Seman&cs

Session 8
Content
Utterance meaning
• Presuppositions (tiền giả định)
• Implicatures (hàm ngôn)
Presupposition
1. Presupposition is what a speaker or a writer assumes that the
receiver of the message already knows.
Examples
“John doesn’t write poems anymore.”
John once wrote poetry.
“Would you like another beer?”
You here has already had at least one beer.

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Presupposition
2. Presupposi&ons are inferences (suy luận) about what is assumed to
be true in the uJerance rather than directly asserted to be true.
More examples
“Where has Faye looked for the keys?”
Faye has looked for the keys.
“Don’t sit on Annie’s sofa.”
Annie has a sofa.

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Presupposition
Analyzing the dialogue
A: “What about inviting Simon tonight?”
B: “What a good idea; then he can give Monica a lift.”

A & B know:
(a) who Simon and Monica are
(b) Simon has a vehicle, most probably a car
(c) Monica has no vehicle at the moment.
Presupposition
3. Presuppositions can be used to communicate information indirectly.
Examples
“My brother is rich.”
We assume that the person has a brother.
“They haven’t spoken to each other since their last week’s quarrel.”
The utterance presupposes that they had a quarrel last week.

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Presupposition: Characteristics
1. The presupposiEon of an uJerance remains the same under its
NEGATION:
Example
“John stopped smoking.”
“John didn’t stop smoking.”
John once smoked cigareJes.
Presupposition: Characteristics
1. The presupposition of an utterance remains the same under its
NEGATION:
More examples
“The dog’s tail was cut.”
“The dog’s tail wasn’t cut.”
The dog has a tail.
“I like his car.”
“I don’t like his car.”
He owns a car.
Presupposition: Characteristics
2. The presupposition of an utterance remains the same under its
INTERROGATION.
Examples
a. “John stopped smoking.”
b. “Did John stop smoking?”
c. “Why did John stop smoking?”
John once smoked cigarettes.
Presupposition: Characteristics
3. The presupposition of an utterance may be cancelled under its
EXTENSION.
Examples
“She regretted missing the concert.”
The concert took place.
“She regretted missing the concert, but she didn’t know that it was
canceled.”
The concert was cancelled.
Presupposition: Classification
1. The existenEal presupposi&on: (Eền giả định tồn tại)
Cách nhận diện 1: a possessive noun phrase (NP)
Gợi ý viết lại câu: X had/has/will have + an indefinite NP
Example
“I missed my class on Sunday because I overslept.”
I had a class on Sunday.
Presupposition: Classification
1. The existenEal presupposi&on: (Eền giả định tồn tại)
Cách nhận diện 2: a definite NP
Gợi ý viết lại câu: There + be/exist + an indefinite NP
Example
“The American girl next door is having a party.”
There is an American girl next door.
There is a girl from the USA living next door.
Presupposition: Classification
2. The facEve presupposiEon: (Eền giả định hàm thực)
Cách nhận diện: specific verbs (know, realize, regret, be aware,
discover, …) or specific adjec&ves (be happy/glad that, be sad that, …)
Examples
“Nobody realizes that Kelly was ill.”
Kelly was ill.
“I am glad that it’s over.”
It’s over.
Presupposition: Classification
3. The non-facEve presupposiEon: (Eền giả định hàm hư)
Cách nhận diện: some verbs (imagine, dream, pretend, hope,
suggest,…) (nhưng phải căn cứ vào ngữ cảnh)
Examples
“I imagined that Belle loved Ben.”
Belle did not love Ben.
"I dreamed that I was in Hawaii.”
I was not in Hawaii.
“He pretends to be sorrowful.”
He is not sorrowful.
Presupposition: Classification
4. The lexical presupposiEon: (Eền giả định từ vựng)
Cách nhận diện: some verbs (again, too, conEnue, stop, start,
return,…) (nhưng phải căn cứ vào ngữ cảnh)
Examples
“You’re late again.”
You were late before.
“I’ve just got a driving license.”
I did not have a driving license before.
“She stopped laughing.”
She was laughing before.
Presupposition: Classification
5. The structural presupposiEon: (Eền giả định cấu trúc)
Cách nhận diện 1: a wh-quesEon
Examples
“Where did you buy the bike?”
You bought a bike.
“Why don’t pigs have wings?”
Pigs don’t have wings.
Presupposition: Classification
5. The structural presupposiEon: (Eền giả định cấu trúc)
Cách nhận diện 2: a wh-embedded clause
Examples
“I don’t know why I got an average mark.”
I’ve got an average mark.
“I didn’t realize how expensive the meal was.”
The meal was expensive.
Presupposition: Classification
6. The counter-factual presupposiEon (Eền giả định phản hàm thực)
Cách nhận diện 1: an if clause (in 2nd and 3rd type)
Examples
“If I had enough money, I would buy that house.”
I do not have enough money.
“If you were my friend, you’d have helped me.”
You are not my friend.
“If she had taken the job offer, she would have moved to New York.
She did not take the job.
Presupposition: Classification
6. The counter-factual presupposiEon (Eền giả định phản hàm thực)
Cách nhận diện 2: an embedded clause afer ‘wish’ (past tense or past
perfect tense)
Examples
“They wish they could go on vaca&on now.”
They cannot go on vaca&on now.
“I wish I hadn’t studied medicine.”
I had studied medicine.
Presupposition: Classification
6. The counter-factual presupposiEon (Eền giả định phản hàm thực)
Cách nhận diện 3: a clause with a modal perfect verb
Examples
“You shouldn’t have spent so much money on clothes.”
You did spend that much money on clothes.
“He could have built his house in this district.”
He did not build his house in this district.
Consider the following.
a. “Have you stopped beaEng your wife?”
The speaker has presupposed that at some &me in the past the person
beat his wife.
b. “Would you like another biscuit?”
The speaker presupposed that the person had a biscuit before.
c. “Why did you hide the thief?”
This presupposes that ‘you’ did hide him.
Consider the following.
d. “Jane no longer writes ficEon.”
The speaker has presupposed that Jane once wrote fic&on.
e. “Have you stopped eaEng meat?”
The speaker has presupposed that ‘you’ had once eaten meat.
f. “Have you talked to Hans?”
The speaker has presupposed that Hans exists.
Exercises 34-35 (pp122-128)

