Questions 97

a similar expression connects the wave and the particle aspects of those objects,
such as electrons, which have been previously considered to behave as classical
particles.

Chapter Summary
Section Section
λD 2πc
Double-slit yn = n n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . 3.1 Rayleigh-Jeans I(λ) = 4 kT 3.3
d λ
maxima formula
Bragg’s law for 2d sin θ = nλ n = 1, 2, 3, · · · 3.1 2πhc2 1
Planck’s blackbody I(λ) = 5 hc/λkT − 1
3.3
X-ray diffraction λ e
distribution
Energy of photon E = hf = hc/λ 3.2 1 1 1
Compton − = (1 − cos θ ), 3.4
Maximum kinetic Kmax = eVs = hf − φ 3.2 E′ E me c2
scattering
energy of h
λ′ − λ = (1 − cos θ )
photoelectrons me c
Cutoff λc = hc/φ 3.2 Bremsstrahlung λmin = hc/K = hc/e)V 3.5
wavelength Pair production hf = E+ + E− = 3.5
Stefan’s law I= σ T4 3.3 (me c2 + K+ ) + (me c2 + K− )
Wien’s λmax T = 2.8978 × 10−3 m · K 3.3 Electron-positron (me c2 + K+ ) + (me c2 + K− ) 3.5
displacement law annihilation = E1 + E2

Questions

1. The diameter of an atomic nucleus is about 10 × 10−15 m. 8. In the photoelectric effect, how can a photon moving in one
Suppose you wanted to study the diffraction of photons direction eject an electron moving in a different direction?
by nuclei. What energy of photons would you choose? What happens to conservation of momentum?
Why? 9. In Figure 3.10, why does the photoelectric current rise
2. How is the wave nature of light unable to account for the slowly to its saturation value instead of rapidly, when the
observed properties of the photoelectric effect? potential difference is greater than Vs ? What does this figure
3. In the photoelectric effect, why do some electrons have indicate about the experimental difficulties that might arise
kinetic energies smaller than Kmax ? from trying to determine Vs in this way?
4. Why doesn’t the photoelectric effect work for free electrons? 10. Suppose that the frequency of a certain light source is just
5. What does the work function tell us about the properties of a above the cutoff frequency of the emitter, so that the pho-
metal? Of the metals listed in Table 3.1, which has the least toelectric effect occurs. To an observer in relative motion,
tightly bound electrons? Which has the most tightly bound? the frequency might be Doppler shifted to a lower value
6. Electric current is charge flowing per unit time. If we increase that is below the cutoff frequency. Would this moving
the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons (by increasing observer conclude that the photoelectric effect does not
the energy of the incident photons), shouldn’t the cur- occur? Explain.
rent increase, because the charge flows more rapidly? Why 11. Why do cavities that form in a wood fire seem to glow
doesn’t it? brighter than the burning wood itself? Is the temperature
7. What might be the effects on a photoelectric effect exper- in such cavities hotter than the surface temperature of the
iment if we were to double the frequency of the incident exposed burning wood?
light? If we were to double the wavelength? If we were to 12. What are the fields of classical physics on which the clas-
double the intensity? sical theory of blackbody radiation is based? Why don’t
98 Chapter 3 | The Particlelike Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation

we believe that the “ultraviolet catastrophe” suggests that 18. TV sets with picture tubes can be significant emitters of
something is wrong with one of those classical theories? X rays. What is the origin of these X rays? Estimate their
13. In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum do room- wavelengths.
temperature objects radiate? What problems would we have 19. The X-ray peaks of Figure 3.20 are not sharp but are spread
if our eyes were sensitive in that region? over a range of wavelengths. What reasons might account
14. How does the total intensity of thermal radiation vary when for that spreading?
the temperature of an object is doubled? 20. A beam of photons passes through a block of matter. What
15. Compton-scattered photons of wavelength λ′ are observed are the three ways discussed in this chapter that the photons
at 90◦ . In terms of λ′ , what is the scattered wavelength can lose energy in interacting with the material?
observed at 180◦ ? 21. Of the photon processes discussed in this chapter (pho-
16. The Compton-scattering formula suggests that objects toelectric effect, thermal radiation, Compton scattering,
viewed from different angles should show scattered light bremsstrahlung, pair production, electron-positron annihila-
of different wavelengths. Why don’t we observe a change in tion), which conserve momentum? Energy? Mass? Number
color of objects as we change the viewing angle? of photons? Number of electrons? Number of electrons
17. You have a monoenergetic source of X rays of energy 84 minus number of positrons?
keV, but for an experiment you need 70 keV X rays. How
would you convert the X-ray energy from 84 to 70 keV?

