Mathematical System

axiomatic structure of a mathematical system in general,

and in Geometry in particular:
(a)defined terms;
(b)undefined terms;
(c)postulates;
and (d) theorems.
Objectives
➢ describes a mathematical system. M8GE-IIIa-1

➢ illustrates the need for an axiomatic structure of a

mathematical system in general, and in Geometry in
particular: (a) defined terms; (b) undefined terms;
(c) postulates; and (d) theorems. M8GE-IIIa-c-1
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Geometry is a way
of thinking about
and seeing the
world.

Geometry is evident
in nature, art and
culture. What geometric
objects do you see
in this picture?
 Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Geometry is both
ancient and modern.
Geometry originated as
a systematic study in
the works of Euclid,
through its synthesis
with the work of Rene
Descartes, to its
What geometric
present connections
objects do you see
with computer and in this picture?
calculator technology.
 Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

The basic terms and

postulates of
geometry will be
introduced as well as
the tools needed to
explore geometry.

What geometric
term are you
familiar with?
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Three building
blocks of geometry
are points, lines and
planes. They are
considered building
blocks because they
are basic and This is page
undefined in terms Page list 1 of 22

of other figures.
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A point is the most A

basic building block Q

of geometry. j
F
C
• has no size Points A and Q.

• indicates location CF or FC and j.

•represented by a
dot Page list
This is page
2 of 22

•named with a
capital letter. Last Next
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A line is a straight, A
continuous Q

arrangement of j
F
infinitely many C
Points A and Q.
points. CF or FC and j.

•has infinite length

but no thickness. This is page
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•extends forever in
two directions.
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A line is named with A

two identified points Q

on the line with a j

F
line symbol (double-
C
Points A and Q.

headed arrows) CF or FC and j.

placed over the
letters; or by a
This is page
single, lower case Page list 3 of 22

script letter.
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A plane has length

and width but no
thickness.
•is like a flat surface
the extends infinitely Q
along its length and
width.
This is page
•represented by a Page list 4 of 22

four-sided figure
drawn in perspective. Last Next
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A plane is named
G
with a script capital
letter, Q. F
It may also be Q
named using three E
points (not on the
same line) that lie This is page
Page list
in the plane, such 5 of 22

as G, F and E.
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

An axiomatic system
is a way of organizing
facts.
•Definition
•Postulates
•Theorems
•Corollary This is page
•Lemma Page list 15 of 22

•Proposition
•Conjecture Last Next
Claim
an assertion that is then proved. It is often
used like an informal lemma.
Conjecture
a statement that is unproved, but is believed to
be true (Collatz conjecture, Goldbach
conjecture, twin prime conjecture).

Goldbach conjecture
It states that every even whole number greater
than 2 is the sum of two prime numbers.
The conjecture has been shown to hold for all integers less
than 4 × 1018, but remains unproven despite considerable
effort.
Proposition
a proved and often interesting result, but
generally less important than a theorem.
Lemma
a minor result whose sole purpose is to help in proving a
theorem. It is a stepping stone on the path to proving a
theorem. Very occasionally lemmas can take on a life of
their own (Zorn’s lemma, Urysohn’s lemma, Burnside’s
lemma, Sperner’s lemma).
Zorn’s lemma
It states that a partially ordered set containing upper
bounds for every chain (that is, every totally
ordered subset) necessarily contains at least one maximal
element.
Corollary
a result in which the (usually short) proof relies heavily on a
given theorem (we often say that “this is a corollary of Theorem
A”).
➢ Following on from that theorem we find
that where two lines intersect, the angles
opposite each other (called Vertical
Angles) are equal (a=c and b=d in the
diagram).
Theorem
A theorem is a true statement that can be proven.
➢ a mathematical statement that is proved using rigorous
mathematical reasoning. In a mathematical paper, the term
theorem is often reserved for the most important results.

Angles on one side of a straight

line always add to 180°
Definition
a precise and unambiguous description of
the meaning of a mathematical term. It
characterizes the meaning of a word by
giving all the properties and only those
properties that must be true.
Identity
a mathematical expression giving the equality of two (often variable)
quantities (trigonometric identities, Euler’s identity).
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Mathematicians
accept undefined
terms and definitions
so that a consistent
system may be built.
The theorems of an
axiomatic system rest
on postulates and Page list
This is page
16 of 22
other theorems.
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

As with all axiomatic

systems, geometry is
connected with logic.
This logic is typically
expressed with
convincing argument
or proof.
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

•Consider the model.

