INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

Thomas Hobbes
- An English philosopher who theorized the social contract theory
- He believed that human beings are inherently evil and selfish, and he developed an
argument about what human beings are in the state of nature.
- In the state of nature, "humans had primitive knowledge, but they are all equal and
equally have the right to do whatever they see necessary for their survival."

Thomas Hobbes' Four Operations of Thought Process

- Perception
- Imagination
- Memory
- Thinking

The Social Contract

- An agreement or a promise between individuals. In this contract, humans are
transferring their right to rule themselves to a sovereign - The Great Leviathan.
- Humanity's natural tendency to be evil prompted Hobbes to argue that each person must
give up their rights to the sovereign for the good of everyone.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- Another political thinker formulated a social contract theory.
- He has a different premise about the nature of the human person. People in society do
not give up their freedoms.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau stated, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."

Rousseau's Social Contract

- People selflessly bind themselves for the sake of their common good.
- They do not subject themselves to any authority or person.
- Everyone is sovereign.
- The General will is directed to the common good of everyone.

The Evolution of Inequality

- Karl Marx first formulated an analysis of the political economy. Which later became
known as Marxism.
- Marx asserted that reality is a material world and the totality of the natural environment
has a dual nature:
- Inorganic nature or the product of humanity's alterations and utilization of the natural
environment.
- Organic nature or the natural environment as it is, social life, and human consciousness.
Two Aspects of Production
1. Factors of Production - includes the means of production, such as the raw materials,
instruments, and the human capital or experienced labor.
2. Relations of Production - refers to how people are related to each other considering
the properties or the means of production that each of them owns or has access to

Karl Marx's Five Epochs of History

- Each epoch's social systems or relations of production differ from each other depending
on how much of the means of production each social class owns or controls.

Primitive and Communal - Hunting and Gathering

Slavery - Slave owners and slaves
Feudal - Class system
Capitalist - Bourgeoisie and Proletariat
Socialist and Communist

Why Self-Love Corrupts Humans

- Jean-Jacques Rousseau believes that the reason for human's corrupted behavior
became the chains that hold them down from attaining genuine freedom.
- Rousseau exposed how humans are like puppets of society, always trying to catch up to
others, conforming to social standards while forgetting that each one has the freedom to
define oneself.

Why Women Are Oppressed

- Mary Wollstonecraft was considered the founder of modern feminist thought in the
English-speaking world.
- She asserted that "the education of girls should not be limited or be dependent on the
education of boys. Rather, girls ought to be educated alongside boys."
- Because of the unfair treatment of society toward women, Wollstonecraft argued that
women who have superior talents and skills are not able to actualize their great potential.

A Society Based on Justice as Fairness

- John Rawls was an American moral and political philosopher who taught as a professor
of philosophy at top American universities.
- Rawls proposed a thought experiment he called the Original Position.
- The said experiment suggests that people ought to only use reason and logic, thus, they
would not know their actual positions in society.
- Only under the veil of ignorance, Rawls suggested that human beings reach a fair and
impartial agreement on what society should be.

"Good" as the Goodwill

Immanuel Kant
 - Argues that though the will of the human soul is free, its natural necessity is not.
- This natural necessity exists and subjects humanity to the laws of causality.
- Our actions are influenced, and past actions or events can determine us.

Anthropocentrism
- Regards humans as separate from and superior to nature and holds that human life has
intrinsic value while other entities, including animals, plants, mineral resources, and so
on, are resources that may justifiably be exploited for the benefit of humankind.

The Utilitarian "Good"

Jeremy Bentham
- Advocated the quantitative aspect of utilitarianism and was the first Western philosopher
who granted non-human animals equal consideration alongside humans.
- He argued that pain and pleasure would be the main criteria in every judgment and
decision.

The Principle of Utility

- Is "that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to
the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish happiness" as the basis of
morality.

Pleasure-Pain Calculus
- A method to know the amount of pain and pleasure that a certain action would produce
in mathematical precision.
- As Bentham believed, "Who is there that does not calculate? Men calculate, some with
less exactness, indeed, and some with more: but all men calculate."
- Intensity
- Duration
- Certainty
- Extent
- Propinquity/Nearness
- Fecundity (The chances of being followed by more pleasure)
- Purity (The chances that it will be followed by some pain)

John Stuart Mill

- Advocated for the qualitative approach to utilitarianism.
- Mill argued that pleasures of the intellect, of feelings and imagination, have a higher
value than pleasures of mere sensation.
- "Human beings have faculties more elevated than the animal appetites, and when once
conscious of them, do not regard anything as happiness which does not include their
gratification."
- Mill said that he would "rather be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied" or that "it is
better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."
To Whom Do We Owe to Be "Good”

Aldo Leopold
- An American philosopher, scientist, and ecologist.
- Leopold has been influential in the advancement of modern environmental ethics.
- He advocated for a holistic view of morality.

