Topic 4A

Introduction to
plant structure and
function.

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Learning outcomes

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Cell wall structure lG
Plant organelles
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Plant stem structure

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The important of water

and minerals in plants

Using plant starch and

fibres

Plant based medicine

Developing new drugs

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4A. 1 cell wall:

4A.1Cell wall structure and chemistry of cellulose:

First :Chemistry of cellulose: OH groups lined up to form

1-4, β-glycosidic bond.
1. Type of glucose: β- glucose ( it is a polysaccharide of β-glucose)
2. Types of bond: 1-4 ,β-glycosidic bonds.
3. β- glucose units are linked at 180 to each other( alternately oriented), i.e one glucose molecule
must be rotated at 180 relative to the other making cellulose molecule look like flat ribbon.
4. Unbranched polymer (linear/ straight chain) allowing molecules to lie parallel to each other.

5. With many -OH( hydroxyl) groups

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projecting out in different directions, this

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allows:
So cellulose molecules are joined by
lG intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
Where many hydrogen bonds can be made
between the partially positively charged
hydrogen atoms of hydroxyl groups and the
partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in
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other areas of the glucose molecules.
This is called cross linkage and it hold the
neighbouring chains firmly together. giving
parallel chains.
I. To form layers/ sheets of microfibrils.
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II. microfibrils arranged in mesh/ criss cross

pattern.
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6. These make the cellulose fibres have a

very high tensile strength ((i.e slightly elastic
but unstretchable) to prevent cell bursting
and allow it to withstand turgor pressure.
7. Cellulose cell wall is freely permeable with
many gaps in walls allowing passage of water
and substances.
8. Insoluble.

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9. Role of cellulose in living organism:
cellulose has a structural function , as it enters in cell wall formation due to its high tensile strength.
10. Role of cell wall( 7μm)
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I. Made of cellulose with high tensile strength to allow cell withstand high turgor pressure due to
osmosis.
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II. Fully permeable due to presence of gaps in wall.

Second starch vs cellulose:

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Starch Cellulose
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Starch Cellulose

Similarity : glucose monomers

attached by glycosidic bond.
Forming polymer in condensation reaction.
α- glucose β glucose

All monomers are upright ( same orientation) Every other monomer is inverted at 180

Both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds are present Only 1, 4 glycosidic bond present.

Amylose (helical /spiral unbranched) Straight chain

Amylopectin ( branched) Unbranched
Overall starch are compact globular molecules that are
useful for storage.

✖ Intermolecular hydrogen bonds

Made of 2 polysaccharides Only one polysaccharide

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Third cell wall:
A. A typical plant cell wall is composed of 3 layers namely

Primary cell wall Middle lamella Secondary cell wall

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[Link] lamella
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Formed when a plant cell divides into two new cells.

The middle lamella is made up of calcium and magnesium pectates. In a mature
plant cell it is the outermost layer of cell wall.
Where pectin is polysaccharide acting as a glue like material holding the microfibrils
of adjacent cell walls of adjacent cells together.
Pectin +calcium Calcium pectate. Increasing tensile strength.

Why calcium ions affect tensile strength?

They form with pectin ,calcium pectate in middle lamella
Holding together microfibrils in cell wall.
Where fibres are stringer if cellulose microfibrils held together more strongly.

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 B. Primary cell wall

• Thin , flexible layers.

• Made from cellulose fibrils ( back
bone), hemicellulose + pectin
(matrix).
• Where , Cellulose microfibrils
contained within a gel like matrix of
hemicellulose and pectin
polysaccharide.
• With layers/ sheets of microfibrils
being arranged criss cross pattern
( net like arrangement ) being wavy
and loosen arrangement.

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C. Secondary cell wall
• Once the primary cell wall
lG stopped dividing and growing

Thickening
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forming
secondary cell
wall.
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More rigid, thicker as it is needed to

strengthen and support cell.
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• Has hemicellulose with

lignin/ suberin.
• Consists of multilayers , within
each layer cellulose microfibrils
arranged parallel to each other
but form angles with other layers (
over all net like )

Role of secondary thickening in cell wall of xylem vessels

Secondary thickening provides greater tensile strength.
Secondary thickening provides extra rigidity/ reduced flexibility
Lignin provides waterproofing
Pits present for movement of water into/out .

