Biology Year 1

SECTION
SECTION

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INTRODUCTION
TOABIOLOGY,
GEOGRAPHICAL
THE AND
HISTORICAL
SCIENTIFIC SKETCH
METHOD,
OF AFRICA AND
ORGANISMS
MICROSCOPES
SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

EXPLORING BIOLOGY IN THE SOCIETY

Biology as a Science of Life

INTRODUCTION
The first part of this section explores the definition Biology, its primary branches,
along with various sub-branches. The relevance of Biology in our daily life and
its significance are also emphasised. Career opportunities in Biology are also
explored. Subsequently, you will be introduced to the scientific method, its
components, and its application in solving everyday issues. Later on in the section,
you will explore body orientations, symmetry, sectioning of specimens, and hone
your biological drawing skills.
The final part of the section will guide you to explore microscope types, parts,
functions, safe usage, and slide preparation, along with distinctions between wet
mount and permanent slides.
The aim is for you to apply this knowledge to address real-world challenges, to
support yourself and your community.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Observe and discuss the importance of biology, its various branches, and
its applications in everyday life.
• Solve everyday problems using the scientific method
• Observe and identify the various body orientations, symmetries and
sectioning of different organisms.
• Identify the parts of the microscope and state their functions.
• Demonstrate the safe usage of the microscope to observe specimens.

Key Ideas

• Biology is the study of the structure and function of living things and
their interaction with their environment.
• Botany, zoology and microbiology are the main branches of biology.

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• Knowledge in biology is applied in food production and preservation,

agriculture, human, animal and plant health, home hygiene and
conservation of natural resources, among others.
• Career pathways related to the study of biology include but are not limited
to: pharmacy, medicine, teaching, biomedical science and nursing.
• The scientific method is an empirical method for investigating natural
phenomena by formulating hypotheses and testing them through
experimentation.
• Biologists use skills such as Observation, Curiosity, Measuring, Recording
and Reporting in their approach to solving everyday problems.
• Inductive reasoning makes generalisations from specific observations
while Deductive reasoning makes specific conclusions from generalized
phenomenon.
• The scientific method yields valid reliable results in solving everyday
scenarios and can be replicated by others.
• Symmetry is an imaginary line or plane that divides an organism into two
identical halves or mirror images.
• An organism exhibits bilateral symmetry if it can be divided along only
one plane into two halves which are mirror images.
• An organism exhibits radial symmetry if it can be divided along more
than one plane to produce two or more halves which are mirror images.
• An organism is said to be asymmetric if it has no line of symmetry.
• A cut made through an object or organism that allows the internal
structures to be seen is called a section.
• Orientation refers to the position of an organism when being viewed.
• The microscope is an instrument used in viewing or observing minute
specimen.
• Microscopes are made up of the imaging system and the illuminating
system.

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WHAT IS BIOLOGY?
Imagine a world where every living thing, from the tiniest microbe to the mightiest
elephant, is connected in a complex web of life. This is the world of biology, the
branch of natural science that studies living things, their structure, function, and
their interaction with the environment.
Biology has three major branches: botany, zoology, and microbiology. Learning
Biology is based on data obtained from research through empirical studies to
solve everyday problems.
As we study biology, let us look around us and see the various interactions that go
on between living things and their environment.

IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
Biology is not just a theoretical subject, but it is deeply intertwined with our
everyday activities. From food production to gardening, from home hygiene to
human and animal health, and from the conservation of natural resources to plant
health, biology plays a crucial role in our lives.
1. Food production: Honey from beekeeping serves as a sweetening agent for
syrups and other food items. Microbes are used in some of the fermentation
processes that produce food such as bread, kenkey, cheese, local Ghanaian
cheese (wagashi) and some drinks such as palm wine and pito.
NOTE: In the food production process, preservation is done to reduce or
prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microbes. Look at Figure
1.2, in salted Tilapia/koobi” production, salt is put into the fish to dehydrate
it which creates unfavourable conditions for microbial activities. Also, in
the production of kenkey, corn dough is fermented by microbes. Look at
figure 1.3a. on page 5.

Figure 1.1: Bee Farming Figure 1.2: Salted Tilapia/ “Koobi”

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Figure 1.3a: Land Degradation Figure 1.3b: Kenkey production in

Ghana

Figure 1.3c: local cheese “wagashi”

2. Gardening: Using organic kitchen waste and animal droppings to prepare

compost which can be used to improve soil fertility employs knowledge in
biological science. Tilling the land to improve soil aeration for soil microbes
and plant roots is based on knowledge in biology.
3. Home hygiene: Knowledge in biology teaches practices such as washing of
hands before eating or handling food and after visiting the wash room to get
rid of microorganisms which may cause diseases.
4. Human and animal health: The study of biology provides understanding of
growth factors of diseases such as malaria, cholera, anthrax, their diagnosis,
prevention and treatment.
5. Conservation of natural resources: Knowledge in biology ensures the
sustainable use of natural resources. Practices such as afforestation, crop
rotation, cover cropping, and proper waste disposal improve conservation of

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natural resources. Overall, conservation biology improves forestry, fisheries,

water and wildlife management.
6. Plant health: Reducing air pollution, water pollution and land degradation
can greatly improve plant health. Knowledge in optimal biological conditions
in the soil offer great importance in reducing the use of synthetic nutrition
and pesticides as well as limiting the need for tillage.

