Rajya Sabha

Reinventing higher Education: Crafting a blueprint for Excellence

Access, And Global Success

India has seen a rapid expansion in the higher education sector since 2001. There has been
a dramatic rise in the number of higher education institutions (HEIs) and enrolment has
increased fourfold. The Indian higher education system is now one of the largest in the
world, with 51,649 institutions. Despite the increased access to higher education in India,
challenges remain. Low employability of graduates, poor quality of teaching, weak
governance, insufficient funding, and complex regulatory norms continue to plague the
sector. India’s gross enrolment ratio (GER) in 2018-19 was 26.3% but still far from meeting
the Ministry of Human Resource Development’s target of achieving 32% GER by 2022.
As the government evaluates proposals to reform the University Grants Commission and
implement the recently proposed Draft New Education Policy 2019, this Brookings India
report takes a wider view of reforms necessary to respond to challenges facing higher
education in India today. It examines the capacity of HEIs with respect to students as well as
teachers; governance and accountability; funding and affordability; research and innovation;
and, regulatory regime, to create a globally relevant and competitive ecosystem that can
produce employable graduates and sophisticated knowledge workers.
As the government evaluates proposals to reform the University Grants Commission and
implement the recently proposed Draft New Education Policy 2019, this Brookings India
report takes a wider view of reforms necessary to respond to challenges facing higher
education in India today. It examines the capacity of HEIs with respect to students as well as
teachers; governance and accountability; funding and affordability; research and innovation;
and, regulatory regime, to create a globally relevant and competitive ecosystem that can
produce employable graduates and sophisticated knowledge workers.

The exponential growth of the sector has been due to the increased demand for higher
education. The higher education sector has grown across all levels and disciplines.
However, broad trends and patterns in enrolment, graduation and placement suggest that
access to higher education continues to remain a challenge, especially at the postgraduate
level. Given the low proportion of students that go on to pursue postgraduate and doctoral
education, a shortage of qualified teachers is a further problem that is plaguing even the best
universities in India. High entry barriers, poor incentive structures, stringent tenure rules and
rigid promotion practices lead to a limited supply of faculty.

Faculty shortage, low inputs available for research and inadequate industry linkages amplify
the existing limited uptake of good quality independent research in HEIs across all
disciplines. We find that while countries like the United States, China and South Korea have
invested in research to build a skilled, productive and flexible labour force, HEIs in India, in
contrast, lack the culture of independent academic research.

The higher education sector in India is crippled due to the lack of financial, academic and
administrative autonomy granted to institutions. Overall, this has resulted in the poor quality
of institutions as well as education. Under the affiliating university model, the supervisory
authority for most colleges is the university or a government authority; both lack the capacity
to effectively regulate their constituent colleges and hold them accountable. In contrast,
autonomous HEIs are at an advantage since they have the power to constitute their own
academic councils and make decisions on academic matters.
In the last three decades, the government has taken a step back from its role as the primary
funder of higher education. Union funding for government and government-aided HEIs is
skewed in favour of central universities, and state governments spend a lot more than the
central government on higher education. While there is little to no data on how the higher
education sector is funded, we do know that household expenditure on higher education is
now the biggest source of funding. Private HEIs are funded almost entirely by student fees.
Research suggests that the average tuition fee for an engineering degree from a private
institution is almost twice as that of a public institution, while private HEIs account for
three-fourths of all enrolments.

Limited assessment and accreditation capacity of the NAAC and NBA has been a significant
barrier in linking the performance of an institution to autonomy and funding decisions. Thus
far, NAAC has retained the exclusive power to accredit HEIs, allowing corruption and
profiteering to creep into the sector. Several proposals, committees and draft policies in the
last decade have suggested the need to revamp the University Grants Commission in order
to resolve the numerous roadblocks in an over-regulated regime in the Indian higher
education sector. The distribution of functions, roles and responsibilities among several
agencies and providers has inhibited innovation and creativity, and led to issues with
accreditation of HEIs, their autonomy and inadequate funding. Some recent measures—for
instance, granting Institution of Eminence status to select HEIs, enactment of IIM Bill 2017,
many proposals made under the DNEP19—demonstrate that these issues have been
acknowledged and reforming the regulatory regime is non-negotiable.
 Table Of Content

1. Introduction
1.1. Overview of India’s higher education system
1.2. Importance of reforming higher education
1.3. Current challenges and opportunities

2. Current State of Higher Education in India

2.1. Types of Institutions (public, private, deemed universities)
2.2. Regulatory bodies and their roles
2.3. Strengths and weaknesses of the current system

3. Access and Inclusivity

3.1. Disparities in access to higher education
3.2. Socio-economic factors affecting access
3.3. Gender and regional imbalance
3.4. Strategies for improving inclusivity

4. Quality and Excellence

4.1. Defining quality in higher education
4.2. Faculty development and recruitment
4.3. Research output and innovation

5. Curriculum and Pedagogy

6. Internationalization of Higher Education

6.1. Students and Faculty exchange programs
6.2. Collaborations with foreign universities
6.3. Attracting international students to India
6.4. Global ranking and their impact

7. Industry-Academia Partnership
7.1. Bridging the Skill gap
7.2. Internship and Practical training
7.3. Collaborative research projects
7.4. Role of industry in Curriculum design

8. Funding and Resource Allocation

8.1. Government spending on Higher education
8.2. Efficient utilization of resources
8.3. Public-private partnerships

9. Digital Transformation in Higher education

9.1. Online and distance learning platforms
9.2. MOOCs and their potential
9.3. Digital infrastructure requirements
9.4. Challenges and opportunities of digital education
10. Case Studies

11. The Way Forward

11.1. Short-term and long-term strategies
11.2. Role of policymakers, educators, and students
11.3. Measuring Success and impact

12. Conclusion

13. Bibliography
 Introduction

Overview of India’s Higher education System

Higher education in India holds a significant place in the country's social and economic
development. With a rich history of academic institutions and a diverse range of programs,
India's higher education system caters to millions of students seeking quality education and
professional opportunities. In this article, we will provide a comprehensive overview of higher
education in India, including its structure, key institutions, major disciplines, challenges, and
recent developments.
India's higher education system is vast and diverse, comprising a mix of universities,
colleges, and specialized institutions. Here are the key components:
1. Universities: India has both central and state universities offering undergraduate,
postgraduate, and doctoral programs across various disciplines. Central universities are
established by an Act of Parliament, while state universities are established by state
legislative assemblies.
2. Colleges: India has a multitude of colleges that offer undergraduate programs in arts,
science, commerce, engineering, medicine, law, and other fields. These colleges may be
affiliated with universities or function autonomously.
3. Institutions of National Importance: India has several institutions of national importance,
such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs),
and All India Institutes of Medical Sciences (AIIMS). These institutions are renowned for their
excellence in specific fields and are highly competitive for admissions.
4. Technical and Professional Institutions: India has a vast network of technical and
professional institutions, including engineering colleges, medical colleges, management
institutes, and polytechnics. These institutions focus on specialized programs and offer
vocational training.

