the Unity of
for logic is considered as a tool and Opposites in characterizing the cosmos. In
therefore does not contribute directly one of his famous quotes he states: ‘No
to the content of our thoughts. It is man cannot step on the same river twice’
the study of correct reasoning.
●​ Aesthetics – is derived from the • XENOPHANES claimed that there is a
Greek term aisthetikos, meaning single God. He did not subscribe to the
“sensitive”. It is the science of the idea of an anthropomorphic God. He
beautiful in its various suggested if Gods are ‘’human-like’’ then
manifestations including the horses, oxen and lions would have equine,
sublime, comic, tragic, pathetic and bovine and leonine.
ugly.
• PYTHAGORAS believes that the cosmos
PROCESS OF PHILOSOPHY is a structured system ordered by
numbers. Believe that nature can be
PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW - Looks at only quantified.
a limited number of aspects of the given
problem or situation. The Greek Triumvirate

HOLISTIC POINT OF VIEW - Looks at all Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE)
the aspects of the given problem or
situation. • He was considered the foremost
philosopher of ancient times. He made a
Doing a Philosophy (Philosophical great contributions to the field of ethics.
Reflection) • He was credited with formulating Socratic
Method or Elenchus.
• THALES is known as the first Greek • Socratic Method / Elenchus - Means of
philosopher and the father of examining a topic by devising a series of
philosophy. Engage in the inquiry of questions that let the learner examine and
searching for the natural world and various analyze his knowledge and views regarding
phenomena without relying on supernatural the topic.
explanation and divine components. • Claimed that, “the unexamined life is not
worth living”.
• ANAXIMANDER is the one who wondered • No left philosophical writings at all.
about the beginning of the universe and
where it came from. He claimed that the Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE)
universe was formed from
boundlessness.
• A student of Socrates, he wrote down his What is truth?
teacher’s writings and incorporated some •The quality of being true, genuine,
of his own ideas into them. actual or factual.
• His teaching and writings are
considered the foundation of Western Is Truth objective?
philosophy. Ludwig Wittgenstein argued that language
• Plato’s lasting contribution to learning was cannot objectively describe truth. He
his founding of the Academy, an institution claimed that language is socially
of higher learning which was the first of its conditioned, which means the meaning of
kind in the West. words is created by what people have
• Concept or idea is the only true reality. agreed upon. For Wittgetnstein, there is no
• One of his famous work is The Republic. objective meaning. We understand the
world solely in terms of our language
Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) games, that is, our linguistic, social
constructs. Truth, as we perceive it, is itself
• He attended the Academy and was a socially constructed. Truth can change
prominent student of Plato. depending on what people have decided
• He was involved in a great variety of it to be.
disciplines such as zoology, psychology,
ethics, and politics. THEORIES OF TRUTH
• His studies in logic led to the formulation of ●​ The Correspondence Theory of
a formal process of analyzing reasoning Truth The Correspondence Theory
which gave rise to deductive reasoning. argues that “truth” is whatever
• “Human beings philosophize because corresponds to reality. An idea which
they wonder about the world.” corresponds with reality is true while
• In Aristotle’s view, “man is a political an idea which does not correspond
animal.” with reality is false.
●​ The Coherence Theory of Truth
Primary and Secondary Reflection It states that a belief is true when we
• PRIMARY REFLECTION - analyzes an are able to incorporate it in an
object and its parts. (partial point of view) orderly and logical manner into a
• SECONDARY REFLECTION - analyzes larger and complex system of beliefs
an object as a whole. (holistic point of or, even more simply still, a belief is
view) true when it fits in with the set of all
our other beliefs without creating a
What is fact? contradiction.
●​ It is a provable statement. It can ●​ The Pragmatic Theory of Truth
be shown to be true or false without The Pragmatic Theory of truth
any doubt, usually through some determines whether or not a belief is
indisputable evidence, like true or not based on whether it has a
measurement or an observation. useful (pragmatic) application in the
What is opinion? world. If it does not, then it is not
●​ Opinion expresses a personal belief, true.
idea or feeling that is not provable.
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING: ▪︎ COMPOSITION involves assuming that
FALLACIES (OBJECTIVE VS. parts or members of a whole will have the
SUBJECTIVE) same properties as the whole.