Activity 1.1: Investigating the importance of biology in gardening, plant

and soil conservation.

Mr. and Mrs. Manu observed that the yield from their backyard maize garden
decreased yearly over a four-year farming period. They were advised to apply
organic manure and carry out irrigation, after which they had a good harvest.

1. Why did the yield decrease over the four-year period?

2. What accounted for the increase in yield?
3. What is the significance of irrigation and organic manuring in gardening?
4. Compare your answer with that of your friends and let your teacher
review your responses.

Hint: responses should focus on these: plant health, soil conservation and
gardening

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Activity 1.2: Investigating the importance of biology in bottle juice

production.

Search from the internet, textbooks, scientific journals and other relevant
sources and discuss with your peers how useful the knowledge of biology is
in bottle juice production.

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
The major branches of biology include:
1. Zoology - the branch of biology that studies animals
2. Botany - the branch of biology that studies plants
3. Microbiology - the branch of biology that studies microscopic organisms.

Fig 1.5: Botany

Fig 1.6: Zoology

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Figure 1.7: Microbiology

Examples of Other Branches of Biology

Table 1.1: Branches of Biology

Ecology The branch of biology that studies how living things interact
with each other and their environment.
Mycology Study of fungi
Cytology Study of cells
Histology Study of tissues
Genetics study of heredity and variation
Evolution Study of the gradual change in heritable characteristics
among species in a population over time.

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Activity 1.3: Word search and crossword puzzle on branches of biology.

a) Use the word search tool and below to identify some branches of biology.

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FIELDS OF WORK RELATED TO BIOLOGY

As you study biology, you can be employed in various workplaces such as:
Hospitals: Doctors, nurses and biomedical scientists apply knowledge in medicine
and physiology to diagnose, treat and promote the prevention of diseases and
disorders.

Figure 1.8: A Biomedical Scientist at work

Industries: In the breweries, cocoa processing and baking industry, knowledge

in microbiology and biochemistry is employed to produce alcoholic beverages,
chocolate and cocoa beverages, biscuits and bread.

Figure 1.9: Cocoa Processing Factory

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Agricultural farms: Knowledge in genetics guides farmers to choose varieties

with desirable characters. Also, genetic engineering is used to produce high
yielding and disease resistant varieties.

Figure 1.10: An Okro Farm in Ghana

Educational institutions: Biology and Integrated science teachers use their

knowledge in biology in imparting knowledge to their students.

Figure 1.11: A Biology lesson

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Markets - Traders are able to preserve their perishables using methods such as
drying, freezing, dehydration and smoking.

Figure 1.12a: A spice market Figure 1.12b: Freezing as a method of food

preservation

Figure 1.12c: smoking as a method of food preservation

Homes: Hygienic practices such as hand washing, washing of fruits and vegetables
with brine or vinegar before eating and mopping of floors with disinfectants.

Figure 1.13: Home hygiene being practised

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is an practical method for investigating natural events/
occurrences by formulating hypotheses and testing them through experimentation.
As scientists, biologists also use the scientific method in solving everyday problem.
Biologists use the scientific method in solving everyday problem. They start
investigations by making observations of anything around them that draws their
attention.
The scientific method uses both inductive reasoning method and deductive
reasoning method. The inductive reasoning method involves making generalised
conclusions from specific observations or patterns. The deductive method on the
other hand starts with a general principle and applies it to specific situations to
predict and test hypotheses; it thus moves from a broader idea and narrows to
specific conclusions.

Figure 1.14: A Biologist at work

Importance of the Scientific Method

1. It is a problem-solving tool that breaks down complex issues into simple
components and hypothesis testing to find the root causes of a problem.
2. It provides a structured approach to inquiry so that the conclusion of research
work is based on empirical evidence rather than personal belief or common
sense.

