Vehicle Dynamics and Control

Jan Åslund
[Link]@[Link]
Associate Professor

Dept. Electrical Engineering

Vehicular Systems
Linköping University
Sweden

Lecture 4

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 1 / 39

Exercise 1.2 c

In this exercise the slope angle is 0.5 degrees. If the longitudinal forces
acting on the car is computed carelessly, then the result looks something
like this:

Rr Rg

The resultant is pointing backwards, which is of course not correct. When

using the model used previously to calculate the rolling resistance Rr , it is
assumed that the vehicle is moving forward.

Conclusion:
The car is not moving at all.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 2 / 39
Car at rest

Consider a car at rest. Assume a slip based model is used for the
longitudinal force when the car starts moving.

How should the slip be defined?

How can a model like the one shown in Figure 1.16 be used?

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 3 / 39

Side forces: Question 1
Consider a that a car moving along a straight line with constant
longitudinal velocity with all wheel pointing in the direction of travel.
Assume that motion of car is perturbed and the direction of the car
suddenly is different from the direction of motion with no angular velocity:

Direction of motion

Question 1: In which direction will the car turn?

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 4 / 39
Side forces: Question 2
Assume that a lateral force Fy is applied at the center of gravity of a car
driving straight.
v

Fy

Question 2: In which direction will the car turn?

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 5 / 39
Side forces: Question 3

Assume that a car is taking a turn with constant speed and constant turn
radius.

Question 3: Assume that the speed is increases. In which direction should

the steering wheel be turned to make the car stay on the same circle?

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 6 / 39

Side forces: A simple model
A wheel moving in the lateral lateral direction give rise to a cornering force
Fy och self-aligning torque Mz = tp · Fy :
v

Fy tp

The slip angle α is the angle between the direction of the wheel and the
direction of the velocity vector v.
To begin with, a simple linear model will be used to represent the relation
between the slip angle α and the cornering force Fy
Fy = Cα α
where Cα is called the cornering stiffness.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 7 / 39
Side forces: A non-linear example
Figure 1.25 in the text book shows an example how the cornering force
depends on the slip angle α and the normal force Fz :

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 8 / 39

Answer to Question 1

It was assumed that the angular velocity is zero and in this case the slip
angle is the same for at four wheels.

Direction of motion

Let denote this angle α and let the cornering stiffness of the wheel in the
front and rear axis be denoted by Cαf and Cαf , respectively.
The total cornering forces at the front axis and rear axis are then equal to
2Cαf α, and 2Cαr α, respectively.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 9 / 39

Answer to Question 1

The moment of the cornering forces about the center of gravity is equal to

Mz = 2l2 Cαr α − 2l1 Cαf α = 2α(Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 )

with clock-wise as the positive direction.

The sign of the expression Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 gives the answer to Question 1.
Positive sign: The car turns towards the direction of the unperturbed
path.
Equal to zero: The car does not turn at all and continue in the
perturbed direction.
Negative sign: The car turns counterclockwise and the deviation from
the original path increases even further.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 10 / 39

Answer to Question 1

The sign of the expression Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 depends on the location of he

center of gravity and the ratio between the cornering stiffness in the front
and rear.
Question 1 will be studied more thoroughly later in the course.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 11 / 39

Answer to Question 2

The limit case in Question 1 was the case Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 = 0.

It will now be shown that this is also the limit case for Question 2, i.e, in
which direction will the following car turn:
v

Fy

Proposition: If Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 = 0, then there is exists a steady motion

where the car moves with constant velocity without turning.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 12 / 39
Answer to Question 2

If the car is not turning, then the side-slip angle is equal for all four tires
and the value is given by force equilibrium in the lateral direction:

Fy − 2Cαf α − 2Cαr α = 0

The moment of the cornering forces about the center of gravity is in this
case equal to
Mz = 2α(Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 ) = 0
and the car will continue without turning.
The answer to the Question 2 in the two other cases where
Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 6= 0 is the same as for Question 1. The analysis requires
more advanced analysis and is beyond the scope of this presentation.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 13 / 39