• Objective Information is the analysis ▪︎ DIVISION occurs when one reasons that
based on facts, measurable and something that is true for a whole must also
observable. be true of all or some of its parts. (a vice
• Objective Perspective is one that is not versa of Composition)
influenced by emotions, opinions or
personal feelings- it is a perspective based ▪︎ AGAINST THE PERSON
in fact, in things quantifiable and (ARGUMENTATUM AD HOMINEM)
measurable. attempts to link the validity of a premise to a
• Subjective Information is based on characteristic or belief of the person
personal opinions, interpretations, points of advocating the premise.
view, emotion and judgment.
• Subjective Perspective is one open to ▪︎ APPEAL TO FORCE (ARGUMENTATUM
greater interpretation based on personal AD BACULUM) argumentation using force
feeling, emotion and aesthetics. or the threat of force to convince others to
accept an argument's conclusion.
FALLACIES
Fallacy is a defect in an argument other ▪︎ APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE
than it’s having false premises. (ARGUMENTATUM AD POPULUM)
refers to a claim that something is true
TYPES OR FALLACIES simply because that’s what a large number
of people believe. In other words, if many
▪︎ APPEAL TO PITY (ARGUMENTATUM people believe something to be true, then it
AD MISERICORDIAM) is a specific kind of must be true.
appeal to emotion in which someone tries to
win support for an argument or idea by ▪︎ FALSE CAUSE (POST HOC) occurs
exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings of when someone incorrectly assumes that a
pity or guilt. causal relation exists between two things or
events. This is an improper conclusion
▪︎ APPEAL TO IGNORANCE because either such a relationship does not
(ARGUMENTATUM AD IGNORANTIAM) exist or the evidence in support of it is
whatever has not been proved false must insufficient.
be true and vice versa.
▪︎ HASTY GENERALIZATION a claim made
▪︎ EQUIVOCATION is a logical chain of on the basis of insufficient evidence. Instead
reasoning of a term or a word several times, of looking into examples and evidence that
but giving the particular word a different are much more in line with the typical or
meaning each time. average situation, you draw a conclusion
about a large population using a small,
unrepresentative sample.
 Transcendence comes from the Latin prefix
HUMAN PERSON AS AN trans-, meaning "beyond," and the word
EMBODIED SPIRIT scandare, meaning "to climb".
(Facticity vs. Transcendence) It is the ability to change, be dynamic, and
continually redefining oneself which works
FACTICITY with our facticity to create change. It is used
• It encompasses the undeniable and to describe a spiritual or religious state, or a
immutable aspects of an individual's condition of moving beyond physical needs
existence such as birth mortality and and realities.
sociocultural circumstances.
• This concept underscores the tension TRANSCENDENCE IN TERMS OF
between the constraints of reality and the RELIGION
capacity for personal agency.
• Facticity is about the given conditions of ●​ Hinduism
human life those facts that we cannot • lHinduism is one of the oldest Eastern
change, these include biological traditions, practiced by hundreds of millions
characteristics like age and genetic of people for about 5000 years.
predispositions as well as external • One concept common to all expressions of
conditions such as the time and place of Hinduism is the oneness of reality.
one's birth historical context and societal • Brahman is a formless and changeless,
norms. infinite and eternal, neither male or female,
and beyond space and time.
Limitation of Human Person • At the heart of Hinduism lies the idea of
human beings’ quest for absolute truth, so
SPATIAL - TEMPORAL BEINGS that one’s soul and the Brahman or Atman
• As temporal beings, our most obvious (Absolute Soul) might become one.
limitation is our finitude - our finite quality or • Hindus generally believe that the soul
state. Spatial beings, we are limited by our is eternal but is bound by the law of
bodies to be present in two or more places Karma (action) to the world of matter,
at the same time. which it can escape only after spiritual
• We are limited by space (spatial) and time progress through an endless series of
(temporal). births (Reincarnation).
• Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a
THE BODY AS INTERMEDIARY continuous cycle (samsara).
• Intermediary means acting as a mediator. • Moksha, derived from the Sanskrit root
Our body serves as an intermediary “muc,” meaning to free or liberate,
between us and the physical world. It limits signifies the ultimate goal of human
our experience of the world to our world. existence in Hindu philosophy. It represents
This imposes limitations concerning liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and
communication and expression. rebirth (samsara) and the attainment of a
state of eternal bliss and unity with the
TRANSCENDENCE divine.