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3. The method should yield consistent results that can be replicated by other
scientists and researchers.
4. It encourages critical thinking, as researchers question assumptions, evaluate
evidence and challenge existing theories.
5. It ensures innovation and progress by encouraging continuous refinement of
theories and hypotheses and experimentation

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive thinking is when one makes a generalised conclusion from a specific
observation or pattern.
The following examples show the inductive reasoning method of scientific inquiry.
1. Sunlight is necessary for plant growth because you observe that plants that
receive sunlight grow healthier.
2. Orange contains vitamin C. Orange is a citrus fruit, therefore citrus fruits
contain vitamin C.
3. Davi Dzifa is a grandmother. Davi Dzifa has gray hair, therefore grandmothers
have gray hair.
On the other hand, the deductive reasoning approach starts with a general principle
and applies it to specific situations to predict and test some given ideas. It moves
from a broader idea and narrows to specific conclusions.
Scenarios that make use of the deductive reasoning approach are listed below.
Scenario 1: All mammals give birth to live young ones; sheep are mammals
therefore sheep give birth to live young ones
Scenario 2: Arthropods have jointed appendages; Spider is an arthropod therefore
Spider has jointed appendages
Scenario 3: Green plants contain chlorophyll; mango is a green plant therefore
mango contains chlorophyll.
Note: Inductive thinking is from specific to general, while deductive thinking
is from general to specific. Inductive reasoning is less reliable than deductive
reasoning.

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Activity 1.4: Using the scientific method to solve everyday problems.

1. Your school/community has problems with refuse disposal and high

rates of malaria infestation.

a) How important is the scientific method in solving this problem in

your school?
b) What reasoning method will be useful in solving this problem?
c) What are some of the procedures you may consider finding solution
to these problems?
2. Compare your answer with that of your friends and let your teacher
review your responses.
3. Group the following statements under inductive and deductive reasoning:

a) Process of reasoning that starts from general statements to reach a

logical conclusion.
b) Process of reasoning that moves from specific observations to
broader generalisations.
c) Involves moving from specific to general.
d) Involves moving from general to specific.
e) A bottom-up approach.
f) A top-down approach.
g) The conclusion has to be true if the proposed ideas are true.
h) The truth of the proposed ideas do not necessarily guarantee the
truth of the conclusion.
i) Fast and easy to use.
j) More difficult to use and needs facts that are definitely true.

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STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Figure 1.15: Steps in the scientific method

There are several steps involved in using the scientific method, depending on how
the biologist or scientist uses the method and the problem involved.
The seven major steps are:
1. Identifying the problem by observation/questioning: Just like other
scientists, biologists identify problems by making observations around the
environment and noting down their observations. They then begin to ask
questions as to why these observations and patterns are made in nature.
This then, leads to problem identification. Thus, some tools and techniques
employed in identifying problems include observation, problem-solving
diagrams, problem-solving mind maps, problem-solving software, fish-
bone diagrams and flowcharts.
2. Reading around the problem to understand its nature by researching,
and looking for further information: This is done by researching literature
and related sources to have a clearer understanding of the problem and how
to solve the problem.
3. Making a hypothesis: A hypothesis is an “educated guess”, or an assumption
to a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
It is also defined as a proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon in
nature.

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4. Experimentation: Experimentation refers to the process or procedure

carried out under controlled conditions to find an unknown effect or law, to
test or establish a hypothesis, or to illustrate a known law.
5. Collection and Analysing Data: Data is obtained from the experiment and
presented in a form of tables, graphs and charts (e.g., cumulative frequency
curves, bar charts, histograms, or pie charts) put together and examined to
make meaning out of them.
6. Concluding: This is the final decision, judgement, or opinion that is formed
after a scientific experiment or research.
7. Communication: Scientific communication refers to how ideas, methods,
knowledge and findings in scientific exercise are made known to people in
an accessible and helpful way. Examples include publishing in scientific
magazines or journal.

Activity 1.5: Application of the scientific methods in problem solving.

1. Describe the processes and skills used by biologists to identify problems.

2. Perform this experiment as a group project. Your teacher may guide you
through it.
Title: Investigating Plant Growth
Aim: To apply the scientific method to investigate how different light
conditions affect plant growth.
Materials Needed:
- Small pots or cups
- Loamy or black soil
- Fast-growing seeds (e.g. Tomato seeds)
- Rulers
- Water
- Light source (e.g., lamps, windows)
- Notebook or paper for observations
- Markers or labels for pots or cups

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Procedure based on the steps involved in the Scientific Methods:

1. Ask a Question:
How does the amount of light affect the growth of a plant in terms
of height?
(Such as high, medium and no light)

2. Research:
- Discuss with others what you know about photosynthesis
and plant growth, making reference to intensity of light as
one of the factors affecting photosynthesis
3. Formulate a Hypothesis:
- Each group should write a hypothesis. For example:
- “If plants receive more light, then they will grow taller than
plants that receive less light.”
4. Conduct the Experiment:
- Variables:
- Independent Variable: Amount of light (e.g., High, medium
and no light)
- Dependent Variable: Height of the plants
NOTE: Ensure all other conditions, or variables such as type of seed,
amount of water, type of soil, and temperature are all present.