Importance of reforming Higher education

Unfortunately, in India, the structure of our human resources is in the form of an hourglass.
There are a huge number of mid and top-level professionals such as doctors, engineers and
lawyers of an indifferent quality that the society cannot accommodate or put to productive
use. Yet there aren’t enough professionally trained semi-skilled people such as electricians,
plumbers and mechanics to fulfil the society’s requirements. At the bottom are the millions of
unskilled, illiterate workers eking out a precarious livelihood through back-breaking drudgery.
There are more electrical engineers than electricians, more civil engineers than masons,
more super specialist doctors than general physicians. There are more mechanical
engineers than mechanics. There are more lawyers than teachers! There is a complete
mismatch between the society’s requirements and the kind of graduates that our higher
education system is producing. A WHO report indicated in the late 1970’s itself that India
had more doctors than it could accommodate, given its socio-economic status and yet, we
continued to establish more medical colleges and produce physicians and surgeons of
indifferent quality, who cannot be gainfully employed!
The past two decades witnessed a phenomenal growth in the number of so-called
professional institutions offering courses in engineering, management, pharmacy, medicine,
law etc. These institutions are producing hundreds of thousands of graduates every year,
who don’t have skills that can be gainfully employed for producing the kind of goods and
services that India needs. In spite of the impressive economic growth over the past decade
or so, educated unemployment is on the rise, as these graduates are not equipped to
become wealth creators. In the southern states, institutions which offer professional courses
such as engineering etc. are not able to fill their quota of seats, and yet new colleges are
being allowed to be set up! On the other hand, there is a requirement for hundreds of
thousands of new teachers, which is not being met. There is also a need for large numbers
of public health professionals and general physicians, which is unmet.
The examination system for higher education is archaic and disgraceful. The stress is often
on testing the student’s memory and rote learning. A careful memorization of answers to
questions posed in the three previous years (excluding the immediate past year) will
guarantee high grades! Analytical skills, application of knowledge, problem-solving capacity
and innovation are rarely tested. There is no stress on continuous appraisal and the student
is only judged by his/her performance in a single final examination. There is an absolute
disconnect between what is taught in the class and what is tested. One would imagine that
the teacher who teaches the course is best suited to evaluate a student’s performance in
that course. But in the current system, a completely disconnected evaluator sitting
somewhere else grades the student’s exam! This one size fits all kind of an examination
system does not leave any room for either continuous appraisal during the term of the
course, or for testing the student’s creativity, application of knowledge and problem-solving
skills. In the current higher education setup, except for elite institutions such as IITs and IIMs,
the teacher doesn’t have any role in evaluating the student’s performance. In most western
universities, the professor who teaches the course evaluates the students throughout the
duration of the course, administers tests or exams and grades the test papers! Very often,
the student’s final grade for the course is published within a week after the finals and there is
a transparent mechanism for addressing any issues the student may have with the way
his/her work is evaluated or graded. The tragedy is that Indian students are smart,
ambitious, hardworking and are just responding to what the system is demanding. The entire
education infrastructure with the myriad coaching institutes is feeding this demand. If only
the nature of demand is altered, the students and the associated infrastructure will respond
to adapt to the new conditions, and improve supply. There are many models of examinations
for evaluating the students skilfully, and creating demand for better education by redefining
success.

Current challenges and Opportunities

While India's higher education system has made significant progress, it faces several
challenges:
● Access and Equity: Despite efforts to increase access to higher education, there are
still significant disparities in access based on socio-economic backgrounds, gender,
and rural-urban divide. Affordability and availability of quality institutions remain
concerns.
● Quality Assurance: Ensuring consistent quality across institutions and programs is a
challenge. While there are regulatory bodies such as the University Grants
Commission (UGC) and the All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE),
maintaining and monitoring quality standards remains a continuous effort.
● Research and Innovation: While India has research-intensive institutions and a pool
of talented researchers, there is a need to foster a culture of research and innovation
across all disciplines. Enhancing research infrastructure, funding, and collaboration
with industry are ongoing priorities.
● Employability and Skills Gap: Bridging the gap between education and employability
is crucial. There is a need for curriculum revisions, industry-academia collaboration,
and skill development initiatives to equip students with the required skills for the job
market.
● Enrolment: The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of India in higher education is only
15% which is quite low as compared to the developed as well as, other developing
countries. With the increase of enrolments at school level, the supply of higher
education institutes is insufficient to meet the growing demand in the country.
● Equity: There is no equity in GER among different sects of the society. According to
previous studies the GER in higher education in India among male and females
varies to a greater extent. There are regional variations too; some states have high
GER while some are quite behind the national GER which reflect a significant
imbalance within the higher education system.
 ● Quality: Quality in higher education is a multi-dimensional, multilevel, and a dynamic
concept. Ensuring quality in higher education is amongst the foremost challenges
being faced in India today. However, the Government is continuously focusing on
quality education. A large number of colleges and universities in India are unable to
meet the minimum requirements laid down by the UGC and our universities are not in
a position to mark its place among the top universities of the world.
● Infrastructure: Poor infrastructure is another challenge to the higher education
system of India particularly the institutes run by the public sector suffer from poor
physical facilities and infrastructure. There are a large number of colleges which are
functioning on the second or third floor of the building. On the ground or first floor
there exists readymade hosieries or photocopy shops.
● Political interference: Most of the educational Institutions are owned by the political
leaders, who are playing key roles in governing bodies of the Universities. They are
using innocent students for their selfish means. Students organise campaigns, forget
their own objectives and begin to develop their careers in politics.
● Faculty: Faculty shortages and the inability of the state educational system to attract
and retain well qualified teachers have been posing challenges to quality education
for many years. Large numbers of NET / PhD candidates are unemployed even
though there are a lot of vacancies in higher education, these deserving candidates
are then applying in other departments which is a biggest blow to the higher
education system.
● Accreditation: As per the data provided by the NAAC, as of June 2010, “not even
25% of the total higher education institutions in the country were accredited. And
among those accredited, only 30% of the universities and 45% of the colleges were
found to be of quality to be ranked at 'A' level”.
● Research and Innovation: there are very nominal scholars in our country whose
writing is cited by famous western authors. There is inadequate focus on research in
higher education institutes. There are insufficient resources and facilities, as well as,
limited numbers of quality faculty to advise students. Most of the research scholars
are without fellowships or not getting their fellowships on time which directly or
indirectly affects their research. Moreover, Indian Higher education institutions are
poorly connected to research centres. So, this is another area of challenge to higher
education in India.
● Structure of higher education: Management of Indian education faces challenges of
over centralization, bureaucratic structures and lack of accountability, transparency,
and professionalism. As a result of increase in the number of affiliated colleges and
students, the burden of administrative functions of universities has significantly
increased and the core focus on academics and research is diluted (Kumar, 2015).
India is a large country, with an estimated population of young people aged between 18 to
23 years to be around 150 million. The sheer size of the market offers huge opportunities for
development of the higher education sector in India. India now boasts of having more than
33,000 colleges and 659 universities, which has been quite a remarkable growth during the
last six decades. The year 2012 witnessed 21.4 million enrolments, which makes India the
3rd largest educational system in the world. Unfortunately, the educational infrastructure of
India is inadequate to handle such huge volumes. In spite of all the government spending in
the educational sector, it is just too insufficient to meet the growing requirements. Therefore,
the higher Education sector has now been identified as one of the promising areas for
private and foreign investments. It offers immense investment opportunities in both
non-regulated and regulated segments (Nexus Novus, 26 July, 2013). The Indian higher
education system is growing very fast irrespective of various challenges but there is no
reason that these Challenges cannot be overcome. With the help of new-age learning tools,
it is easy for countries like India to overcome these problems and bring a paradigm shift in
the country’s higher education sector. With such a vibrant country with a huge population
properly educated, the possibilities are endless. If knowledge is imparted using advanced
digital teaching and learning tools, and society is made aware of where we are currently
lagging behind, our country can easily emerge as one of the most developed nations in the
world. There are opportunities for strategic engagement and capacity building in higher
education leadership and management at the state level. There are opportunities for India to
collaborate at national and international level on areas of systemic reform, including quality
assurance, international credit recognition, and unified national qualifications framework.
Equality of educational opportunity in higher education is considered essential because
higher education is a powerful tool for reducing or eliminating income and wealth disparities.
The idea of equalising educational opportunities also lies in the fact that “the ability to profit
by higher education is spread among all classes of people. There are great reserves of
untapped ability in the society; if offered the chance they can rise to the top. A great deal of
talent of the highest level is, in fact, lost by an inegalitarian system of education”
(Balachander, 1986). The need to enhance the employability of graduates is presenting entry
points for collaboration in enterprise education and entrepreneurship, links with industry,
research skills and the wide range of transferable skills, including English. The emerging
interest in Indian higher education institutions in the vocational skills market provides areas
for potential engagement with international partners. There is a need to build stronger
relationships and increase mutual understanding in higher education by increasing support
and participation in platforms (conferences, workshops, seminars) which enable debate and
dialogue with other countries of the world. (British Council, 2014).
 Current State of Higher Education in India