●​ Buddhism
• Another major Eastern tradition is do anything if it is not morally right or if one
Buddhism, contained in the teachings of its will hurt another.
founder, Siddharta Gautama or the
Buddha. Human Person in the Environment
• Turning away from Hindu polytheism and
palace pleasures, Gautama began Environmental Philosophy
searching for answers to the riddle of life’s • is the branch of philosophy that is
sufferings, disease, old age and death. concerned with the natural environment and
• While resting and meditating in a grove of humans placed within it.
trees, he came to a clear realization that the • is the discipline that studies the moral
solution lays in his own mind relationship of human beings with the
(Enlightenment), (Puligandla 1997). environment and its non-human contents.

The Four Noble Truths: Different views on how humans deal with
• Life is full of suffering. the environment
• Suffering is caused by desires.
• There is an end to suffering. ▪︎ ANTHROPOCENTRISM – focuses on the
• The end to suffering is contained in the significant role of humankind in the world
eightfold path. and considers nature as the means by
which humans are able to meet their needs
The Eightfold Path: and survive.
• Right Understanding • This view believes that humans are the
• Right Thought most important species on the planet and
• Right Speech they are free to transform nature and use its
• Right Action resources.
• Right Livelihood • Refers to a human-centered, or
• Right Effort “anthropocentric,” point of view.
• Right Mindfulness • A world view that considers humans to be
• Right Concentration the most important factor and value in the
Universe.
●​ St. Augustine (Will and Love)
• For St. Augustine, physically we are free, ▪︎ HUMANISM – a progressive philosophy of
yet morally bound to obey the law. The life that, without theism or other
Eternal law is God Himself. supernatural beliefs, affirms our ability and
• According to this law, humanity must do responsibility to lead ethical lives of
well and avoid evil, hence, the existence of personal fulfillment that aspire to greater
moral obligation in every human being. good.
• Through prayer, modesty, fasting and • Affirming the dignity of each human being,
other sound measures that the Church it supports that maximization of individual
recommends or God provides can purity of liberty and opportunity consonant with social
heart, mind and body be maintained and and planetary responsibility.
daily lived. • A democratic and ethical life stance affirms
• For St. Augustine, though we are that human beings have the right
physically free, one does not have a right to
and responsibility to give meaning and
shape to their own lives. ●​ DEEP ECOLOGY
• is an environmental philosophy that
▪︎ PATHOCENTRISM – (from the Greek promotes the inherent worth of all living
pathos, meaning “suffering”) refers to the beings regardless of their instrumental utility
tendency to prioritize or attribute greater to human needs.
importance to human suffering or pathology • Deep ecology's core principle is the belief
over other aspects of existence, such as the that the living environment as a whole
environment, non-human animals, or other should be respected and regarded as
ethical concerns. having certain basic moral and legal rights
• It involves a biased focus on human to live and flourish, independent of its
emotional and physical distress, often instrumental benefits for human use.
leading to the neglect or devaluation of • For this theory, ecological crisis is an
non-human life and wellbeing. outcome of anthropocentrism.
• It is the belief in the importance of
▪︎ BIOCENTRISM – believes that humans environment as a whole.
are not the only significant species on the
planet and that all other organisms have ●​ SOCIAL ECOLOGY
inherent value and should be protected. • studies relationships between people and
• A philosophical viewpoint that all living their environment, often the
organisms, not just humans, are deserving interdependence of people, collectives and
of equal moral and ethical consideration. institutions.
• It is the concept of how people interact
▪︎ ECOCENTRISM – places great value on with their surroundings, how they respond to
ecosystems and biological communities. it, and how these interactions impact society
• This view believes that humankind is part and the environment at large.
of a greater biological system or community • A view that focuses on relationship and
and that we have a significant role as interaction of humans with the
stewards or guardians of nature. environment.

▪︎ HOLISM – etymologically, holism comes ●​ ECOFEMINISM

from the Greek word “holos” meaning “all” • This theory or view argues that ecological
or “total”. crisis is a consequence of male dominance.
• Concisely summarized by Aristotle in • Male dominance as in the anthropocentric
Metaphysics, “the whole is more than model are superior as opposed to female
the sum of its parts”. traits as in the ecocentric model.
• the idea that all the properties of a given • Domination works by forcing the other to
system cannot be determined or explained conform to what is superior. Nature must be
by its component parts alone, but the tamed, ordered and submitted to the will of
system as a whole determines in an the superior.
important way how the parts behave. • For the adherents of this view, freeing
nature and humanity means removing
Perspectives on the Environmental the superior vs. inferior in human
Crisis: relations.