Setup:
i. The class is divided into groups. Each group will plant seeds
in three pots, each placed in different light conditions.
ii. The pots should be labelled accordingly.
iii. Water the plants regularly and measure their height every few
days. Ensure to take notes on your observations, including
any changes in the plants.
5. Collection and Analysing of data:
- After three weeks, each group should compile their data
into a table or graph, and discuss the results:
“What happened to each of the plants in high light, medium
light or no light?”

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6. Draw Conclusions: Each group should write a conclusion based on their

findings. They should state whether their hypothesis was supported or not and
discuss possible reasons for their results.
7. Communication or Presentation of Findings:
- Create a short presentation to share your experiment, data, and
conclusions with the class.

3. There has been a surge in malaria cases in your community. Having

gained knowledge as a biology student in using the scientific method in
addressing problems, describe how you would employ this method to
curb the surging malarial cases in your community.

SYMMETRY, ORIENTATION AND SECTIONING IN

BIOLOGY
Body symmetry, body orientation and sectioning are interrelated concepts vital in
studying or observing organisms. The body symmetry of an organism is necessary
for its movement, balance and overall function. Body orientation (position) of an
organism affects its posture and movement. Sectioning enables detailed studies
and analysis of parts of organisms. Having a good understanding of these concepts
is key as it provides the framework for understanding the structure and functions
of living organisms.

BODY SYMMETRY
Most organisms typically can be divided into two equal halves that are identical or
mirror images of each other. The imaginary line or plane that divides an organism
to produce identical halves is called line symmetry.
Some organisms can be divided into identical halves or mirror images along only
one plane. Such organisms are said to have bilateral symmetry or are said to be
bilaterally symmetrical. Typical examples include human beings, elephants, fish,
toads, millipedes, insects and fruits such as mango and cashew nuts.
Other organisms can be divided along more than one plane to produce identical
halves or mirror images. These kinds of organisms are said to have radial
symmetry or be radially symmetrical. Typical examples include, but are not
limited to, fruits such as orange, apple, watermelon, star fruit, okra, pumpkin and
certain marine organisms such as starfish and sea urchin.

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However, it is worth noting that not all organisms can be said to have either of
these two types of body symmetry. Organisms which do not have any type of
symmetry are said to be asymmetrical. This means a division of their body along
any plane will produce two halves which are NOT identical in appearance or
features. In other words, they are not mirror images of each other. Examples of
asymmetric organisms include sponges, snails, fiddler crab and narwhale.

Figure 1.16a: Radial and bilateral symmetry of different specimens

Figure 1.16b: Sponge shows asymmetry Figure 1.16c: Fiddler crab

Figure 1.16d: Narwhale

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BODY ORIENTATION
The orientation of an organism refers to its position when being viewed or the
position of an organism in relation to its surroundings and its alignment with a
particular direction (view).
The various ways or directions in which an organism may be viewed are anterior,
posterior, dorsal, ventral and lateral views.
1. Anterior: front or head region of a specimen.
2. Posterior: back or tail region of a specimen.
3. Lateral: sideways view/view from the side of a specimen.
4. Ventral: view from beneath/underside region.
5. Dorsal: view from above or the upper view

Figure 1.17a: A fish showing various body orientation

Figure 1.17b: Dorsal view of tilapia Figure 1.17c: Lateral view of tilapia

Figure 1.17d: Anterior view of tilapia Figure1.17e: posterior view of a chameleon

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Figure 1.17f: Ventral view of a lizard

SECTIONING
A section is a cut made through an organism or object, which allows the internal
structures to be seen. A sharp object such as a razor blade or scalpel knife is often
used in the cutting.
Depending on how the cut is made, a section can either be described as one of the
following:
1. A longitudinal Section (L.S.) or (L/S) - a cut or section through an organism
that is made along the long axis or length of that object.
2. Transverse Section (T.S.) or (T/S) – a cut or section made across an object
at a right angle to the long axis OR a cross-wise cut along the width of the
organism.
3. Vertical Section (V.S.) or (V/S) – a cut or section made perpendicular to
the horizontal plane of the organism/ object.