Problems
3.1 Review of Electromagnetic Waves are continuously bombarded by these photons. Why are they
1. A double-slit experiment is performed with sodium light not dangerous to us?
(λ = 589.0 nm). The slits are separated by 1.05 mm, and the 7. (a) What is the wavelength of an X-ray photon of energy
screen is 2.357 m from the slits. Find the separation between 10.0 keV? (b) What is the wavelength of a gamma-ray pho-
adjacent maxima on the screen. ton of energy 1.00 MeV? (c) What is the range of energies
2. In Example 3.1, what angle of incidence will produce the of photons of visible light with wavelengths 350 to 700 nm?
second-order Bragg peak? 8. What is the cutoff wavelength for the photoelectric effect
3. Monochromatic X rays are incident on a crystal in the geom- using an aluminum surface?
etry of Figure 3.5. The first-order Bragg peak is observed 9. A metal surface has a photoelectric cutoff wavelength
when the angle of incidence is 34.0◦ . The crystal spacing of 325.6 nm. It is illuminated with light of wavelength
is known to be 0.347 nm. (a) What is the wavelength of 259.8 nm. What is the stopping potential?
the X rays? (b) Now consider a set of crystal planes that 10. When light of wavelength λ illuminates a copper surface,
makes an angle of 45◦ with the surface of the crystal (as the stopping potential is V . In terms of V , what will be
in Figure 3.6). For X rays of the same wavelength, find the the stopping potential if the same wavelength is used to
angle of incidence measured from the surface of the crystal illuminate a sodium surface?
that produces the first-order Bragg peak. At what angle from 11. The cutoff wavelength for the photoelectric effect in a cer-
the surface does the emerging beam appear in this case? tain metal is 254 nm. (a) What is the work function for
4. A certain device for analyzing electromagnetic radiation is that metal? (b) Will the photoelectric effect be observed for
based on the Bragg scattering of the radiation from a crystal. λ > 254 nm or for λ < 254 nm?
For radiation of wavelength 0.149 nm, the first-order Bragg 12. A surface of zinc is illuminated and photoelectrons are
peak appears centered at an angle of 15.15◦ . The aperture of observed. (a) What is the largest wavelength that will cause
the analyzer passes radiation in the angular range of 0.015◦ . photoelectrons to be emitted? (b) What is the stopping
What is the corresponding range of wavelengths passing potential when light of wavelength 220.0 nm is used?
through the analyzer?
3.3 Blackbody Radiation
3.2 The Photoelectric Effect 13. (a) Show that in the classical result for the energy distribu-
5. Find the momentum of (a) a 10.0-MeV gamma ray; (b) a tion of the cavity wall oscillators (Eq. 3.32), the total number
25-keV X ray; (c) a 1.0-µm infrared photon; (d) a 150-MHz of oscillators at all energies is N. (b) Show that Eav = kT
radio-wave photon. Express the momentum in kg · m/s and for the classical oscillators.
eV/c. 14. (a) Writing the discrete Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
6. Radio waves have a frequency of the order of 1 to 100 MHz. for Planck’s cavity wall oscillators as Nn = Ae−En /kT
What is the range of energies of these photons? Our bodies (where A is a constant to be determined), show that the
 Problems 99


∞ 26. X-ray photons of wavelength 0.02480 nm are incident on a
condition Nn = N gives A = N(1 − e−ε/kT ) as in Eq. target and the Compton-scattered photons are observed at
n=0

∞ 90.0◦ . (a) What is the wavelength of the scattered photons?
3.38. [Hint: Use enx = (1 − ex )−1 ]. (b) By taking the (b) What is the momentum of the incident photons? Of the
n=0
derivative with respect to x of the equation given in the scattered photons? (c) What is the kinetic energy of the