Types of Institutions (Public, Private, Deemed universities)

Public Universities in India are academic institutions sponsored and regulated by state or
federal bodies. Public universities enable students from various socioeconomic backgrounds
to access inexpensive higher education through their extensive undergraduate and graduate
program offerings. One of the main advantages of public universities is their capacity to offer
state residents reduced tuition costs, thereby improving educational accessibility and unique
academic opportunities.
Here are some of the top-ranking public universities in India:
● Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
● Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
● Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
● University of Delhi
● Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
● Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
● A private university is a higher education system in India run by businesses or
organizations instead of the government. Private universities are autonomous
higher education institutions that function independently, without any financial
support from the government. They possess the flexibility to tailor their
academic programs, admission requirements, and overall approach according
to their own discretion.
● Private universities typically generate revenue through endowments, tuition
fees, and generous contributions from donors. They provide benefits like
smaller class sizes, specialized programs, and additional resources. The
smaller class sizes promote individualized interactions, while the specialized
programs cater to the evolving needs of various industries. Private universities
also invest in modern infrastructure, research facilities, and technological
resources. These advantages significantly contribute to the diversity and
dynamism of the higher education system in India, fostering innovation and
molding future leaders.
● Here are some of the top-ranking private universities in India:
● Vellore Institute of Technology
● SRM Institute of Science and Technology
● Manipal Academy of Higher Education
● Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
● Narsee Monjee Institute of Management and Higher Studies
● Birla Institute of Technology and Science
A postsecondary educational establishment that the Indian government has granted
university status is known as a deemed university. In India, deemed universities have special
status and are free to choose their own policies, curricula, and methods of operation. To be
designated as a deemed university, achieving the necessary standards established by the
University Grants Commission (UGC) for academic excellence and research capabilities is
mandatory. Their independence permits curriculum design flexibility and enables
interdisciplinary studies.
Here’s a list of the top deemed universities in India:
● IIS, Bangalore
● Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
● Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai
● Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
 ● IIT, Madras
● IIT, Delhi
Students must also keep in mind the difference between deemed and private university.
The two are primarily distinguished by the recognition process and the governing bodies
involved.
● Deemed universities earn their status through recognition by meeting specific UGC
criteria, while private universities are established through state legislative acts.
● Deemed universities have a special status granted by the UGC, allowing them more
independence, while private universities operate under the purview of state
legislative acts and may have varying levels of autonomy.
Similar to how private and deemed universities differ greatly, so do autonomous and deemed
universities. The difference between autonomous and deemed universities lies in the level of
autonomy. Both have been granted some degree of autonomy from the government but
differ in some aspects. Autonomous universities maintain affiliation with a government
university while enjoying some independence, whereas deemed universities operate
independently with a higher degree of autonomy recognized by the UGC.

Regulatory bodies and their roles

University Grants Commission (UGC)
The University Grants Commission is a statutory organization established by an Act of
Parliament in 1956 for the coordination, determination and maintenance of standards of
university education. Apart from providing grants to eligible universities and colleges, the
Commission also advises the Central and State Governments on the measures which are
necessary for the development of Higher Education. It functions from New Delhi as well as
its six regional offices located in Bangalore, Bhopal, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kolkata and
Pune.
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) was set up in 1945 as an advisory
body and later on in 1987 given statutory status by an Act of Parliament. The AICTE grants
approval for starting new technical institutions, for introduction of new courses and for
variation in intake capacity in technical institutions. The AICTE has delegated to the
concerned state governments powers to process and grant approval of new institutions,
starting new courses and variations in the intake capacity for diploma level technical
institutions. It also lays down norms and standards for such institutions. It also ensures
quality development of technical education through accreditation of technical institutions or
programmes. In addition to its regulatory role, the AICTE also has a promotional role which it
implements through schemes for promoting technical education for women, handicapped
and weaker sections of the society promoting innovations, faculty, research and
development, giving grants to technical institutions.
The technical institutions under the AICTE include post-graduate, under-graduate and
diploma in the whole spectrum of technical education covering engineering/technology,
pharmacy, architecture, hotel management and catering technology, management studies,
computer applications and applied arts and crafts.
The AICTE has its headquarters in New Delhi and seven regional offices located at Kolkata,
Chennai, Kanpur, Mumbai, Chandigarh, Bhopal and Bangalore. A new regional office at
Hyderabad has been set up and is to be operational soon.
The Council discharges its functions through an Executive Committee.
For more details, click here: [Link]
Council of Architecture (COA)
The Council of Architecture (COA) has been constituted by the Government of India under
the provisions of the Architects Act, 1972, enacted by Parliament, which came into force on
September 1, 1972. The Act provides for registration of Architects and matters connected
therewith. The COA, besides maintaining a Register of Architects, oversees the
maintenance of standards, periodically of recognized qualifications under the Act by way of
conducting inspection through Committees of Experts. Based on the inspections, the COA
can make representation to appropriate Governments with regard to inadequacy of
standards maintained by the institutions. The Central Government after further inquiry as
deemed fit and keeping in view the comments of the appropriate Governments and the
architecture institutions is required to take decision regarding notifying de-recognition of the
architectural qualification. The recommendations of the COA are taken before any
architectural qualification is notified as recognized under the Act by the Central Government.
For more details, click here: [Link]

Strenghts and weaknesses of the Current System

Advantages
● The recent implementation of the National Education Policy 2020 has replaced the
conventional educational system in India. It has restructured the school education
system in the form of a 5+3+3+4 education system by replacing the 10+2 school
education system. The 5+3+3+4 school education system is planned in this way:
1. Foundation Stage (5) — Playschool to Class 2 for multi-level playful learning
2. Preparatory Stage (3) — Class 3 to Class 5 for innovative active learning
3. Middle stage (3) — Class 6 to Class 8 for experimental and analytical learning
4. Secondary Stage (4) — Class 9 to Class 12 for multidisciplinary learning with greater
analytical thinking
● The National Education Policy 2020 has also included a school curriculum with
coding and Vocational education and education in mother tongue and regional
language in its school education policy.
● National Curricular and Pedagogical Framework for Early Childhood Care and
Education will be established by the NCERT for children of age up to 8 years.
● A National Professional Standards for Teachers, National Curriculum Framework
for Teacher Education (NCFTE) will be developed by the NCERT by 2022.
● National Testing Agency (NTA) will serve as an expert and autonomous testing
organisation which conduct a common entrance exam for colleges twice a year.
● The National Research Foundation will be created to boost research capacity in
higher education. Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities, at par with
IITs, IIMs to be set up

Disadvantages
Although the National Education Policy 2020 is a progressive and forward-looking policy but
still lacks a clear picture about the implementation. The mother tongue language issue still
needs to be addressed. The education gap has been amplified in rural India due to the
Covid-19 pandemic. Coordinated and convergent efforts are needed to ensure the
smooth implementation of the National Education Policy.
● Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan was launched in March 2009 with the aim
to enhance access to secondary education in addition to improve its quality. The
scheme envisaged achieving an enrolment rate of 75% from 52.26% in 2005–06.
The scheme also focused on improving the quality of education imparted at the
secondary level by making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms,
 removing gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, providing universal access
to secondary level education by 2017.
● National Scheme of Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education is a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme of Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education was launched in
May 2008. The scheme aims to improve enrolment of girl children in the age group of
14–18 at the secondary stage, especially those who passed Class VIII.
● Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage was launched from the year
2009–10. This Scheme replaces the earlier scheme of Integrated Education for
Disabled Children and provides assistance for the inclusive education of the
disabled children in classes IX-XII. This scheme is now subsumed under Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan from 2013.
● National Vocational Education Qualification Framework (NVEQF) includes
the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalization of Secondary Education was
launched in 1988, Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), National Institute
of Open Schooling (NIOS), Establishment of New Polytechnics and strengthening of
Existing Polytechnics etc
 Access and Inclusivity