Question 3: Steady state cornering
Question 3: The car is driving with constant speed on a circle with radius
R and origin O. Assume that the speed is increases. In which direction
should the steering wheel be turned to make the car stay on the same
circle? The following single-track model will be used in the analysis:

Ωz

It is assumed that the cornering stiffness of tires are 2Cαf and 2Cαr , i.e.,
double the cornering stiffness of the four-wheel model.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 14 / 39
Steady state cornering: Kinematics
δf αf

αr

L
≈ R

δf − αf
αr
Ωz

Triangle to the left: αr + (90o − αr ) + 90o = 180o

Triangle to the right: (δf − αf ) + (90o − (δf − αf )) + 90o = 180o
L
Approximation of the angle at O: αr + (δf − αf ) ≈ R
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 15 / 39
Steady state cornering: Kinematics

δf αf

αr

L
≈ R

δf − αf
αr
Ωz

L
δf = + αf − αr
R

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 16 / 39

Steady state cornering
L
l1
l2

Fyf
Fyr

Ωz

Equations of motion with solutions:

l2 W V 2 l2
W V2 Fyf = may =
Fyf + Fyr = may = L g R L
g R
l1 W V 2 l1
Fyf l1 − Fyr l2 = Iz Ω̇z = 0 Fyr = may =
L g R L
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 17 / 39
Steady state cornering
Equations of motion with solutions

l2 W V 2 l2
W V2 Fyf = may =
Fyf + Fyr = may = L g R L
g R
l1 W V 2 l1
Fyf l1 − Fyr l2 = Iz Ω̇z = 0 Fyr = may =
L g R L
Equations of motions with solutions

mg W mg l2 W l2
Wf + Wr = = Wf = =
2 2 2 L 2 L
mg l1 W l1
Wf l1 − Wr l2 = Iz Ω̇y = 0 Wr = =
2 L 2 L
A comparison of the solutions gives the relations
ay ay
Fyf = 2Wf , Fyr = 2Wr
g g

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 18 / 39

Steady state cornering
Using the tire models, Fyf = 2Cαf αf and Fyr = 2Cαr αr , the slip angles
can be written as
Fyf Wf ay
αf = =
2Cαf Cαf g
Fyr Wr ay
αr = =
2Cαr Cαr g

The steering angle is

L L W f ay W r ay L ay
δf = + αf − αr = + − = + Kus
R R Cαf g Cαr g R g
where the understeer gradient is defined as
Wf Wr
Kus = −
Cαf Cαr
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 19 / 39
Understeer gradient

Wf Wr W
Kus = − = (Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 )
Cαf Cαr 2LCαf Cαr

Kus > 0: The car is said to be understeer.

Kus = 0: The car is said to be neutral steer.
Kus < 0: The car is said to be oversteer.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 20 / 39

Answer to Question 3
The steering angle is

L V2 L ay
δf = + Kus = + Kus
R gR R g
where the understeer gradient can be rewritten as
Wf Wr W
Kus = − = (Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 )
Cαf Cαr 2LCαf Cαr

The sign of Kus gives the answer to Question 3:

Positive sign: You have to turn the steering wheel clockwise to make
the car stay on the same circle.
The car turns towards the direction of the unperturbed path.
Equal to zero: You don’t have to do anything. Just lie back and relax.
Negative sign: You have to turn the steering wheel counterclockwise
to make the car stay on the same circle.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 21 / 39
Understeer gradient Kus

Consider the relation

Wr V 2
 
L Wf
δf = + −
R C Cαr gR
| αf {z }
=Kus

Interpretation:
The understeer gradient is equal to the difference between the ratios of the
load and cornering stiffness at the front and rear wheels, respectively.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 22 / 39

Understeer gradient Kus

The understeer gradient can be rewritten as

L W V2
δf = + (Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 )
R 2LC C gR
| αf αr {z }
=Kus

Interpretation:
The sign of the understeer gradient depends on the difference between the
products of the cornering stiffness and the distance to the center of gravity
at the rear and front wheels, respectively.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 23 / 39