Figure 1.18a: Longitudinal section of a flower

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Figure 1.18b: Longitudinal section of , pawpaw and tomato fruits

Fig 1.19: Transverse sections of the mammalian eye and an orange fruit

Figure 1.20: Vertical sections of the mammalian skin and heart

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BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS
Biological drawings are illustrations that form a visual representation of different
aspects of an organism. They enable learners or biologists to understand the
structures, processes and functions of living things.
Biological drawings are important in the following ways:
1. They enhance better understanding and explanation.
2. They allow for careful observation and description of specimen.
3. They also allow for detailed study of the features of an organism.
Materials needed in biological drawing include:
a) a well sharpened long HB pencil
b) an eraser
c) a rule
A good biological drawing should have the following features:
1. A biological drawing must have an underlined heading/title/caption
written either above or below the drawing.
2. The drawing should cover at least two-thirds (2/3) of the space provided
where no size/range is given for the drawing.
3. There must be no arrowheads on the guidelines.
4. Guidelines should be ruled with a straight edge and not crossing each
other.
5. The guideline must point exactly to the label, not hanging or exceeding.
6. The outline of drawings should be thin, firm and continuous, not woolly
and broken.
7. Magnification is written at the bottom right corner of the drawing (this
is when the specimen being drawn is before you).
8. A single label should carry a single guideline.
9. Labels should be written horizontally.
10. It is advisable to use a sharp HB pencil when labelling since this can be
erased easily when mistakes are made.

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Figure 1.21: A labelled drawing of a leaf x2 and A labelled drawing of L/S of flamboyant
flower

Activity 1.6: Identification of body symmetry in living organisms.

1. a) Collect the following specimen from the school compound or garden

i. Land snail,
ii. Pawpaw fruit,
iii. Cactus plant,
iv. Caterpillar,
v. Garden egg
vi. okra
vii. tomato
viii. Allamanda
ix. mango
x. orange
xi. pear
xii. groundnut
xiii. spider
xiv. Pride of Barbados (Caesalpinia)
xv. Crotalaria
xvi. Cockroach or any insect

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b) Explore and indicate which of the organisms above are:

i. Bilaterally symmetrical?
ii. Radially symmetrical?
iii. Asymmetrical?

Activity 1.7: Body sectioning and biological drawing of living organisms.

1. a)Make transverse and longitudinal sections of each of the following

specimen:
i. Oranges
ii. Bananas
iii. Bell pepper
iv. Pineapples
v. Tomatoes
b) Make a labelled drawing 10 – 12 cm long of each of the sections made
in (1a) above.

Activity 1.8: Idenfication of the external structure and orientation of

some common organisms.

1. Gather images or diagrams of the following organisms

Tilapia
Toad
Agama lizard
Rabbit
2. Identify and label the following structural views on the images or
diagrams for each organism
Anterior
Posterior
Dorsal
Ventral
lateral

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THE MICROSCOPE
The resolving power of the unaided human eye is just about 0.1mm, that is, the
human eye can only distinguish between two points that are 0.1mm apart. The
microscope is an instrument used to view or observe minute specimens like
viruses, bacteria, cells and other living things not visible to the unaided human
eye.
Biologists also use hand lenses, which magnify minute specimens ten times (10x)
as much as the human eye can see to see greater details.
There are several types of microscope but the most widely used type is the light
microscope.

Figure 1.22: The light microscope

The Light Microscope

The maximum magnification of a light microscope is around 1,500 times (1500x),
and that of an electron microscope is around a million times (1,000,000x)
Although in schools and colleges it is only around 400 times (400x)

Parts of the Light Microscope

1. Eyepiece Lens: lens at the top that you look through to observe specimens.
Magnification of the eyepiece lens is usually (10x or 15x). The eyepiece
lens may be monocular (one lens) or binocular (two lenses).
2. Tube: connects the eyepiece lens to the objective lenses.
3. Objective lenses: objective lenses are found on the revolving nosepiece. There
are three objective lenses with magnifications 4x, 10x and 40x. Together

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with the eyepiece lens, the objective lenses are used to view specimens. The
total magnification of a specimen viewed is obtained by multiplying the
magnifying power of the objective lens used by that of the eyepiece lens.
4. Arm: part connecting the base to the eyepiece. It is held when carrying or
tilting the light microscope.
5. Revolving nose piece: holds or houses the three objective lenses. It is
movable and rotated to select the desired objective lens. Always start with
low power first.
6. Coarse Adjustment knob: the larger pair of tuning knobs on the sides of the
microscope used for general focusing.
7. Fine Adjustment Knob: the smaller pair of tuning knob on the sides of the
microscope used for fine-tuning, bringing specimen into sharp focus.
8. Stage: firm platform on which specimen/slide is placed for viewing.
9. Clips: holds the specimen/slide in place.
10. Aperture: this is a hole in the stage of the microscope through which light is
transmitted to the stage.
11. Condenser: lenses found under the stage that collect and focus light from
the illuminator to the specimen on the stage.
12. Illuminator: the source of light located below the condenser is either a
mirror or an electric bulb. If a mirror, an external light source is required.
Not direct sun.
13. Diaphragm: controls the amount of light entering/reaching the specimen.

Activity 1.9: Identification of parts of the simple light microscope

Observe the simple light microscope in your laboratory or use the image
below to identify the missing parts.