Socio-economic factors affecting access

[Link] Level: The term "income level" describes a person's or a family's available
financial resources; it is commonly expressed in terms of earnings from jobs, investments, or
other sources. Limited access to educational resources, such as good schools, tutoring, and
extracurricular activities, is frequently associated with lower income levels. The ability to
purchase educational resources and take part in enrichment activities may also be impacted
by financial limitations. Families with low incomes might find it difficult to pay for educational
supplies like technology, school supplies, and textbooks. (Taylor, S., & Yu, D. 2009).
Participation in extracurricular activities, educational field trips, and other enriching
experiences may be restricted due to financial constraints. Low-income families may have
limited access to high-quality early childhood education and childcare services.
2. Parental Education: The educational background of a child's parents or guardians is
referred to as parental education. Parents who have completed more education tend to
place a higher priority on education and value it, which fosters an environment that supports
academic achievement. Additionally, they might be equipped with the information and tools
necessary to assist their kids with their schooling, including helping them with their
homework or navigating the system. Higher educated parents frequently stress the
importance of education and take an active role in their kids' education. Increased
participation in school events like PTA meetings and parent-teacher conferences is linked to
higher parental education. Parents with higher education levels frequently possess the
resources and expertise necessary to help their kids make wise educational choices.
3. Occupational Status: An individual's occupational status indicates the kind of work they do
and where they are in the hierarchy of the workforce. The time and resources that parents
have available for their children's education can be influenced by their occupation. Low pay
or variable work schedules can make it difficult for parents to actively support their kids'
academic endeavors.
4. Wealth and Assets: The total value of assets (such as investments and real estate) less
debts is what is referred to as wealth. Families with higher incomes might have access to
more specialized education programs, educational technology, and private tutoring. The
standard of the neighborhood and schools that kids can attend can also be influenced by
wealth.
5. Richer families can spend more on tutoring, educational technology, and private
education. Access to top-notch schools is frequently correlated with home ownership in
wealthy neighborhoods. Rich people can absorb the costs of education because they have a
safety net of money.
6. Cultural Background: Ethnicity, language, and cultural customs are just a few examples of
the various components that make up one's cultural background. Cultural variations can
have an impact on the expectations and values of education. Academic performance may be
impacted by language barriers, and attitudes regarding education and career choices may
be shaped by cultural norms (Ohlan, R. 2013). Career decisions and educational goals may
be influenced by cultural norms and values. Academic achievement can be hampered by
language barriers, particularly for students whose first language is different from the
language used for instruction. It is essential to comprehend cultural differences in order to
establish a welcoming and encouraging learning environment.
7. Geographic Location: A person's or a family's geographic location is where they live.
Depending on one's location, there can be a big difference in access to high-quality
education. Urban areas might offer a wider variety of educational opportunities, while rural
areas might struggle with a lack of infrastructure for education. One of the challenges that
rural areas may face is the lack of access to experienced teachers, extracurricular activities,
and advanced coursework. Even though there are many different educational options in
urban areas, there may still be differences between schools in different neighborhoods.
Depending on where you live, there can be differences in the standard of the technology and
libraries used in schools.
8. Social Capital: The networks, relationships, and social connections that people or families
have are referred to as social capital. By establishing relationships with educators, mentors,
or neighborhood resources, a person with strong social capital can gain access to
educational opportunities. In addition, networking can help with post-educational
opportunities and career counseling. Students may be able to access mentors, internships,
and educational opportunities through their networks and connections. People with
connections could be able to help you navigate the educational system and make wise
decisions about your courses and career. Access to educational resources outside of the
traditional classroom can be influenced by social capital.

Gender and regional imbalance

Gender inequality in India refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities
between men and women in India. Various international gender inequality indices rank India
differently on each of these factors, as well as on a composite basis, and these indices are
controversial. Gender inequalities, and its social causes, impact India's sex ratio, women's
health over their lifetimes, their educational attainment, and economic conditions. Gender
inequality in India is a multifaceted issue that concerns men and women alike. Some argue
that some gender equality measures place men at a disadvantage. However, when India's
population is examined as a whole, women are at a disadvantage in several important ways.
Probably the most important problem faced by the higher education system in India is the
persistence of inequalities in access to higher education. Inequalities in access to higher
education result in socio-economic inequalities in the society which, in turn, accentuate
inequalities in education. In fact, it is a cyclic chain of Inequalities: inequalities in access to
higher education result in inequities in access to labor market information, which result in
inequalities in employment and participation in labor market, resulting in inequalities in
earnings contributing in turn to socioeconomic and political inequalities. The socio-economic
and political inequalities again are translated into the education sector, resulting in
inequalities in education. Inequalities in access to education reflect loss in individuals as well
as social welfare. That economic returns to investment in education of the weaker sections
are estimated to be higher than returns to their counterparts , implies that inequalities in
education would cause huge losses in national output; and that inclusive strategies that
contribute to equity should be viewed favorably not only from the point of view of social
justice but also even in terms of economic well-being, as the total equity gains might surpass
the losses in efficiency, if any (Patnaik, 2012).One of the most important dimensions of
inequality is between men and women. Women are generally found to be lagging behind
men in every sector including higher education in India as in many countries, though reverse
trends could be observed of late in a good number of countries. During the
post-independence period, there is a significant improvement in women’s participation in
higher education. Women constituted 43 per cent of the total enrolments in higher education
in 2011–12, while there were only 14 women per 100 men in higher education in 1950–51,
according to the available UGC statistics (UGC, 2013). Thus, compared to the earlier
decades, this marks a significant improvement. While this 43 per cent is an all-India average
across all disciplines of study, there are wide variations between different states and also
across disciplines. Women students constitute 11 per cent in engineering/technology, 4 per
cent in medicine and less than 5 per cent in education. Nevertheless, the overall level of
participation of women in higher education has improved remarkably and the current overall
level is quite impressive. Further, research studies (for example, Basant and Sen 2012) have
also shown that ‘after controlling for other factors, the chances of women participating in
higher education are higher than that of men’ meaning the generally observed inequalities by
gender in higher education need to be interpreted with caution. The gross enrolment ratio
among men increased from 10.9 per cent in 1983–84 to 27 per cent in 2009–10—it
increased by 2.5 times in about two and a half. In contrast, only 19 per cent of the women in
the relevant age group were enrolled in higher education in 2009– 10. But what is strikingly
clear is: there has been rapid progress in the enrolment ratio among women compared to
men. The gross enrolment ratio for women increased by more than four times. As a result,
gender inequalities in gross enrolment ratio have come down very significantly during this
period. The available estimates on net enrolment ratios, however, indicate that between
1999–2000 and 2004–05, the increase in enrolment ratios is very small in case of both men
and women; hardly it increased by 2 per cent points in either case, and the level of inequality
remained the same. The male–female differences are much less in case of eligible
enrolment ratios. While 49 per cent of eligible girls join higher education institutions, the
corresponding ratio is marginally higher for men, 56 per cent, a difference of about 7 per
cent points.