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B. Cell wall properties:
A. Has high tensile strength due to:
1. Many hydrogen bonds between cellulose molecules forming layers of microfibrils.
2. Microfibrils arranged in mesh / criss pattern (net like arrangement of microfibrils within
cell wall).
3. Presence of middle lamella.
B. Flexibility:
Presence of matrix containing pectin.

C. Plasmodesmata:
1. Cytoplasmic bridge with no cell wall at all/ pores in
cell wall between adjacent cells, with cytoplasm
running through the plasmodesmata)
2. Allow communication between cells .

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3. Allow movement of water by symplastic pathway
(symplast).

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- Lined with cell membrane ( selective permeable
membrane)

D. Pits
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Allow water to move between xylem vessels .
Maintain water flow at even pressure through plant.
- No secondary cell wall but has primary cell wall.
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- Lined by cell membrane ( selective permeable
membrane).
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 4A.2 plant organelles

A. Chloroplast

Structure and adaptation

It is about 4-10 µm in diameter
2-3 µm in thickness.
So can be seen and measured by light microscope.
Found only in plant cells
1. Biconvex shape with Double membrane bound
organelle.
2. The 2 membranes form chloroplast envelope.
3. Large innerfolded membrane to increase surface

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area where enzymes controlled reactions takes

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place.
4. Inside the chloroplast there is additional membranous system consisting of:
• a- Thylakoid: disc shaped cavities , having their membrane carrying chlorophyll and enzymes.
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• b- Grana: stacks of thylakoids ( only seen by electron microscope)
• C- Inter granal lamellae: membrane connecting between Grana.
• d- Stroma: interior fluid which contains loop of DNA , starch grains, 70S ribosome and
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enzymes, lipid droplets.
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B. Vacuole:
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Description
1. It occupies up to 80%of the total plant cell.
2. It is a sap-filled sac ( containing water, ions,
minerals and sugars) surrounded by a single
membrane called tonoplast which controls
exchange between cytoplasm and vacuole, allowing
movement of substances in and out by osmosis.
Function:
1. It gives turgidity to plant cell by building up
turgor pressure on cell wall.
2. Act as food storage by storing water, ions,
minerals and sugars.
3. Stores cell sap which helps keeping continuous osmosis of water.
4. Stores waste products ,Eventually, those waste products would be sent out of the cell.
5. Tonoplast has different carrier/ channel proteins, controlling the movement of
substances in and out of the vacuole.

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 C. Amyloplast:

Description
1. Double membrane bound organelle.
2. Colourless and store starch (amylose and amylopectin).
3. Found in parts of plant with high amount of starch stored
(potato tuber)
4. Stores concentric layers of amylopectin.

4A.3 plant stems

Many plant cells are specialised and adapted for specific role in the plant. This means they don’t

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look like the typical plant cell. They may be organised into tissues and organs that carry out a

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specific function in the plant . One example of a plant organ is stem.
Function of stem
Third but not a

1.
Primary function is
support:
To hold the leaves in best 1.
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Second major function is
movement of materials around plant:
Providing route for transport of
major function is
photosynthesis:
position for obtaining sucrose and amino acids from 1. As most stems are
sunlight for photosynthesis . leaves to others parts of plants. green as they contain
chlorophyll
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2. Support flower for maximum 2. Transport of water and minerals
chance of pollination from root up to different parts of
plant.
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stem structure
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Endodermis
Pericycle( sclerenchyma)

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 Type of cells in stem

A. Parenchyma [Link] [Link]

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

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lG
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Living cells Living cells Dead cells

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Unspecialised cells Specialised cells Specialised cells

Found in every soft part of the plant Found beneath the epidermis in Fibres in wood barks, leaves, stem
(Cortex, pith). young stem ,leaves. Sclereid in fruit, seed (mature parts of
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plant)

Having primary thin cell wall made Unevenly thickened primary cell wall Primary and secondary thick cell wall,
from cellulose. very thick secondary cell wall with
lignin.

Has intercellular spaces Little/ no intercellular spaces No intercellular spaces

Function: photosynthesis, storage of Provides mechanical support of plant Mechanical support , transport and
food and gas exchange. to resist bending by wind. protection.

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 Tissues making the stem

[Link]: Outer layer of stem, provides protection to

cells beneath it.

[Link]:Living, specialised cells, with thick

cellulose primary cell walls , which are even thicker at
their corners.
Giving the tissue its strength.
They stretch as the plant grow and provide flexibility.