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Implicature
Implicature promises to bridge “the gap between what is literally said
and what is conveyed.”
Examples
A: “Coffee?”
B: “It would keep me awake all night.”
B’s utterance may implicate that B would rather not drink coffee.

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Implicature
Examples
A: “Have you finished the student’s evaluation form and reading list?”
B: “I’ve done the reading list.”
B’s utterance may implicate that B has not done the evaluation
form, since what is not mentioned has been done yet.
Implicature
There are two types of implicature:
1. ConvenEonal implicature (hàm ngôn ước định)
2. ConversaEonal implicature (hàm ngôn hội thoại)

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Implicature
1. ConvenEonal implicature (hàm ngôn ước định)
ConvenEonal implicature is inference that does not depend on special
contexts for its interpreta&on.
Like lexical presupposi&ons, convenEonal implicatures are associated
with specific words like and, but, even, and yet.

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Implicature
Conventional Implicature - Examples
“Linda suggested black, but I chose white.”
The utterance may implicate that the speaker does something in
contrast to what has been suggested.

“Even John came to the party.”

The utterance may implicate that contrary to the speaker’s
expectation, John came.
Implicature
More examples
“Jenny isn’t here yet.”
The uJerance may implicate that the speaker expects that Jenny
should be there by then.

“She put on her clothes and le{ the house.”

The uJerance may implicate that there are two ac&ons occurring
in sequence, i.e., one a{er another.

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Implicature
2. ConversaEonal implicature (hàm ngôn hội thoại)
ConversaEonal implicature is inference that can’t be made from
isolated uperances.
It depends on context of the uJerances and shared knowledge
between the speaker and the hearer.
It is an inference, or an addiEonal conveyed/ unstated meaning drawn
from any conversa&on.