INEQUALITIES BY SOCIAL GROUPS

It is widely recognized that inequalities across social groups are multi-dimensional and
difficult to capture empirically. Inequality by caste is a major phenomenon in India, and is
also subject to extensive rigorous research, policy making and policy analysis. Caste is
considered as one of the most important determinants of perceived social status in India
(Bros 2014), and is ‘too strong to be suppressed permanently’ (Deshpande, 2012). SCs and
STs are traditionally regarded as the most backward sections of Indian society. They were
also subject to discrimination in social, political and economic spheres for a long time and to
correct some of these historical disadvantages, reservations are provided to them in
education and employment. Some more castes are recognized as ‘other backward castes’.
Following the Mandal Commission Report (Government of India, 1980), adopted by the
Government of India, reservation policy was extended to a few ‘other’ backward castes.
Some of the minority religious groups, like the Muslims, have been lagging far behind others
in education development. The report of the Sachar Committee (Government of India, 2006)
has highlighted this in recent years. This has also become an important issue of research,
and also an important policy issue (Hasan, 2012). It is often quoted that SCs constitute only
12 percent of the total enrolments in higher education and STs 4.5 per cent (2011–12); or
Muslims constitute such a small proportion. But a more meaningful analysis can be based on
enrolment ratios and the rates of higher education attainment.

INEQUALITIES BY CASTE
The enrolment ratios of SCs and STs have been consistently very much below those of
non-scheduled population or the total population on average. But both SCs and STs have
made significant advancement by increasing the enrolment ratios of the respective
population groups by four to five times in about two decades and a half between 1983–84
and 2009–10. The growth was relatively faster in case of ST, though in absolute terms their
enrolment ratio is less than that of the SC; and as a result, the differences between SC and
ST have come down; and also the differences between the scheduled population and
non-scheduled population declined. However, it must be added that: (a) the enrolment ratios
among both the SC and ST are low and (b) still significant inequalities persist between
scheduled and non scheduled population groups. The enrolment ratio in 2009–10 was nearly
12 per cent among the ST and 15 per cent among the SC compared to 23 per cent for all
(Table 4).Quite interestingly, there is not much variation in the eligible enrolment ratio
between several caste groups. While it ranges between 50 per cent and 54 per cent for SC,
for OBCs and others (non-backward sections), the ratio is much higher, 62 per cent in case
of STs. Between various caste groups the transition rate ranges between 14 per cent (for
ST) and 22 per cent (SC). SCs are ahead of all others. As the rates of higher education
attainment are only a stock indicator of the progress made over the years, these also show a
high degree of inequality but rapid progress at the same time. Less than 3 percent of the STs
and just 4 percent among the SCs had completed levels of higher education in 2009–10.
These figures in 2009–10 mark five times and 6.5 times increase between 198384

INEQUALITIES BETWEEN RELIGIOUS GROUPS

 Inequalities in gross enrolment ratio between various religious groups are much higher.
Estimates on gross enrolment ratio are available for Hindus, Muslims, Christians and
‘others’. Enrolment ratio among Muslims was only 14 per cent in 2009–10, while it was 24.2
per cent among Hindus and 37 per cent among Christians. The enrolment ratio among
‘Others’ that includes Jains, Sikhs, etc., is also high—28 per cent in 2009–10. The enrolment
ratio is the highest among the Christians and the least among the Muslims (Table 6). This is
the same situation consistently throughout the period between 1983–84 and 2009–10. While
there has been improvement in case of all the four groups between 1983–84 and 2009–10,
the inter-group inequalities by religion did not decline much. In fact, the gap seemed to have
widened (Figure 5).According to the estimates by Azam and Blom (2009), one does not find
much inequality between Hindus and Muslims, with the transition ratio being around 70 per
cent in 2004–05. Christians are, of course, far ahead with a ratio of about 80 per cent.
Among both Hindus and Muslims, out of every 100 secondary school graduates, 71 per cent
go for higher education. The ratio was 80 per cent among Christians. But overall refined
estimates of transition rates in 2009–10 are very low—about 20 percent among Hindus and
Christians, 16 per cent among Muslims and 11 per cent among others.

RURAL–URBAN DISPARITIES
Now, we will discuss spatial inequalities. There are wide inequalities between different states
in India in higher education in terms of number of universities and colleges, infrastructure in
those institutions, student enrolment and even public expenditure. The gross enrolment ratio
in higher education varies among the major states between less than or around 10 per cent
in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh on the one side and above or around 40 per cent in
Chandigarh and Tamil Nadu on the other side (MHRD, 2014).

INEQUALITIES BY ECONOMIC CLASSES

Estimates of various indicators of higher education development (and other indicators)
based on the NSS data are available by household expenditure quintiles/deciles. A few
scholars have used alternative indicators like assets (or asset index) to consider the
economic levels of the households but the monthly per capita expenditure, on which NSS
provides rich data.
 Quality and Excellence

Defining Quality in Higher Education

Quality in higher education refers to the standards and benchmarks that ensure the provision
of education meets the expectations of students, faculty, employers, and society at large. It
involves various dimensions including the effectiveness of teaching, curriculum relevance,
student outcomes, and institutional infrastructure. Quality also encompasses access to
resources, such as libraries and laboratories, support for students, the use of technology,
and adherence to ethical standards. Ensuring quality means creating an environment where
learning is rigorous, inclusive, and prepares students for future challenges.

Faculty Development and Recruitment

Faculty development and recruitment are central to maintaining and enhancing the quality of
education in higher education institutions. Recruitment focuses on attracting highly qualified
and diverse faculty members who can bring expertise and innovation into teaching and
research. Faculty development, on the other hand, involves continuous professional training,
skill enhancement, and support for instructors to stay current with pedagogical practices,
technological advancements, and disciplinary developments. Effective development
programs lead to improved teaching practices, a better learning environment, and a more
engaged academic community.

Research Output and Innovation

Research output and innovation are key indicators of excellence in higher education.
Institutions are expected to contribute new knowledge through research that advances their
fields of study and addresses societal issues. High-quality research is measured by the
quantity and impact of publications, patents, and other scholarly work. Innovation, whether in
teaching methods, technological applications, or collaborative industry partnerships, drives
progress and adds to the institution’s reputation. Encouraging a culture of research and
innovation fosters critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills among both faculty
and students.
 Curriculum and Pedagogy
Pedagogy is an art of sharing knowledge which is dynamic in nature and may vary from
teacher to teacher, classroom to classroom, institution to institution and platform to platform.
The most critical factor in pedagogy is constructivism. An effective pedagogical approach
may touch upon the following:
● ∙ Pedagogies are constantly evolving processes; every pedagogy is different and
may be modified as per 21st Century learning.
● ∙ Pedagogy must fit the targeted audience and focus on helping students to develop
an understanding of the knowledge delivered and relate with real life scenarios.
● ∙ To provide rich classroom experiences, various tools or methods may be integrated
to enhance the level of interaction and discussion within the class.
● ∙ Different assessment tools need to be explored for higher and inclusive productivity
of the learners. Integrating ICT into assessment and evaluation processes may
provide self-assessment opportunities to learners.
The adjectival word innovative connotes featuring new methods that are advanced and
original; and in the context of innovative pedagogical approaches‘, it may be understood to
be those pedagogical approaches which involve usage of appropriate means (tools) and
methods (ways) in a new and creative ways and in varied combinations in order to make the
teaching-learning process more effective by enabling the learners to attain the
expected/defined learning outcomes, develop students' capabilities in problem-solving,
teamwork, learning to learn, reflective thinking etc. to be creative, adapt to changes, manage
and analyze information, and work with knowledge.