Ecological Conscience
- An understanding of the interrelatedness and interdependence of all members of the
ecosystems.

The Ancient Ideal Society

Plato
- The state is like a giant person.
- The state also showcases a division of labor among its people to perform certain
functions to address their needs.

State's Division of Labor

- Philosopher - King/Queen
- Auxiliaries and Guardians
- Workers and Craftsmen

Philosopher - King/Queen
- The most skilled, virtuous, educated, and highly trained people. He shall be chosen to
serve as a ruler. This person represents the rational part of the soul.

Auxiliaries and Guardians

- Guardians represent the spirited section of the soul. Guard a state against its invaders
and enemies.
- Auxiliaries refer to the rest of the guardians who shall serve as the philosopher-kings,
including the police, the army, and the civil servants.

Workers and Craftsmen

- Represents the lowest part of the soul, the appetitive section.

Modern Notions of the Ideal Society

Natural Liberty
- Having an unlimited right to everything

Civil Liberty
 - The right gained in the social contract. It is given by the state. It is the right to freely act
in a society within a framework based on all of its members' general will.

Veil of Ignorance
- The disregard of a person's status, age, sex, race, social class, religion, abilities, or
preferences to avoid biases in making judgments. The person shall only use logic and
reason.

Philosophy as Preparation for Death

- Fear of death may not exist if the person strongly believes in the afterlife. In many
religions, this belief has served as a source of comfort as it gives one hope of having a
continued existence after death. Plato also believed in an afterlife . For him, we are our
soul and death is the liberation of the soul from its imprisonment in the body.
- Socrates explains that philosophy is the practice of death. Since a philosopher is serious
about the questions that deal with the nature of their existence in the world, he is serious
about what truly matters in life.

Friedrich Nietzsche
- Ubermencsh or 'overman' is a person who can go beyond the imposed values,
prejudices, and morality of society, and can define his moral convictions.

On the Three Metamorphoses

- Nietzsche describes the change of the spirit as it transforms itself towards being an
individual that can go beyond what is imposed upon it and create its moral system.
- This spiritual transformation has three stages, using animals as metaphors:
- Camel
- Lion
- Child

Happiness as the Ultimate Goal

- For many people, the goal of life is simple. The ultimate goal is true happiness - either
through fulfillment of a dream or experiences of pleasures. This seems to be universally
desired by everyone. It is also desired for its own sake, and all the other desires are
geared toward it.
- In Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, one can find his notion of true happiness, called
eudaimonia. However, this term must not be taken as the typical happiness of having a
pleasurable feeling. It is more than just an emotional state of pleasure. A more accurate
description would be human flourishing, a form of inner joy that comes with living a
virtuous life.

MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY

Symbolic Codes
● Setting
● Mise-En-Scene
● Acting
● Color

Technical Codes
● Camera shots
● Lighting

Written Codes
- This refers to words used on screen to reinforce the images. These tend to be believed
unquestioningly and are a quick and cheap way of conveying information.

They might include:

● The title of person being interviewed as well as their qualifications, occupation or
relationship
● Times, dates and places of events
● Facts, statistics or definitions
● News headlines and article excerpts
● Other comments from the film maker written on screen

Charts, Graphs & Statistics

 - These can be used to depict ideas visually, making it easier for viewers to digest the
information provided.
- They also work similarly to expert opinion in that they look scientific and add credibility,
making the film makers appear knowledgeable and unbiased, further positioning us to
agree with their perspective.
- It's important to remember that they can also be manipulated to support the view of the
film maker. Film makers will usually only select research that supports their argument.

Audio Codes

Music and Sound Effects

There are two main types of sound in media. They are:

Diegetic Sound
- This is sound whose source is visible on the screen or whose source is implied to be
present by the action of the film e.g. voices, sounds made by objects etc.
- The purpose of this type of sound is to create realism.

Non Diegetic Sound

- This is sound whose source is not visible on screen nor has it been implied to be
present in the action e.g. narrator’s commentary, sound effects, mood music.
- This type of sound is used to create emotion. It also helps create atmosphere and mood.

Form Conventions

Form conventions are the certain ways we expect types of media’s codes to be arranged.