Figure 1.23: A light microscope

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HOW TO CARE FOR A LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND

SLIDES
Ways to care for the microscope include the following precautions and steps that
are necessary for handling the light microscope to ensure its proper functioning
and longevity.
1. Do not touch the glass parts of the lenses with your fingers. Use lens tissue
to clean the lens.
2. Always carry the microscope with both hands with one hand supporting the
base and the other holding the arm.
3. Always handle the slides with care, as they can easily be shattered or
scratched because microscope slides and cover slips are small and delicate.
4. Never drop slides or covers slips . Set them down only on clean countertops.
5. Cover when not in use.
6. Store in a clean, dry place.
7. If the microscope uses electricity or a battery as the source of light, the bulb
must be allowed to cool down before packing.
8. Never use direct sunlight as a source of light for the mirror
9. Keep the microscope user manual for reference.
10. Keep the lenses in a desiccator containing silica gel to prevent mould growth
when not in use.
11. Keep the microscope in its box when not in use.

Activity 1.10: demonstrating how to safely handle the simple light

microscope.

Demonstrate to your friend at least five safe ways of handling the simple light
microscope

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TYPES OF MICROSCOPE SLIDE

Microscope slides are used to examine single-celled organisms and to observe
very small parts of organisms.
There are two types of prepared slides: Dry mounts (permanent slides) and Wet
mounts (temporary slides). Each type of preparation method is used for mounting
different types of cells or tissues.
If the specimen for a wet mount is particularly pale or translucent, it must be
stained with iodine, eosin or methylene blue to ensure it is visible under the
microscope.
CAUTION: Iodine and Methylene Blue are poisonous and should never be
ingested. They may also stain skin (temporarily) and clothing (permanently) so
always wear protective clothing such as a laboratory coat and hand gloves when
handling the chemicals.

Steps in Preparing a Wet Mount Slide

The general steps involved in the preparation of a wet mount include the following:
1. Gathering of Materials: The following materials are needed for the
preparation of a wet mount:
a) Specimen with a drop of water or stain
b) Staining dyes which can be used: iodine, eosin or methylene blue
c) Dropper or pipette
d) Razor blade or scalpel
2. Procedure
a) Clean both the microscope slides and coverslips with a lens paper or a
soft cloth to make them free from dust or debris. The specimen is placed
on a microscope slide. Use a dropper or pipette to place a small amount
of water unto the centre of the slide if the specimen is in a liquid medium
eg a drop of water containing microorganisms, If the specimen is solid
eg a piece of onion epidermal tissue, a drop of water may be added to the
specimen to help it adhere and also keep the cell hydrated.
b) A cover slip is gently lowered onto the specimen at an angle to avoid
trapping air bubbles. One edge of the cover slip is placed against the slide,
and then slowly lower the rest of the cover slip over the specimen.

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

c) A dye such as eosin or methylene blue may be added to specimens that are
transparent to enhance contrast and visibility.
d) A piece of blotting paper or tissue paper may be used to blot any excess
liquid around the edges of the coverslip.
e) Label the wet mount with the type of specimen and any other relevant
information to keep track of observations and findings.
f) The prepared wet mount is placed on the stage of the microscope. Turn the
nosepiece such that the lowest magnification objective lens is brought in
line with the eyepiece or ocular lens. Bring the specimen into focus using
the coarse adjustment knob first, then the fine adjustment knob to view the
specimen clearly. Focusing should be from the stage upward to prevent the
tendency of breaking the slide with the objective lens. Higher magnification
objective lenses are used in connection with the fine adjustment knob and
not the coarse adjustment knob. Take care the high-power lens does not
touch the coverslip.
g) After observing the specimen, the coverslip is carefully removed and
the microscope slide is cleaned for future use. The specimen is properly
disposed of according to laboratory protocols.

Figure 1.24: Preparing a Wet Mount

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

Activity 1.11: Preparation of a wet mount of onion epidermal cell

Material/equipment: Cover slip, Slide, Mounted needle/pin, Onion bulb

and iodine solution.
Caution: handle needle and fragile cover slips with care.
Steps:
1. Strip off a piece of epidermis from the inside of one of the inner ‘fleshy’
leaves of an onion bulb.
2. Dip a small piece of epidermis in iodine solution and with the help of the
pin, transfer unto the slide. Slowly remove the pin as you lower the cover
slip so as to avoid air bubbles.
3. Mount the prepared slide on the microscope stage and hold in place with
the clips.
4. Observe under low power first then high power magnification of the
microscope.
5. Make a drawing of the onion epidermal cell observed.
6. Discuss with your friend any key features observed and drawn.

NB: Rheo discolour may be used in the absence of onion.