There are four broad categories of pedagogical approaches, namely - Behaviourism,

Constructivism, Social Constructivism, and Liberationist.
(i) Behaviourism: The theory of behaviourism informs its approach toward
teacher-centred learning. It advocates the use of direct instruction and
lecture-based lessons wherein the teacher is the sole authority to lead the
lesson and the knowledge being delivered in a curriculum where each
subject is taught discretely (topic-based learning). A behaviourist
pedagogical approach is expected to use a lesson mixture of lecturing,
modelling and demonstration, rote learning, and choral repetition. All
these activities are 'visible' and structured and are led by the teacher.
However, during the lesson, the shift may come where the student is the
centre of the activity and demonstrates one‘s learning. Behaviourism is
also sometimes referred to as a traditional teaching style.
(ii) (ii) Constructivism: Learning through experiences and reflections is a part
of constructivism theory. Constructivist pedagogy is 'invisible pedagogy'
as it puts the child at the centre of learning. A constructivist approach
would incorporate project work and inquiry-based learning and might
adopt a Montessori or Steiner method. A lesson having constructivism
theory includes individualisation and leads to slower-paced learning
having hidden outcomes with the support of the expert and less teacher
talk. This pedagogy also has scope for emphasis on being outdoors and
engaging with nature. Constructivism is also sometimes referred to as a
progressive teaching style.
(iii) Social Constructivism: Social constructivism pedagogy could blend two
priorities: teacher-guided and student centred. The teacher uses group
work elements, having smaller group sizes and limited topics for choices.
The teacher may also use teacher modelling, questioning, and a mixture
of individual, pair, and whole-class instruction.
(iv) Liberationism: A liberationist approach involves democracy in the
classroom as the student's voice is placed at the centre. The class
discovers the subjects together, and the teacher plays the role of a
 learner. A teacher may use examples like literature containing
non-standard constructions, such as graffiti or hip-hop. Students playing
the role of the teacher decide about the topic of the lesson and showcase
their learning through performance, speech, or dance. The teacher thus
provides space and opportunity for the students to learn independently.
Models of Teaching: Models such as Concept-Attainment Model, Role-Play, Assertive
Training Mode, Inquiry-Training Model, Jurisprudential Inquiry Model, synectics are a
few powerful models for classroom environments, even in Higher Education. Each
model has direct instructional as well as nurturing effects such as development of
concept-formation, logical reasoning, creativity, assertiveness, etc. Various modes of
pedagogy6 that a teacher at HEI may use for offline (in-person classroom) teaching
are:
(i) Cooperative Learning Strategies (CLS): These strategies include methods
such as Jigsaw, Think-Pair-Share, Team-Pair-Solo, Inside-Outside Circle,
Fishbowl, Project Quality Plan (P-Q-P), etc. (ii)
(ii) Brainstorming: Using chalkboard or a presentation device to invite ideas of
learners on a problem/issue without allowing them to criticise, but
encouraging wild ideas which should follow short-listing and critically
analysing ideas generated. Sometimes, these ideas may be categorised by
learners and the teacher together or learners alone to learn ‗types‘ or
‗categories‘ of new concepts.
(iii) Group discussions: The use of discussions is an attempt to counteract the
risk of the teacher/educator taking a transmissive or authoritarian approach,
enabling the learner group to explore their own and others‘ views. Group
discussions encourage active listening, self-reflection, and the exchange of
different cultural narratives, worldviews and attitudes.
(iv) Role-plays: This technique provides an opportunity for participants to take on
different identities (roles) and act these out with or for others in a scenario
depicting some sustainability issues or event so that both participants and
spectators can empathize with (put themselves in the shoes of) others, and
understand their perspective, experiences and contexts, or issue, better.
(v) Guided Questioning: Using probing and structured questions, for example,
during fieldwork or on an interpretive walk, to direct learners‘ thinking about
particular aspects of their experience.
(vi) Interpretive Trails: It is a guided walk or a trail with interpretive signage
through an area where one can learn about the natural or built environment.
There are different ways in which the interpretation can occur: through signs,
poster boards or plaques along the way, a booklet with a map and additional
information, a knowledgeable guide, and digital technologies. Many nature
reserves and botanical gardens, for example, layout walks through exciting
sections of the area, illustrate different ecosystems, archaeological sites,
places of cultural interest etc.
(vii) Music, Poetry and Visual Art: People learn differently. There are different
ways of accessing and expressing knowledge. Art can provide a better outlet
for some people‘s ideas and experiences than more formal types of
expression. There are opportunities for people (children and adults) to give
creative expression to their ideas and to reflect on their experiences and
feelings about matters, such as sustainability, in open-ended and creative
ways. Many art forms are not languagebased, so they have much potential in
contexts where language might be a barrier to learning. Music can help bridge
barriers between very different people and hence facilitate social learning
deliberations.
(viii) Stimulus activities: A stimulus activity involves watching a video or looking at
photos, poems or newspaper extracts to initiate reflection or discussion.
Learners may even be interested in producing their own work, such as photos
 taken to stimulate a debate. Using videos or an externally produced
document enables the multipliers to bring in a wide range of viewpoints for
critical analysis.
(ix) Critical incidents: Learners are given an example and asked what they would
do, what they could do and what they should. Critical incidents allow them to
consider their perspectives and actions in the light of an ethical stance. A
teacher can use this approach with groups to promote awareness and deep
reflection about multiple perspectives on sustainable development paths.
(x) Case studies: These provide learners with in-depth information about a
particular issue in one specific context (with varying amounts of detail and
formality). Case studies can bring diverse learning domains into curriculum
areas and promote the learners' group with a holistic view of an issue. Case
studies enable students to investigate what affects their local area, work with
community groups, NGOs or private enterprises, and work together to find
solutions for local issues.
(xi) Reflexive accounts: Individuals consider their position concerning new
knowledge about an issue. It may help them understand their actions
contributing to the issue of concern, e.g., sustainability issues. This
pedagogical approach makes learners reflect on personal roles, attitudes and
responsibilities concerning sustainability issues.
(xii) Critical reading and writing: These are important social practices which are
the keys for promoting learning. To assess the author‘s possible motivation in
the text, learners de-construct the discourses and try to visualize alternative
futures.
(xiii) Problem-based learning: Problem-based learning is an iterative learning
process. A teacher uses this approach to teach a whole range of subject
matter. Education for sustainable development, for example, requires the
identification of sustainability-related issues for students to investigate and
generate a body of knowledge. Students can develop a vision of alternative
actions and potential solutions to the problem, which helps devise a plan of
action, followed by a period of reflection and evaluation. This process thus
promotes both the conceptual and practical aspects of sustainability literacy.
(xiv) Solution-based learning: This approach involves an idea that one wants to
bring to life and action. Therefore, it is important to work with and get inspired
by positive examples to promote positive emotions and motivation for active
participation in the communities and institutions.
(xv) Fieldwork and outdoor learning: Fieldwork is an example of experiential
pedagogy that can influence students‘ emotions and help develop the
essential critical thinking skills to understand the complexity of an issue.
Fieldwork and outdoor learning are often based on issues in the local
community and environments, linking theory to real-world examples.
(xvi) Storytelling: Telling stories is an engaging and effective form of teaching and
learning. Storytelling is currently experiencing a considerable revival of
interest since folktales about the relationship between the Earth and its
human inhabitants have been at the heart of storytelling since the earliest
times. Storytelling draws on indigenous societies and folk art as the oral
traditions practised for generations as a means of entertainment, education or
cultural preservation. Storytelling makes ideas, theories, and concepts come
alive, offer a source of inspiration, provides us with practical insight into
approaches to our most persistent environmental, social and economic
difficulties, and helps to impart respect for cultural heritage and the
environment. This enables teachers to reflect better sustainable development
information, principles and values with the group of learners.
(xvii) Talks and presentations: In this activity, a body of knowledge or selection of
information through a structured verbal and visual presentation is presented.
Talks and presentations can be helpful at the start or within a learning process
when it may be necessary to provide background information, clarify concepts
or introduce a specific focus. Lecturettes of 10-15 minutes at a time to be
encouraged followed by participatory, learner-centred methods. It is used for
both types of education - offline and online. A good presentation requires
teachers to incorporate visuals such as images, GIFs, videos, etc. as it will
lead to use of both auditory and visual senses for better learning.
 Internationalization of Higher Education

Students and Faculty Exchange Programs

Student and faculty exchange programs play a vital role in the internationalization of higher
education. These programs provide opportunities for students and faculty to study, teach, or
conduct research at foreign institutions. Such exchanges broaden participants' global
perspectives, expose them to different cultures and academic practices, and enhance their
skills. For students, exchange programs often lead to improved employability and cultural
awareness, while faculty members gain fresh insights into their disciplines and build
international networks for research and collaboration.