● For instance an audience expects to have a title of the film at the beginning, and then
credits at the end.
● Newspapers will have a masthead, the most important news on the front page and
sports news on the back page.
● Video games usually start with a tutorial to explain the mechanics of how the game
works.

Genre Conventions

Genre conventions point to the common use of tropes, characters, settings or themes in a
particular type of medium.

● Hero and villain

● Damsel in distress and knight in shining armor
● Rich vs Poor

Story Conventions
Story conventions are common narrative structures and understandings that are common in
storytelling media products.

● Narrative structures
● Cause and effect
● Character construction
● Point of View

Semiotics/Semiotics Analysis
● study of signs, codes and conventions in film
● meaning comes from some pre-established (cultural) idea

Four types of signs and codes exist in semiotic analysis of film:

Indexical Signs - cues to existing knowledge, ex. smoke means fire

Iconic Signs - literal signs of the code, ex. police means justice
Enigma - creates a question which the film will then go on to answer, ex. how will they survive
the apocalypse

How to Evaluate Media Materials

Authority/authorship
- Who created the work (e.g. broadcaster, publisher, government)?
- Can you locate the original source of the image? Tools such as Google Reverse Image
Finder can help you locate the source of an image

Currency/timeliness
- How current is the information and coverage?
- Can the same information or images be found through other reputable sources or sites
for confirmation?

Coverage/relevance
- Has there been sufficient time for accurate analysis and understanding of the topic?
News reports may require time for follow-up; consider the depth of information when
searching for substantive sources.

Purpose/audience
- For what purpose was the material created (e.g. entertainment, educational,
promotional, commercial, professional)? Consider where and how the image is being
displayed and why.

Accuracy/documentation
 - Is the image staged, reenacted, or authentic? Are the news reports genuine or are they
satirical?
- How does that impact the transmission of information?

Objectivity/thoroughness
- Is the information presented in an objective manner or is it biased? Edited or altered
photographs and films are examples of how media can transmit selective information.
- Determine the intent of the information and whether it represents a particular or biased
opinion. Images and sounds may be altered or manipulated; practices such as
voice-over narration, framing, editing, and lighting can be used to shape a particular
point of view.
- Compare a cross-section of different media sources to help determine accuracy.
- Are different points of view offered? Are conclusions supported by evidence?
PRIVATE OWNERSHIP
- The TV market is highly concentrated (88.77%). ABS-CBN Corporation, GMA Network
Inc., TV5 Network and Nine Media Corporation. ABS-CBN Corporation and GMA
Network form a duopoly with an audience share of 80.72%.
- The radio market is also highly concentrated (84.3%). ABS-CBN Corporation (DZMM
630), GMA Network Inc. (DZBB 594), Philippine Broadcasting Service-Bureau of
Broadcast Services (PBS-BBS), run by the Presidential Communications Operations
Office (PCOO) through DZRB 738, Manila Broadcasting Company (DZRH 666).
- Print market concentration is low, mingling around 5% audience share each.

ROLE OF RELIGION
- Religious leaders are revered and occupy a unique position of power and influence in
the Philippine community. Combine that with the power of mass media, and it makes for
a very potent mix. Given that, politicians seek the endorsements of some religious
leaders during elections.

Influential religious leaders registered as media owners:

- Eduardo “Brother Eddie” Villanueva, Jesus is Lord Church Worldwide (A2Z)
- Apollo C. Quiboloy, Sonshine Media Network International (SMNI)
- Executive Minister Eduardo V. Manalo, Iglesia Ni Cristo (INC TV)

Other televangelists:
- Mariano “Brother Mike” Velarde, El Shaddai
- Eliseo “Brother Eli” Soriano, Members Church of God International (Ang Dating Daan)
STATE-RUN MEDIA
● The Philippine government currently has ownership claims over three television stations
and one radio network:
- PTV 4 or the People’s Television Network Incorporated (PTNI)
- RPN 9 (now CNN Philippines) 20% share
- Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation (IBC) or IBC 13
- Radyo ng Bayan
● These media entities are all under the Presidential Communications Operations Office
(PCOO), the office that handles the dissemination of the Philippine president’s official
communications, and supervises and controls state-owned media and the accreditation
and authentication of the credentials of foreign media correspondents.

MEDIA CONCENTRATION
- Media concentration happens when fewer companies or individuals own an increasing
number of shares in mass media. The fewer news media owners there are, the higher
the concentration of ownership.

IMPACT OF UNDUE CONCENTRATION OF MEDIA OWNERSHIP ON FREEDOM OF

EXPRESSION AND DEMOCRACY
- threatens the ability of the media system as a whole to reflect the variety of ideas,
viewpoints and opinions that exist in society and to represent all political, cultural and
social groups.
- reduces the number of sources of news and information undermines the quality of public
debate by reducing the number of perspectives and ideas that fuel it.
- leads to concentration of power, which can then be used to undermine core democratic
values.