Look at points A and E.
•How many lines pass
through these two
points?
•Complete the
postulate:
Through any two This is page
points there is Page list 20 of 22

exactly one
line . Last Next
 Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

•Consider the model. Look

at points A, E and H.
•How many planes pass
through these three
noncollinear points?
•Complete the postulate:
Through any three
noncollinear points This is page
Page list 21 of 22
there is exactly one
plane .
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Collinear points are

points that lie on the D
same line. B C
A
In the figure at the
right, A, B and C are
collinear.
A, B and D are This is page
Page list
noncollinear. 6 of 22

Any two points are Last Next

collinear.
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Coplanar points are

points that lie in the
same plane.
In the figure at the
right, E, F, G, and H
are coplanar.
E, F, G, and J are This is page
noncoplanar. Page list 7 of 22

Any three points are

Last Next
coplanar.
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

When geometric
figures have one or n
more points in m
S
common, they are
said to intersect.
The set of points
that they have in This is page
Page list
common is called 14 of 22

their intersection.
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

•Examine the geometric

model at the right.
•Specifically, identify the
places where lines
intersect each other.
•Complete the theorem:
The intersection of This is page
two lines is a Page list 18 of 22

Point
Last Next
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

•Consider the model.

•Specifically, identify the
places in the diagram
where planes intersect
each other.
•Complete the postulate:
The intersection of
two planes is a Page list
This is page
19 of 22

Line
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Our First 3 Postulates and a Theorem

• Through any two points there is exactly one

LINE .
• Through any three noncollinear points
there is exactly one PLANE .
• The intersection of two lines is a POINT
• The intersection of two planes is a LINE.
Back to main
TRY IT 3.1:
example page Example 1
1. Name the intersection of
plane ABDC and plane
YZDB.
2. How many lines drawn in
the figure contain point Z?
Enumerate.
3. How many planes drawn in
the figure contain line BY?
Enumerate.
4. True or false: Two planes
intersect in exactly one
point. Explain.
Back to main
example page
Example 2
Classify each statement as
true or false. Explain each.

[Link] lines intersect in a

plane.
[Link] three points are
contained in exactly one
line.
Back to main
example page
Example 1
•Name the intersection of
plane ABDC and plane YZDB.
line BD
•How many lines drawn in the
figure contain point Z?
Two – line DZ and YZ
•How many planes drawn in
the figure contain line BY? 2
plane BAXY and plane YZDB
•True or false: Two planes
intersect in exactly one point.
False - line
Back to main
example page
Example 2
Classify each statement
as true or false.
•Two lines intersect in a
plane. False - point
•Any three points are
contained in exactly one
line.
False – only collinear points
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

With the
foundational terms
(point, line and
plane) described, “Let no one ignorant of geometry

other geometric enter my door.” - Plato

figures may be This is page

defined. Page list 8 of 22

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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A segment is a part
of a line that begins M
at one point and
ends at another.
N
• has two endpoints MN or NM
•named by its
endpoints
This is page
•a bar (no arrows) is Page list 9 of 22

drawn over the two

capitalized letters Last Next
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A ray is a part of a
line that starts at a
point and extends
M
infinitely in one
direction. N
• has one endpoint MN
•named with its
endpoint first Page list
This is page
10 of 22
•a single arrow is
drawn over the two Last Next
capitalized letters.
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Opposite rays are

two collinear rays
that share a
common endpoint.

FE and FG are
opposite rays. This is page
Page list 10 of 22

Last Next
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

The length or
measure of a
segment is the
distance between its
endpoints.

e.g. the length of Page list

This is page
9 of 22
PQ is PQ
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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

Segment with equal

length are said to be
congruent ().

If AB = CD, then
AB CD .
This is page
Page list 9 of 22

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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

B is between A and C iff

they are collinear and
AB + BC = AC.

The midpoint of a
segment is the point
that divides the
segment into two This is page
congruent segments. In Page list 9 of 22

the figure, DE = EF.

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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

A segment bisector is a
segment, ray, line or
plane that intersects a
segment at its midpoint.

A perpendicular bisector
intersects the segment
at the midpoint and is
This is page
perpendicular to it. Page list 9 of 22

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Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

•An angle is a figure S

T
formed by two rays with
a common endpoint.
•The common endpoint
is the vertex of the
angle. R
•The rays are the sides
of the angle. This is page
•Angles are formed Page list 11 of 22

when lines, rays, or line

segments intersect. Last Next
Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

exterior of angle
•An angle divides the T
S
plane into two regions
•Interior interior of angle
•Exterior
•If two points, one R
from each side of the
angle, are connected
with a segment, the Page list
This is page
12 of 22
segment passes
through the interior of
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the angle.
 Introduction Instruction Examples Practice

•An angle is named using T

three points.
•The vertex must be the 1
middle point of the
S
name.
•Write RST or TSR.
•Say “angle R S T” or
R
“angle T S R.” This is page
•If there is no possibility Page list 13 of 22

of confusion, the angle

may be named S or 1. Last Next