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.1

1. Identify the various branches of biology.

2. Describe everyday applications of three to five branches of biology.
3. Discuss how biology is related to at least five other fields of work.
4. A patient visits the doctor for a check-up on heart-related issues. Write
out all the fields of work related to Biology from his visit to the hospital.

5. A student fell very sick and was sent to the hospital. He was diagnosed
by the doctor with the following ailments: diarrhoea, blood in urine,
stomach pain, ruptured tissues and a tumour in the brain. Identify
the various fields of work related to Biology that make the diagnosis
possible.
6. Consider the image below and use it to answer the following questions:

a) Explain the significance of adding salt to the fish?

b) Why was the fish dried for a number of days?
c) How does the salting and drying keep the fish from going bad?

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7. Identify the branches of biology associated with the production of

tinned milk.
8. How will you explain to your friends the concept of biology using the
things around you?
9. How is the knowledge of biology applied in everyday life?
10. Discuss how the knowledge of biology is applied in the production of
a) honey,
b) “koobi”
c) bottled fruit juice.
11. Your farmland has been degraded by illegal mining operators. Show
how you would use your knowledge gained in biology to reclaim the
degraded land.
12. Explain why you should use the scientific method in solving problems
encountered in everyday life.
13. Describe the two methods of thinking associated with the use of the
scientific method and give one example of each.
14. How would you explain the following terms to your colleague:
a) bilateral symmetry
b) radial symmetry
c) body orientation
d) sectioning
15. Why are some organisms said to be asymmetric?
16. Give any three examples of such organisms.
17. A student was asked to draw a dorsal view of a cockroach. How should
he position the cockroach in order to get the right view?
18. Write down the position of the location of the following parts of a lizard:
a) mouth
b) tail
c) ears
d) Nuchal crest
e) anus

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

19. Name two types of microscopes and state the maximum magnification
of each.
20. Describe briefly how any four parts of the light microscope contributes
to its effective functioning.
21. In what four ways would you care for the light microscope?
22. Describe how you would prepare a wet mount of an onion epidermal
tissue to be observed under the light microscope.

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.1

1. The three major branches of biology are Zoology, Botany and

Microbiology. Other branches are Mycology, Cytology, Histology,
Genetics and Evolution.
2.
• Mycology: In the brewery industry, yeast is employed to respire
anaerobically to cause sugar fermentation to produce alcohol.
• Cytology: Stem cell engineering to cure disease such as cancer
• Genetics: Crop varieties with improved disease resistance, drought
resistance, high yield and early maturity.
• Microbiology: Employed in the production of antibiotics and
sewage treatment.
• Histology: Employed in tissue culture of plant species with
desirable characters.
3. Other fields making use of knowledge in biology
• Food processing industries- The processing of cocoa beans into
chocolate employs the activities of microbes
• Pharmaceutical industry- uses knowledge in biology to test and
develop new drugs and treatments for a variety of diseases and
health conditions.
• Fisheries- hygiene protocols to prevent algal growth that may
cause demise of fish population and fingerlings.
• Conservation/restoration of natural resources- degraded land can
be reclaimed using biological techniques such as afforestation
cover cropping and bioengineering.
• Medical research - Research institutions such as centre for
scientific research into plant medicine, Mampong use knowledge
in plant anatomy, toxicity and dosage, as well as preparation
and interaction with other plants in their research to establish
suitability and efficacy of herbal preparations.

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

4.
• Nurses - take and record vital signs (blood pressure, temperature
and weight) of the patient employing the knowledge of anatomy
and physiology of the human body (zoology).
• Biomedical scientists - analyses blood and other body fluids making
use of knowledge in parasitology and microbiology to detect the
presence of disease-causing organisms.
• Radiologist/Radiographer - take chest x-ray and ECG
(electrocardiogram) of the patient to find out any abnormalities
in the appearance and function of the heart with background
knowledge in biophysics.
• Cardiologist - will make a diagnosis based on interpretation of
laboratory, x-ray and ECG findings.
• Pharmacist - prescribes appropriate medication using his
knowledge in pharmacology
5. Professionals who make input in the diagnosis of the sick student:
• Diarrhoea - general nurses, public health nurses/specialists.
• Blood in urine - public health nurses/ specialists and biomedical
scientists.
• Stomach pain - physician/physician assistant
• Raptured tissues - pathologist
• Tumour in the brain - neurologist/oncologist.
6.
a) Salt inhibits microbial activities by causing dehydration of the fish.
b) Drying further dehydrates the fish to prevent microbial activities.
c) Microorganisms such as bacteria which cause food spoilage to
thrive well in moisture to carry out their activities. Both salt and
drying create unfavourable conditions for them and so keeping the
food in good condition.
7. Tin milk production employs Microbiology and Biotechnology.
Microbiology - this involves pasteurisation. Pasteurisation is the
process by which milk is heated to a certain temperature to kill harmful
bacteria.