COMMODITIZATION
- Commoditization is the process of converting products or services into standardized,
marketable objects.
- This process tends to strip away unique or identifying qualities of the commodity in favor
of identical, lower cost items that can be interchanged with one another.
- A good example of this is the iPhone, upon release it’s touchscreen and multitasking
capabilities were revolutionary, but it wasn’t long before every phone had a touchscreen
and the same type of multitasking ability, the once distinctive features getting
commoditised.

INFORMATION COMMODITIZATION STRATEGIES

- Distinguish between proprietary information rights and public-domain information
- Appreciate the use of public-domain information to promote universal access to
information and to serve the common good
- Free and open-source software use
- Create a stigma of respect for intellectual property rights
- Advertising as the lifeblood of commercial media
 - Ratings and circulation figures as gauges for media products and service

ALTERNATIVE MEDIA
- are sources that differ from established or dominant types of media (such as mainstream
media or mass media) in terms of their content, production, or distribution.
- These media present the lesser known, ignored and perhaps even excluded sectors
from discussion by the established communities and institutions of society.
- Historical examples include La Solidaridad and Kalayaan, mosquito press during the
former Marcos regime.
- Tudla Productions, Southern Tagalog Exposure, Mayday Multimedia, Altermidya -
People’s Alternative Media Network

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Media information literacy is relevant to all 17 SDGs

In particular, it reflects on the following:

- Quality Education (SDG4)
- Gender Equality (SDG5)
- Decent World and Job Opportunities (SDG8)
- Reduced Inequalities (SDG10)
- Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG11)
- Promoting Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions (SDG16)
- Revitalizing Partnerships (SDG17)
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Scalar Quantity vs. Vector Quantity

Scalar Quantity
- It is any quantity in physics that has magnitude, but there is no direction associated with
it.
- Distance
- Speed

Vector Quantity
- It is any quantity in physics that has both magnitude, and direction associated with it.
- Displacement
- Velocity
- Acceleration
- Free-fall Motion

Speed and Velocity

Speed
- Is the amount of time for an object to cover a certain distance.
- Answers are always positive

Velocity
- Is the speed of an object in a given direction.
- Answers will either be positive or negative
Average Speed and Average Velocity

Average Speed
- The average speed of an object is the total distance traveled by the object divided b the
elapsed time to cover that distance.

Average Velocity
- The average velocity of an object is its total displacement divided by the total time taken.
It is the rate at which an object changes its position from one place to another.
Acceleration
- It is the rate of change in velocity.
- Because velocity includes speed, and direction of an object, while acceleration can be a
change in: (a.) How fast the object is moving, and (b.) What direction the object is
moving.
- Acceleration occurs when an object changes its speed or direction or both.

Overview of Forces
● A force (F) is any interaction between at least two objects that, when unopposed,
induces change in the motion of said objects.
● The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
● Contact force is when two bodies touch each other during the exertion of the force.
● Non-contact Force acts upon an object even without another object touching its surface.

Newton’s Laws of Force

● Isaac Newton asked a question on “How do forces exactly change an object’s motion?”
● He developed theories and formulas that succinctly relate the motion of an object with
the other circumstances of that object, such as external forces that are applied to it.
● The culmination of Newton’s research is the development of his law of motions, universal
gravitation, and conversation of mass, momentum, and energy.

Newton’s First Law of Force

● Law of Inertia
● An object remains at constant velocity until an external force is applied to it.
● Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist change in motion.

Newton’s Second Law of Force

● Law of Acceleration
● When a certain force is exerted upon an object, it moves with a proportional
acceleration. The direction of the force is the same as the direction of acceleration.
● F = ma
● F: force
● m: mass
● a: acceleration

Newton’s Third Law of Force

● Law of Interaction
● When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of forces acting upon it is zero.
● For every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

● The Law of Universal Gravitation describes the strength of the gravitational force
experienced by two objects.
● Where:
 ● G is the gravitational constant (6.67𝑥10−11𝑁𝑚2/𝑘𝑔2).
● m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects that are interacting.
● r is the distance between the center of both objects.

Conversation of Momentum, Mass, and Energy

● Momentum (p) is the product of a moving object's mass (m) and its velocity (v).
● 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
● Impulse is the product of the force and the time interval during the force acts.
● Change in momentum.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

● If no external forces act on the objects during the collision and if neither object will lose
mass, the final total momentum of the objects would actually be equal to their initial total
momentum.
● 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 = 𝑝1′ + 𝑝2′
● This tendency is also known as the Law of Conservation of Momentum
● If the net external force acting on the system is zero, the total momentum of the system
is conserved.