∞
scattered electrons? (d) What is the momentum (magnitude
hint, show that nenx = ex /(1 − ex )2 . (c) Use this result
n=0 and direction) of the scattered electrons?
to derive Eq. 3.40 from Eq. 3.39. (d) Show that Eav = ∼ kT at 27. High-energy gamma rays can reach a radiation detector
large λ and Eav → 0 for small λ. by Compton scattering from the surroundings, as shown
15. By differentiating Eq. 3.41 show that I(λ) has its maximum in Figure 3.26. This effect is known as back-scattering.
as expected according to Wien’s displacement law, Eq. 3.27. Show that, when E ≫ me c2 , the back-scattered photon has
16. Integrate Eq. 3.41 to obtain Eq. 3.26. Use the definite inte- an energy of approximately 0.25 MeV, independent of the
∞
gral 0 x3 dx/(ex − 1) = π 4 /15 to obtain Eq. 3.42 relating energy of the original photon, when the scattering angle is
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant to Planck’s constant. nearly 180◦ .
17. Use the numerical value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant to
find the numerical value of Planck’s constant from Eq. 3.42.
18. The surface of the Sun has a temperature of about 6000 K. At Detector
what wavelength does the Sun emit its peak intensity? How
does this compare with the peak sensitivity of the human eye?
19. The universe is filled with thermal radiation, which has a
blackbody spectrum at an effective temperature of 2.7 K (see
Chapter 15). What is the peak wavelength of this radiation?
What is the energy (in eV) of quanta at the peak wavelength? FIGURE 3.26 Problem 27.
In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum is this peak
wavelength? 28. Gamma rays of energy 0.662 MeV are Compton scattered.
20. (a) Assuming the human body (skin temperature 34◦ C) (a) What is the energy of the scattered photon observed at a
to behave like an ideal thermal radiator, find the wave- scattering angle of 60.0◦ ? (b) What is the kinetic energy of
length where the intensity from the body is a maximum. the scattered electrons?
In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum is radiation
with this wavelength? (b) Making whatever (reasonable) 3.5 Other Photon Processes
assumptions you may need, estimate the power radiated by 29. Suppose an atom of iron at rest emits an X-ray photon
a typical person isolated from the surroundings. (c) Estimate of energy 6.4 keV. Calculate the “recoil” momentum and
the radiation power absorbed by a person in a room in which kinetic energy of the atom. (Hint: Do you expect to need
the temperature is 20◦ C. classical or relativistic kinetic energy for the atom? Is the
21. A cavity is maintained at a temperature of 1650 K. At kinetic energy likely to be much smaller than the atom’s rest
what rate does energy escape from the interior of the cavity energy?)
through a hole in its wall of diameter 1.00 mm? 30. What is the minimum X-ray wavelength produced in
22. An analyzer for thermal radiation is set to accept wave- bremsstrahlung by electrons that have been accelerated
lengths in an interval of 1.55 nm. What is the intensity of the through 2.50 × 104 V?
radiation in that interval at a wavelength of 875 nm emitted 31. An atom absorbs a photon of wavelength 375 nm and imme-
from a glowing object whose temperature is 1675 K? diately emits another photon of wavelength 580 nm. What
23. (a) Assuming the Sun to radiate like an ideal thermal source is the net energy absorbed by the atom in this process?
at a temperature of 6000 K, what is the intensity of the
solar radiation emitted in the range 550.0 nm to 552.0 nm? General Problems
(b) What fraction of the total solar radiation does this 32. A certain green light bulb emits at a single wavelength of
represent? 550 nm. It consumes 55 W of electrical power and is 75%
efficient in converting electrical energy into light. (a) How
3.4 The Compton Effect many photons does the bulb emit in one hour? (b) Assuming
24. Show how Eq. 3.48 follows from Eq. 3.47. the emitted photons to be distributed uniformly in space,
25. Incident photons of energy 10.39 keV are Compton scat- how many photons per second strike a 10 cm by 10 cm paper
tered, and the scattered beam is observed at 45.00◦ relative held facing the bulb at a distance of 1.0 m?
to the incident beam. (a) What is the energy of the scattered 33. When sodium metal is illuminated with light of wavelength
photons at that angle? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the 4.20 × 102 nm, the stopping potential is found to be 0.65 V;
scattered electrons? when the wavelength is changed to 3.10 × 102 nm, the
100 Chapter 3 | The Particlelike Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation

stopping potential is 1.69 V. Using only these data and the 3.0 × 10−4 mm. What maximum and minimum radiation
values of the speed of light and the electronic charge, find the intensity do you expect to find in this region? (b) The
work function of sodium and a value of Planck’s constant. photon detector in the spectrometer is in the form of a
34. A photon of wavelength 192 nm strikes an aluminum sur- disk of diameter 0.86 cm. How many photons per second
face along a line perpendicular to the surface and releases will the spectrometer record at its maximum and minimum
a photoelectron traveling in the opposite direction. Assume intensities?
the recoil momentum is taken up by a single aluminum 40. A photon of wavelength 7.52 pm scatters from a free elec-
atom on the surface. Calculate the recoil kinetic energy of tron at rest. After the interaction, the electron is observed to
the atom. Would this recoil energy significantly affect the be moving in the direction of the original photon. Find the
kinetic energy of the photoelectron? momentum of the electron.
35. A certain cavity has a temperature of 1150 K. (a) At what 41. A hydrogen atom is moving at a speed of 125.0 m/s. It
wavelength will the intensity of the radiation inside the cavity absorbs a photon of wavelength 97 nm that is moving in the
have its maximum value? (b) As a fraction of the maximum opposite direction. By how much does the speed of the atom
intensity, what is the intensity at twice the wavelength found change as a result of absorbing the photon?
in part (a)? 42. Before a positron and an electron annihilate, they form a sort
36. In Compton scattering, calculate the maximum kinetic of “atom” in which each orbits about their common center
energy given to the scattered electron for a given photon of mass with identical speeds. As a result of this motion, the
energy. photons emitted in the annihilation show a small Doppler
37. The COBE satellite was launched in 1989 to study the shift. In one experiment, the Doppler shift in energy of the
cosmic background radiation and measure its temperature. photons was observed to be 2.41 keV. (a) What would be
By measuring at many different wavelengths, researchers the speed of the electron or positron before the annihilation
were able to show that the background radiation exactly to produce this Doppler shift? (b) The positrons form these
followed the spectral distribution expected for a black- atom-like structures with the nearly “free” electrons in a
body. At a wavelength of 0.133 cm, the radiant intensity is solid. Assuming the positron and electron must have about
1.440 × 10−7 W/m2 in a wavelength interval of 0.00833 cm. the same speed to form this structure, find the kinetic energy
What is the temperature of the radiation that would be of the electron. This technique, called “Doppler broaden-
deduced from these data? ing,” is an important method for learning about the energies
38. The WMAP satellite launched in 2001 studied the cosmic of electrons in materials.
microwave background radiation and was able to chart small 43. Prove that it is not possible to conserve both momentum
fluctuations in the temperature of different regions of the and total relativistic energy in the following situation: A
background radiation. These fluctuations in temperature cor- free electron moving at velocity , v emits a photon and then
respond to regions of large and small density in the early moves at a slower velocity , v′.
universe. The satellite was able to measure differences in 44. A photon of energy E interacts with an electron at rest
temperature of 2 × 10−5 K at a temperature of 2.7250 K. At and undergoes pair production, producing a positive elec-
the peak wavelength, what is the difference in the radiation tron (positron) and an electron (in addition to the original
intensity per unit wavelength interval between the “hot” and electron):
“cold” regions of the background radiation?
39. You have been hired as an engineer on a NASA project photon + e− → e+ + e− + e−
to design a microwave spectrometer for an orbital mis-
sion to measure the cosmic background radiation, which The two electrons and the positron move off with iden-
has a blackbody spectrum with an effective temperature tical momenta in the direction of the initial photon. Find
of 2.725 K. (a) The spectrometer is to scan the sky the kinetic energy of the three final particles and find the
between wavelengths of 0.50 mm and 5.0 mm, and at each energy E of the photon. (Hint: Conserve momentum and
wavelength it accepts radiation in a wavelength range of total relativistic energy.)