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

Biotechnology- this is involved in homogenisation. Homogenisation

is used to standardise and disperse milk fat globules to improve the
texture, taste and appearance of milk.
8. Biology is a branch of natural science that is concerned with the study
of living things, their structure and function and their interaction with
the environment.
9. In everyday activities such as food production, food preservation, home
hygiene, gardening and environmental protection.
10.
a) In honey production, the sucking of nectar by worker bees, the
enzymatic activities that transforms the nectar into honey in the gut
of the worker bee all hinges on knowledge in biology. Knowledge in
plant biology, bee biology and microbial interactions are essential
for bee farmers in maintaining healthy hives.
b) In salted fish/“koobi” production, salt is put into the fish to dehydrate
the fish which creates unfavourable condition for microbial
activities. Fish is also dried to dehydrate it for preservation.
c) In bottled fruit juice production, knowledge in biology will inform
us on the enzymatic reactions within various fruits. Understanding
the biological processes that goes on in the fruits will aid in
optimising timing, processing method, preservation to ensure fruit
juice quality and maximise shelf life.
11.
• This can be achieved through growing cover crops to protect further
surface soil erosion and loss of soil moisture.
• Practising crop rotation to ensure efficient use of soil nutrients at
different soil strata.
• Afforestation: Planting of fast-growing tree species such as teak,
cassia to reclaim areas affected by indiscriminate logging.
• Introduction of top soil to land areas affected by unregulated
surface mining (galamsey),
12. It is a problem-solving tool that breaks down complex issues into simple
components and hypothesis testing to find the root causes of a problem.
It also provides a structured approach to inquiry so that the conclusion

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of research work is based on empirical evidence rather than personal

belief or common sense.
13. Inductive thinking is when one makes a generalised conclusion from a
specific observation or pattern.
Example of Inductive Reasoning: Sunlight is necessary for plant
growth because you observe that plants that receive sunlight grow taller.
Deductive reasoning starts with a general principle and apply it to
specific situations to predict and test the hypothesis. It moves from
a broader idea and narrows to specific conclusions. Example of
Deductive Reasoning: All mammals give birth to live young ones;
sheep are mammals therefore sheep give birth to live young ones.
14.
a) An organism exhibits bilateral symmetry if it can be divided along
only one plane into two halves which are mirror images.
b) An organism exhibits radial symmetry if it can be divided along
more than one plane to produce two or more halves which are
mirror images.
c) A cut made through an object or organism that allows the internal
structures to be seen is called a section.
d) Orientation refers to the position of an organism when being
viewed.
15. Some organisms are said to be asymmetric because they have no line of
symmetry.
16.
• fiddler crab
• Amoeba proteus
• Achatina achatina (giant land snail)
17. Place it on its belly i.e. its natural orientation.
18.
a) Mouth- anterior
b) Tail - posterior
c) Ear - lateral
d) Nuchal crest - dorsal
e) Anus - ventral.

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19.
• Light microscope: Maximum magnification around 1,500x .
• Electron microscope: Maximum magnification around 1 million x.
Although in schools and colleges only around 400x.
20. Hint: refer to notes on parts and functions of light microscope.
21. Hint: refer to notes on precautions for handling light microscope.
22. Hint: refer to notes on slide preparation.
23.
• Wet mounts are temporary slides preparations while permanent
mounts are dry mounts and can be stored.
• Wet mounts have no fixatives while permanent mounts have.

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

GLOSSARY
Aeration: introducing air into a substance to increase oxygen levels
Biochemistry: study of chemical processes within living organisms
Countertops: flats surfaces in kitchens or bathrooms used for preparation and
display
Empirical: based on observation, experience or experimentation rather than
theory
Fermentation: chemical reaction converting sugars into alcohol, gases or acids
often in microorganisms
Genetic engineering: altering an organism’s DNA to introduce desired traits
Hypothesis: proposed explanation or educated guess tested through research
Irrigation: artificial supply of water for crops or land
Lab protocols: detailed procedures for conducting scientific experiments
Phenomena: observable events, situations or experiences
Physiology: study of functions and processes within living organisms
Theories: well accepted or substantiated explanations for natural phenomena
Translucent: allowing light to pass through but not completely transparent.

EXTENDED READING
The sites below provide resources for further studies
https://www.biologynotesonline.com
Also search YouTube for videos on biology as a science of life, importance of
biology, branches of biology and fields of work related to biology.

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SECTION 1 Introduction to Biology, the Scientific Method, Organisms and Microscopes

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
NAME INSTITUTION
Vincent Ahorsu OLA SHS, Ho
Peter Blankson Daanu Nkyeraa SHS
Very Rev. Lewis Asare Prempeh College, Kumasi
Gloria N.D. Nartey Nsutaman Catholic SHS

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