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Implicature
Example
A: I’m out of petrol.
B: There is a gas station in the corner.
In this conversation, A wants to ask if there is a gas station
nearby. Speaker B correctly picks up on the implicature and answers
what A implies to ask.
Grice’s theory of conversaEonal implicature
1. The Maxim of QuanEty (phương châm về
lượng, nói hết sự thật)
Make yourself as informaEve as is required (for the current purposes of
the exchange)
Do not make your contribu&on more informaEve than it is required.
Example
A: Have you got any pets?
B: I’ve got a budgerigar.
1. The Maxim of QuanEty (phương châm về
lượng, nói hết sự thật)
• FlouEng: (không tuân theo luật)
A: What can you tell me about Catherine’s ability to concentrate on a
task?
B: Catherine is buJerfly fliƒng from flower to flower.
2. The Maxim of Quality (phương châm về chất,
nói điều mình &n có thật)
Do not say what you believe to be false.
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Example
A: Did you finish the report?
B: Yes, I submiJed it yesterday.
2. The Maxim of Quality (phương châm về chất,
nói điều mình &n có thật)
• FlouEng: (không tuân theo luật)
A: Tehran’s in Turkey, isn’t it?
B: Uh-huh, and Boston’s in Armenia.
3. The Maxim of Relevance (phương châm về
‡nh tương thích, nói vào đề)
Be relevant
Example
A: Where’s my chocolates?
B: In the cupboard.
3. The Maxim of Relevance (phương
châm về ‡nh tương thích, nói vào đề)
• FlouEng: (không tuân theo luật)
A: What on earth has happened to the roast beef?
B: The dog is looking very happy.
4. The Maxim of Manner (phương châm về
phương thức, nói cho rõ)
Avoid obscurity of expression
Avoid ambiguity
Be brief
Be orderly
Example
A: Are you going to the workshop tomorrow?
B: Yes, I’ll be there at 9 AM.
4. The Maxim of Manner (phương châm về
phương thức, nói cho rõ)
• FlouEng: (không tuân theo luật)
A: How is your boyfriend?
B: Yeah….(the answer is ambiguous and irrelevant)
Which of the four maxims are violated the
dialogues below?
1. Mom: What did you think of Junior’s childish behavior last night?
Dad: Well, boys will be boys.
Relevance
The father's reply is seemingly unrelated to the ques&on.
Which of the four maxims are violated the
dialogues below?
2. Student A: Do you like Linguis&cs?
Student B: Well, let’s just say I don’t jump for joy before class.
Manner
The reply is not clear enough.
Which of the four maxims are violated the
dialogues below?
3. Student: I was absent on Monday - did I miss anything important?
Teacher: Oh no, of course not, we never do anything important in
class.
Quality
The teacher says something she does not believe to be true.
(she told lie)
Which of the four maxims are violated the
dialogues below?
4. Student A: Can you tell me where the lecture is?
Student B: It is in room 254, the room in which I had my first
university class ever.
QuanEty
B's answer is correct but gives more informa&on than is required.
What maxim is violated?
Consider the following
“What a mess!”
The implicature could be just a criEcism or a reminder to put the house
back in order.
“The house is on fire.”
It could be a warning to the residents to escape.
A: “I hope you brought the bread and the cheese.”
B: “Ah, I brought the bread.”
B’s uJerance may implicate that B did not bring the cheese, since what
is not menEoned was not brought.
Consider the following

Annie: “Was the dessert any good?”

Mike: “Annie, cherry pie is cherry pie.”
Mike’s uJerance may implicate that he was not very keen on the
dessert.
Virginia: “Do you like my new hat?”
Mary: “It’s pink.”
Mary’s uJerance may implicate that she does not like the hat.
PresupposiEon & ConversaEonal Implicature
(1) A: “What happened to my calculator?”
B: “Someone used it this morning.”
A’s uJerance presupposes that A has a calculator and that the
calculator worked well before.
B’s uJerance may implicate that it is not B who broke the calculator.

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PresupposiEon & ConversaEonal Implicature
(2) A: “Will your brother go to the conference this a{ernoon?”
B: “He’s gone to Hanoi.”
A’s uJerance presupposes that B has a brother and that there will be a
conference this a{ernoon.
B’s uJerance may implicate that B’s brother will not go to the
conference.
Presupposition & Conversational Implicature
PresupposiEon Conversational implicature
•Presupposition is more •Conversational implicature is less
straightforward & more objective. straightforward & more
•It is easily drawn before making an subjective/personal.
utterance. •It is derived from observing or violating one
or more maxims and drawn after a
conversation is over.
Example Example
“Is the Pope Catholic?” A: “Do you like apples?”
The utterance presupposes that B: “Is the Pope Catholic?”
the Pope does exist in the world. B’s utterance may implicate that he/she does
like apples.
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Presupposition Or Implicature
A: "My girlfriend lives in New York."
B: "My girlfriend lives in Boston."

A: "What?"
B: "Why are you laughing at me?"

A: "Why is she ea&ng those?"

B: "Her father didn’t give her any supper."

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PresupposiEon Or Implicature
A: "Is John engaged?"
B: "He’s bought a ring.”

A: "You look pleased."

B: "I managed to pass the exam.”

A: "Did you finish that report?"

B: "I started it."

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Presupposition Or Implicature
A: "I didn’t take it."
B: "Why do you always lie?”

A: "What’s with Jean?"

B: "She discovered that her central heaEng is broken."

A: "How do you like your bath?"

B: "Warm."

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PresupposiEon Or Implicature
A: "What do you think of this necklace and bracelet?"
B: "The bracelet is beauEful."

A: "Has the kitchen been painted?"

B: "Tom’s away."

A: "How come Mary’s all dressed up?"

B: "We’re going to the D-E-N-T-I-S-T."

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PresupposiEon Or Implicature
A: "It works now."
B: "When did Eric fix it?"

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Find one implicature from the second speaker’s response
Find one implicature from the second speaker’s response
Exercises 36-37 (pp137-141)

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