Collaborations with Foreign Universities

Collaborations with foreign universities are a cornerstone of internationalization, enabling
institutions to offer joint programs, dual degrees, and cross-border research projects. These
partnerships promote knowledge sharing, innovation, and resource pooling. They also
elevate the reputation of participating institutions by fostering academic ties across
countries, often resulting in higher quality research, access to global expertise, and the
development of a more diverse curriculum. Collaborations strengthen institutional capacities
and contribute to the global standing of universities.

Attracting International Students to India

Attracting international students is a key strategy in positioning India as a global education
hub. Indian institutions can appeal to international students by offering competitive
programs, world-class faculty, and affordable tuition rates. Diverse cultural experiences,
scholarships, and streamlined visa processes also enhance the attractiveness of studying in
India. Bringing in international students enriches the academic and cultural environment on
campus, encourages global perspectives among domestic students, and supports India's
soft power and economic goals by fostering international relationships.

Global Ranking and Their Impact

Global rankings have a significant impact on the reputation and attractiveness of higher
education institutions. These rankings assess universities based on various metrics such as
research output, teaching quality, internationalization, and industry collaborations. High
rankings can attract more international students, faculty, and partnerships, while also
influencing government and private funding. However, an over-reliance on rankings can
sometimes lead institutions to prioritize certain areas at the expense of others, such as
focusing on research over teaching quality. Maintaining a balanced approach is crucial to
ensure sustainable growth and excellence in all dimensions of higher education.
 Industry Academia Partnership
As of 2022, a mere 4.69% of India's workforce has received formal skill training, according to
the National Skill Development Corporation.

The widening skill gap among Indian youth presents a significant challenge to the nation’s
economic growth, as highlighted in the India Skills Report 2023. According to the report, only
48.7% of graduates are deemed employable, underscoring a critical disconnect between
educational programs and market needs. This mismatch is partly due to limited collaboration
between industry and academia, resulting in curricula that fail to equip students with the
necessary skills for today’s job market.

Despite various initiatives, the situation remains dire. As of 2022, a mere 4.69% of India’s
workforce has received formal skill training, according to the National Skill Development
Corporation. Compounding the issue is the inadequate funding, with the education budget
for 2023-24 allocated at only 2.9% of GDP—insufficient to address the nation’s training
needs comprehensively.
As India grapples with the challenges posed by its skills gap, the integration of industry
partnerships, curriculum modernization, and enhanced trainer development programs will be
crucial in aligning the nation’s workforce with global standards.

Internships are a necessary element of higher education in India, and they are becoming
increasingly significant for students seeking jobs after graduation. In this blog, we'll look at
the numerous advantages of internships and why they're so important for a student's
success in today's employment market.
● Enhance your skill set
Internships provide students with hands-on experience and the opportunity to learn
new skills that they would not be able to obtain in the classroom. Interns can learn
about the latest industry trends and receive insight into the day-to-day operations of
the field they are interested in by working alongside professionals. These abilities can
set you apart from other job seekers and make you a valued asset to any firm.
● Build your professional network
Internships can allow students to expand their professional network. Students can
develop contacts and obtain valuable references by working with professionals in
their chosen area. Furthermore, internships can help students build vital networking
skills that will be valuable throughout their careers
● Gain real-world experience
Internships allow students to apply what they've learned in the classroom to
real-world scenarios. This experience can be quite beneficial in preparing them for
future employment. Working with professionals allows students to get insights into
the challenges and opportunities of their chosen sector, as well as learn how to
manage the workplace's intricacies.
● Increase your chances of landing a job
Internships can give students a big advantage when it comes to getting a job in
today's competitive labour market. Many organisations prefer to select applicants
who have internship experience since it shows that they have the necessary practical
skills and knowledge to succeed in the job. Furthermore, internships can help
students differentiate themselves from other job hopefuls, making them more
appealing to potential employers.
● Explore different career paths
Internships also help students to experiment with numerous career choices. Students
can obtain insights into the numerous possibilities open to them and learn what they
are actually enthusiastic about by working in different organisations and industries.
This is especially useful for students who are still unsure about their career
 objectives, since it can assist them in making educated decisions regarding their
future.
● Gain confidence and independence
Internships can also assist students in developing confidence and independence.
Working in a professional atmosphere allows students to take on responsibilities and
make decisions on their own. This can be especially beneficial for students
transferring from the classroom to the workplace, as it can help them build the skills
and confidence needed to thrive in their future employment.
● Learn about company culture
Internships also give students the chance to learn about corporate culture. Students
can obtain insights into the ideals and practises of various businesses by working
alongside professionals. This is especially useful for students who want to work for a
specific firm or industry because it can help them decide whether they are a suitable
fit for the organisation.
● Earn academic credit
Several universities and colleges offer academic credit for internships, which can
help students complete degree requirements while obtaining practical experience in
their field of interest. This is especially useful for students who have a demanding
academic schedule and need to balance academics with real-world experience.

Collaborative projects
In today's fast-paced and dynamic global economy, the alignment between education and
industry is more critical than ever. As technological advancements, demographic shifts, and
economic changes reshape the workforce landscape, there is a growing recognition of the
need for closer collaboration between educational institutions and industry stakeholders.
Bridging the gap between education and industry is essential to ensure that students are
equipped with the knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to thrive in the 21st-century
workplace. This article explores the importance of collaboration between education and
industry, the benefits it offers to students and employers, and strategies for fostering
effective partnerships in global education.

Understanding the Gap:

The gap between education and industry is often characterized by a disconnect between the
skills taught in educational settings and the skills demanded by employers. While
educational institutions strive to provide students with a strong foundation in academic
subjects, there is often a lack of emphasis on practical, job-specific skills and real-world
experience. This mismatch between education and industry requirements can lead to
challenges in workforce readiness and hinder students' ability to secure meaningful
employment upon graduation.

Benefits of Collaboration:
Collaboration between education and industry offers a wide range of benefits for students,
educators, employers, and society as a whole:
1. Relevance and Employability: By working closely with industry partners, educational
institutions can ensure that their curricula are aligned with current industry needs and trends.
This alignment enhances the relevance of education and increases students' employability
by equipping them with the skills and knowledge demanded by employers.
2. Work-Based Learning Opportunities:Collaboration with industry allows students to gain
valuable work-based learning experiences, such as internships, co-op placements, and
apprenticeships. These opportunities provide students with hands-on experience, exposure
to real-world work environments, and the opportunity to develop industry-specific skills and
competencies.
3. Industry Insights and Expertise: Industry partnerships bring industry professionals into
the educational environment, providing students with access to industry insights, expertise,
and mentorship. Guest lectures, industry panels, and networking events allow students to
learn from industry leaders, expand their professional networks, and gain valuable career
guidance.
4. Innovation and Research Collaboration:Collaboration between education and industry
fosters innovation and research collaboration, driving advancements in technology, science,
and business. Joint research projects, technology transfer initiatives, and industry-sponsored
innovation hubs create opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge
exchange between academia and industry.
5. Talent Pipeline Development: Industry partnerships help educational institutions develop
talent pipelines to meet industry demand for skilled workers. By engaging with industry
partners to identify workforce needs and skill gaps, educational institutions can tailor their
programs to ensure that graduates are well-prepared for employment in high-demand fields.