Law of Conservation of Energy

● The total combined energy of the objects before the collision would be the same after
their collision.

Law of Conservation of Mass

● When there is no transfer of mass from the colliding system to its surroundings, mass is
also conserved.

Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity

● 1905 Albert Einstein published four papers in the journal Annalen Der Physik.
● His insights on the photoelectric effect earned him his sole Nobel Prize award.
● Theory of Special Relativity, which explains the motion objects in different inertial frames
of reference.

Einstein’s First postulate: the relativity principle

● This postulate states that the laws of physics are the same in any IFR.
● What this tells you is that no inertial frame is “more correct” than the other.
● Simply put, there is no absolute frame of reference in the universe from which motion
can be described or compared with.

Einstein’s Second postulate: the constancy of the speed of light

● The speed of light in a vacuum is the same in all IFRs and is independent of the motion
of the source.
● Although the speed of light changes when it moves through glass or water, it cannot go
faster than 3.0𝑥108𝑚/𝑠, its speed in a vacuum.
Mass-energy Equivalence
● The fourth paper that Einstein published in his most prolific year concerns the direct
relationship between mass and energy.
● He theorized that matter can be turned into energy and energy can be turned into matter
- Mass-energy Equivalence.
● When energy transforms into mass, the amount of energy that transforms is not
constant. Some of the energy turns into mass, and vice versa.

Why practical travel at relativistic speed is impossible

● The faster an object is moving, the more kinetic energy it has. Because energy can be
transformed into mass, the more energy it has, the more massive the objects becomes
● Therefore, the faster an object, the more massive it gets.
● It is impossible to make matter travel at the speed of light because this would take an
infinite amount of energy.

Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity

● The theory of special relativity can only predict what happens to observers moving in a
straight line at a constant speed.
● The theory did not apply to situations where gravity was present or if the observer was
accelerating and decelerating.
● He published the theory of general relativity, which sought to expand on the initial points
he proposed in his theory of special relativity.

The relationship between gravity and acceleration

● Acceleration and gravity are indistinguishable from each other following
the principle of equivalence, Einstein inferred that light bends in the presence of gravity.
● This is possible because light always takes the shortest path between two points.
● He hypothesized that in the presence of mass and energy, space itself somehow
becomes curved so that the shortest path that light can take is a curved path.
● His model tells us that gravity does not affect space and time, but rather, it acts within it.
● The movement of matter is constrained by space-time, while at the same time, matter
makes space-time curve. Any other mass-bearing entity follows these curvatures in the
space-time “fabric.”
 ● Space-time is a model that is used to visualize the four-dimensional universe, known as
Minkowski space.
● This model describes space as having three dimensions and one temporal dimension.
● It unites space and time into a single entity called the continuum. All events occur
● The bigger an object’s mass, the more it causes the space around it to curve. The
presence of a gravitational field slows the passage of time for an object as seen by an
observer outside of that field.
● Einstein proposed that the universe may curve a little bit in both space and time, so the
universe always has existed and always will exist.

Orbital shifts experienced by Mercury

● Mercury feels the strongest gravitational pull from the sun when it is closest to the Sun, a
point called perihelion, and the weakest pull when it is at aphelion, or the point when it is
farthest from the Sun.
● Mercury’s orbit traces a helical elliptical path as its orbital plane changes its angle with
respect to the plane of the ecliptic.
● The precession would be better predicted and explained by Einstein’s theory of general
relativity in that the motion of Mercury is dictated by how much the Sun curves
space-time around it.

Gravitational lensing
● Gravitational lensing is a phenomenon, wherein light bends neat a very strong
gravitational field as it travels near a massive body.
● Gravitational lensing can also create the appearance of two or more objects where there
is really just one.

Formation of black holes

● The time Einstein created his theory of general relativity, he did not have a single idea of
what a black hole is.
● His theory predicted the existence of such an object that is so massive that the curvature
of spce-time it produces prevents even light from escaping.
● This celestial object is “black”, because it absorbs all wavelengths of light and reflects
nothing.

Gravitational waves
● When two massive blackholes become close to each other, they orbit around each other
faster and faster, in the process producing detectable disturbances or ripples in the
space-time continuum called gravitational waves.
● These waves accelerate outward from the source at the speed of light.
● These waves carry and transport energy as well.

GOOOOODLUCK - Dix