Understeer gradient Kus

Why does the sign of Cαr l2 − Cαf l1 give the answer question 3?
To give a more direct interpretation we shall only consider the equilibrium
of moments

l1 Fyf − l2 Fyr = 2l1 Cαf αf − 2l2 Cαr αr = 0,

which gives the relation

l1 Cαf αf = l2 Cαr αr ,

and the relation

L
δf = + αf − αr
R
between the angles.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 24 / 39

The case: Neutral steer

Assume that the radius of the curve R is constant and the speed V
increases. In this case l1 Cαf − l2 Cαr = 0 and the relation

l1 Cαf αf = l2 Cαr αr

gives αf = αr and
L
δf = + αf − αr
R | {z }
=0

does not depend on the speed.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 25 / 39

The case: Understeer

In this case l2 Cαr − l1 Cαf > 0 and it follows from

l1 Cαf αf = l2 Cαr αr

that the increase of αf has to larger than the increase of αr , when V

increases.
Hence, the steering angle
L
δf = + αf − αr
R
has to be increased.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 26 / 39

The case: Oversteer
In this case l2 Cαr − l1 Cαf < 0 and it follows from

l1 Cαf αf = l2 Cαr αr

that the increase of αr has to larger than the increase of αf , when V

increases.
Hence, the steering angle
L
δf = + αf − αr
R
has to be increased. p
Observation: If Kus < 0 and V = Vcrit = gL/−Kus then

L V2
δf = + Kus =0
R gR
and does not depend on R.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 27 / 39
Handling at low speeds

If the velocity of the car is small, then

L
δf ≈
R
Furthermore,
V = R θ̇
where θ is the direction of the car.
A simple kinematic model of the car:

ẋ = V cos θ
ẏ = V sin θ
V δf
θ̇ =
L

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 28 / 39

A kinematic model
Adding longitudinal dynamics gives the following model:

ẋ = V cos θ
ẏ = V sin θ
V δf
θ̇ =
L
mV̇ = F

A typical application is motion planning at, e.g., a parking lot:

New course next year:

TSFS12 Autonomous Vehicles - Planning, Control, and Learning Systems
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 29 / 39
Split µ

In some cases there is a difference between the coefficient of friction on

the right- and left-hand side

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 30 / 39

Split µ

Assume that the car i back-wheel driven and the coefficient of friction is
µr to the right µl to the left.
Assume that the normal force is equal on the left and right rear wheel, i.e.,
Wr /2.
Maximum acceleration is obtained when
µh + µv
Fr = µh Wr /2 + µv Wr /2 = Wr
2

How can we distribute the force between the right and left wheel to reach
maximum acceleration
In the case of the car is braking, the ABS system will take care of the
distribution of braking forces.
If the car is accelerating, then an active differential can solve the problem.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 31 / 39

Differential gear

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 32 / 39

Differential gear

Purpose
The wheels can rotate with different angular speed in a curve.
The torque is distributed equally between the wheels.

With an active differential it is possible to partially lock the differential an

distribute the torque between the wheels.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 33 / 39

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 34 / 39
Steering geometry: Ackermann

Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between the steering angles δo and δi in
case of pure rolling without lateral slip at low speed.
With d = |OF | we get the relations

d +B
cot δo =
L
d
cot δi =
L
and
B
cot δo − cot δi =
L

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 35 / 39

Steering geometry: Ackermann
Figure 5.2

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 36 / 39

Steering geometry: Ackermann

Two other relations can be seen in the figure

B/2 + e2
cot δo =
e1
B/2 − e2
cot δi =
e1
and
2e2
cot δo − cot δi =
e1

it follows from the relations above that

e2 B/2
=
e1 L

Hence, the point Q is located on the line MF .

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 37 / 39
Steering geometry: Ackermann

Figure 5.4 shows an example of a steering linkage and how the points O1 ,
O2 och O3 , corresponding to the point Q, are located in relation to the
line MF .

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 38 / 39

Steering geometry: Ackermann
Figure 5.4

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 4 39 / 39