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Pericycle( sclerenchyma)
lG [Link]:Living, unspecialised cells, but they
can be modified in several ways so they become
suitable for storage and photosynthesis .
Some parenchyma cells in stem can be modified into
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Collenchyma and sclerenchyma.

[Link] :non living, specialised cells, have strong

secondary walls made of cellulose microfibrils positioned
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at right angles to each other, and lignin.

Needed for support.
Two types
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Sclereids Fibre
• Cells are shorter • Elongated cells
• Blunt end walls • with tapering ends.
• Irregular in shape. • Unbranched.
• Narrow lumen. • Lignin is deposited on the cell
• Branched or wall of these fibres is a spiral or
unbranched. ring pattern, making fibres
• Provide strong but also flexible, when
stiffness( commonly fibre is lignified the cell
known as stone cells) contents die because water
can’t pass though lignin, so
fibres become hollow tubes.
Once this happens the cell can
no longer grow so plant growth
has to be higher up the stem.
• Simple pits.
• Provides mechanical strength.

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 5. Transport tissues

The main transport tissues in plants are xylem and phloem , which are found associated together in
vascular bundle through out the plant including the stem, roots and leaves.

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A. Xylem B. Phloem

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A. Xylem
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The xylem starts off as living tissue.
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The first xylem the plant makes is protoxylem.
It can stretch and grow because walls are not fully
lignified.
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The cellulose microfibrils in the walls of the xylem

vessels are arranged vertically in the stem.
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This increases the strength of the tube and allows it

to resist the compression forces from the weight of
the plant pressing down on it.
Increasing amounts of lignin are incorporated into
the cell walls as the stem ages and the cells stop
growing .
This means that cells become impermeable to water
and other substances .
The tissue becomes stronger and more supportive , but the contents of the cells die.
The lignified tissue is called the metaxylem .
The end walls between the cells mostly break down so the xylem forms hollow tubes which go from
the roots to the tip of the stems and leaves.

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 Metaxylem:
Broader and larger elements
Later formed xylem
Where there is an increase in amount of
Protoxylem: lignin
Smaller narrower elements Differentiates when plant organ has
First formed xylem completed its [Link] its
It develops before plant organ growth
has completed its growth

Function and adaptation :

1. Hollow dead vessels / cells (cells joined end to end forming vessels)
- with no end walls allowing water to move up in a continuous water column / offering less
resistance to water flow.

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2. Pits in walls ( with no secondary cell wall)
- Allowing lateral movement of water.

3. Lignin is waterproof
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- preventing any water leakage out of xylem vessels as xylem are needed to transport water.
4. Thick lignified walls helps prevent collapse of vessels that might be caused by hydrostatic
pressure gradient in xylem vessels caused by transpiration pull, so lignin adds support to vessels
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Properties of xylem vessels (lignocellulose) :

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1. Waterproof due to presence of lignin.

2. Light in weight as xylem vessels are dead and hollow.
3. High tensile strength.....due to net like arrangement of cellulose microfibrils and presence of
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lignin
4. High adhesion properties........due to cellulose lining (hydrophilic nature).
5. Flexibility......due to matrix having calcium pectate, yet lignin reduces flexibility.

Sclerenchyma fibres Xylem vessels

Both contain cellulose, pits, secondary walls and made from dead cells

Both are hollow , don’t contain cytoplasm

Contain end walls No end walls

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 B. Cambium

Undifferentiated cells found between xylem and phloem to give rise to other types of cells that form
xylem and phloem.
C. Phloem

Function and adaptation :

Phloem cells don’t become lignified and so
remain living cells.
1. Sieve tube elements:
- peripheral cytoplasm , no nucleus, few
mitochondria allowing little resistance to mass flow
of sap.
2. Sieve plates:
- Walls between cells become perforated creating
specialised sieve plates that allow translocation
with little resistance to mass flow of sap between

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sieve tube elements.

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3. Companion cells:
- Many mitochondria: for aerobic respiration,
lG producing ATP needed for active loading of
sucrose.
- Plasmodesmata at which cytoplasm of companion
cells is connected to sieve tube elements allowing
flow of substances from companion cell and sieve
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tube element.
- Cell membrane of companion cells has many
foldings that increase the surface area over which
they can transport sucrose into the cytoplasm.
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Xylem vessels Phloem vessels

Transport water and minerals Transport products of photosynthesis

Dead tissue Living tissue

Transport up from root to the stem Transport up or down the stem

Transport as mass flow Transports a s mass flow

Transport depends on pull from transpiration Transport depends on ATP from respiration.

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