Strategies for Collaboration:

Building effective partnerships between education and industry requires a strategic and
collaborative approach. Here are some strategies for fostering collaboration in global
education:
1. Needs Assessment and Alignment:Conduct needs assessments to identify industry
demand for skilled workers and align educational programs with industry requirements.
Engage with industry partners to understand their workforce needs, skill requirements, and
emerging trends, and use this information to inform curriculum development and program
design.
2. Industry Advisory Boards: Establish industry advisory boards comprised of
representatives from key industry sectors to provide input and guidance on curriculum
development, program evaluation, and industry trends. These advisory boards can serve as
a valuable resource for educators, offering insights into industry needs and opportunities for
collaboration.
3. Work-Based Learning Programs: Develop work-based learning programs, such as
internships, co-op placements, and apprenticeships, that provide students with hands-on
experience and exposure to real-world work environments. Partner with industry employers
to create opportunities for students to apply classroom learning in practical settings and
develop industry-specific skills.
4. Industry-Sponsored Projects: Collaborate with industry partners to develop
industry-sponsored projects, capstone courses, and research initiatives that address
real-world challenges and opportunities. These projects provide students with the
opportunity to work on meaningful, applied research projects and gain experience
collaborating with industry stakeholders.
5. Professional Development and Training:Offer professional development and training
programs for educators to ensure that they are equipped with the knowledge, skills, and
resources needed to effectively integrate industry-relevant content into their teaching.
Provide opportunities for educators to engage with industry professionals, participate in
industry-sponsored workshops, and stay informed about industry trends and developments.
6. Community Engagement and Outreach:Engage with the local community and industry
stakeholders through outreach activities, networking events, and community partnerships.
Collaborate with industry associations, chambers of commerce, and economic development
agencies to promote collaboration between education and industry and support workforce
development initiatives.

Challenges and Considerations:

While collaboration between education and industry offers numerous benefits, it also
presents challenges and considerations that must be addressed:
1. Differing Priorities and Timelines:Educational institutions and industry partners may
have differing priorities, timelines, and expectations, which can create challenges in
coordinating collaborative efforts. Effective communication, mutual respect, and flexibility are
essential for overcoming these challenges and building productive partnerships.
2. Resource Constraints: Limited resources, including funding, staffing, and infrastructure,
may pose challenges to collaboration between education and industry. Seek out creative
funding opportunities, leverage existing resources, and explore collaborative grant programs
to support partnership initiatives and overcome resource constraints.
3. Intellectual Property and Confidentiality:Collaborative projects and research initiatives
may involve intellectual property considerations and confidentiality agreements that must be
carefully managed. Establish clear guidelines and protocols for intellectual property
ownership, data sharing, and confidentiality to protect the interests of all parties involved.
4. Equity and Access: Ensure that collaboration between education and industry is
inclusive and accessible to all students, regardless of background, identity, or socioeconomic
status. Take proactive steps to address barriers to participation, promote diversity and
inclusion, and provide support services and accommodations to ensure that all students
have equal access to collaborative opportunities.

Industry role in curriculum design

The Government of India's policy implementation requires innovative ways for improving
student engagement and prioritising industry readiness. There are currently over 3000
engineering colleges in India that are accredited by the All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) and offer undergraduate and graduate programmes to over 1.5 million
students graduate each year . However, a survey by the Pearson Business School on Indian
students is one of many recent studies which highlight that a large portion of graduates in
India are not “workplace ready”. Employers give newly hired students up to six months and
face large costs associated with training. The inability to meet the employability criterion
among engineering youth in a developing nation like India aggravates economic and social
conditions. Thus, the problem of students becoming industry ready is an urgent and
imminent problem.
Traditionally, Indian educational instruction takes place in a classroom (physical or virtual)
with an instructor and students in the session. The students in this typical classroom (and
even laboratory) must pay close attention to the teacher's lectures. The understanding of the
topic taught by the teacher will be compromised if the learner ever deviates owing to
distraction or specific learning difficulties, needs or preferences. Such instruction-based
learning can also hinder students’ ability to think creatively and be innovative, which are
crucial for industry. Due to these traditional practices in academia, the students are
becoming more familiar with the theoretical concepts but are not good at applying these
concepts to solving real-world problems, which is a major barrier for the students to be
industry ready. The universities involved need to keep up with global advancements, and
post-theoretical learning implementation. Also, teaching the fast-growing Industry 4.0
technologies can not and should not be a one-off event but a lifelong learning process
(National education policy, 2020). Literature shows that implementing Industry 4.0
technologies with human-centered thought is the core for Industry 5.0. This is further
substantiated with India's commitment to implementing AI in the G20 summit.
NTU led Erasmus ‘Capacity Building in Higher Education’ project (DiversAsia) is based on
the development and rigorous application of robust EU/UK standards to make education
accessible and inclusive and address the challenges in south east Asian countries. The
consortium involves VIT and nine other organisations in EU and Asia. As an outcome of this
project, it has been found that inclusive education is a high priority in India and educational
institutions are facing immense pressure to become competitive in the face of western
competition, by applying the same international standards as EU/UK, whilst making students
market ready. However, the current standards in Higher Education (HE) do not always
capture the complexity of eastern countries like India. For example, the average student to
teacher ratio in India can be higher than that in the UK and stigma can be associated with
the differences in learning needs for students. Active learners may get more attention while
learners with special needs may remain unacknowledged, affecting the students’ clarity on
concepts and their ability to adapt or cope up with the contents being delivered. This in turn
affects the student's learning experience and their employability. Thus, the
internationalization initiative requires the involvement of students, industry and experts in
quality assurance for exploration of different viewpoints on education of Industry 4.0.
The need for collaborative development of an understanding of the problem of student's
industry readiness led the British Council Going Global Partnerships Programme to fund a
global collaboration between NTU, VIT, QAA (Quality Assurance Agency, UK higher
education sector's independent expert quality body) and VEMs pvt. ltd. (an Indian innovation
company actively involved with VIT) for “codesigning smart curriculum and personalized
method of delivery of VACs on Industry 4.0 technologies. The objectives to be achieved
included:
● Objective 1. Develop a feedback method.
● Objective 2. Capture industry requirements.
● Objective 3. Map relevant Pedagogical Frameworks and internationally recognised
Quality Standards.
● Objective 4. Conduct Focus Group/Workshop to co-create a ‘Common Framework
for Personalised Delivery (including content optimisation, student engagement, and
practical assessment) and the ‘Inclusive Smart Curriculum’ for Industry 4.0
technologies
● Objective 5. Disseminate the knowledge.
 Conclusion

Education is a process by which a person’s body, mind and character are formed and
strengthened. It is bringing the head, heart and mind together and thus enabling a person to
develop an all round personality identifying the best in him or her. Higher education in India
has expanded very rapidly in the last six decades after independence yet it is not equally
accessible to all. India is today one of the fastest developing countries of the world with the
annual growth rate going above 9%. Still a large section of the population remains illiterate
and a large number of children do not get even primary education. This has not only
excluded a large section of the population from contributing to the development of the
country fully but it has also prevented them from utilising the benefits of whatever
development has taken place for the benefit of the people. No doubt India is facing various
challenges in higher education but to tackle these challenges and to boost higher education
is utmost important. India is a country of huge human resource potential, to utilise this
potential properly is the issue which needs to be discussed. Opportunities are available but
how to get benefits from these opportunities and how to make them accessible to others is
the matter of concern. In order to sustain that rate of growth, there is a need to increase the
number of institutes and also the quality of higher education in India. To reach and achieve
the future requirements there is an urgent need to relook at the Financial Resources, Access
and Equity, Quality Standards, Relevance, infrastructure and at the end the
Responsiveness.
Higher education in India is a vibrant and diverse ecosystem that plays a crucial role in
shaping the country's future. With a wide range of disciplines, prestigious institutions, and
recent policy reforms, India is striving to provide accessible and quality education to its
growing student population. Addressing challenges related to access, quality, research, and
employability will further strengthen the higher education system and contribute to the
nation's development and global competitiveness.
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