ROYAL VIDYALAYA CBSE

PHYSICS
Project
Session:2024-2025
A Project Report On
“To study frequency response of (i) a capacitor
(ii) an inductor (iii) LCR series circuit.”
Submitted by : R.Sharveswaran
Class - XIIth
Roll no. (cbse)-
Under the Guidance of
Mr. V. Saravana kumar
M.Sc.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am deeply grateful to CBSE and my school,
Royal Vidyalaya CBSE, for providing me with the
opportunity to explore a relevant and relatable
issue while honing my language, collaboration,
and leadership skills.
I am sincerely grateful to our school principal,
Mrs.R.Jayanthi Ramasubramanian for providing
the necessary resources and facilities that
allowed me to carry out the project effectively.
Her words encouraged me to work hard to do
justice to my project. I would also like to thank
my School Management, who provided all the
requirements to complete my project.
I am deeply appreciative of my project mentor,

Mr. V. Saravana kumar for offering his invaluable

guidance and motivation throughout the project.
He carefully monitored my progress, clarified my
doubts, and provided constructive feedback
which improved the quality of my project.
My Special thanks to my Parents who stood
by me throughout the project and supported me
a lot. Their belief in my ability motivated a lot. I
am also Thankful to my Classmates and Friends
who helped me throughout the project.
 CERTIFICATE
Royal Vidyalaya CBSE School

This is to certify that, R.Sharveswaran a

student of Grade XII, has successfully
completed the Physics Project for the
academic year 2024-2025.
The project, titled “To study frequency
response of (i) a capacitor (ii) an inductor (iii) LCR
series circuit,” was undertaken as part of the
physics curriculum and demonstrates
exceptional creativity, research, and
dedication.
We commend his efforts and
commitment to excellence in completing this
project and wish his continued success in
her academic pursuits.

EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

CHIEF SUPERINTENDENT
AIM:
To study frequency response of (i) a capacitor (ii)
an inductor (iii) LCR series circuit.
(i) Frequency response of a capacitor

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:

Paper or mica capacitor (0.1 - 1.0 µF), digital
multimeter (DMM), carbon resistor (1000Ω) and
an audio oscillator/signal generator.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Current passing through a capacitor depends on
its capacitance and the frequency of the applied
sinusoidal alternating voltage. Keeping frequency
fixed, variation of current(I) with voltage (V) is
observed and the capacitive reactance X c is
found out from the slope of the V-I graphs. In
order to measure the current, a carbon resistor
Ro of the order of 1000 Ω is inserted in the circuit
(Fig.1) and the voltage V across it is measured
with the DMM, in ac voltage mode. So the current
in the circuit is I = VR /Ro . Setting the oscillator at
different frequencies, Xc is found for different
frequencies. A graph between Xc and frequency ν
is called the frequency response of the capacitor.
A graph between Xc –1 and frequency ν is also
obtained which is a straight line passing through
the origin.

Note: A DMM always measures the rms values of

ac current and voltage. It is always advised not to
use the DMM in the ac current mode. These
measurements are reliable only for frequencies
less than 400 Hz.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the audio oscillator, carbon resistor Ro
and capacitor according to the Fig.1.
2. Set the oscillator to frequency of 50 Hz and
maximum amplitude. The DMM in ac voltage
mode is connected across C, afterwards across
Ro to measure Vc and VR respectively. The
different pairs of values of VC and VR are
obtained by changing the amplitude of the
applied voltage. The values are recorded in Table
P 7.1.
3. The step 2 is repeated with frequencies 100
Hz, 150 Hz, 200 Hz, 250 Hz and 300 Hz and the
corresponding values of VC and VR are also
tabulated in Table 1.
OBSERVATIONS
Table P 7.1: Measurement of Xc for different
values of ν.
S. Amplitud Frequenc Vc Vr I=vr/ro Slope of
n e y (v) (Hz) (v) (v) (a) graph Vc-I
o graph Xc
ohm)

CALCULATIONS AND GRAPH:

For a given frequency, the values of I are plotted
along x-axis and those of V C are plotted along y-
axis. The gradient (∆VC /∆ I) of the straight line
graph (fig given below) XC , is the capacitive
reactance and its value is calculated. The same is
done for other frequencies also. The values of X C
for different frequencies are also included in
Table 1.
The graph (Fig.3) obtained by plotting X C along y-
axis and frequency ν along x-axis, gives the
frequency response of the capacitor. Now by
plotting a graph with XC –1 along y-axis and
frequency ν along x-axis a straight line is
obtained. From the slope of the straight line
graph (Fig.4)
Capacitance C is calculated using the formula

C= ()
1 p
2π q
(ii) Frequency response of an inductor

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:

An inductor (L) of inductance 0.1 H having low
resistance, carbon resistor Ro (100Ω), oscillator
with low output impedance, digital multimeter
(DMM).

PRINCIPLE:
Current passing through an inductor depends on
its inductance and frequency of the applied
sinusoidal alternating voltage. Keeping frequency
fixed, variation of current (I) with voltage (V) is
observed and the inductive reactance is found
out by drawing a straight line graph between V
(along y-axis) and I (along x-axis). The slope of
this graph is the inductive reactance X L = 2 π ν L,
where ν is the frequency and L is the inductance
of the inductor, if the inductor is ideal i.e., its
resistance r is zero. If r ≠ o, the impedance of the
inductor is Z =√ 4 π v +r . Setting the oscillator at
2 2 2

other frequencies, the inductive reactance X L is

found out for different frequencies. A graph
between frequency ν and XL , represents
frequency response of inductor.
PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made according to Fig.1
by replacing capacitor C with the inductor L and
changing the resistance of the resistor Ro to 100
Ω.
2. Making these connections, the values of VL
and VR are found withDMM for different
frequencies from 50 Hz to 300 Hz. The data are
tabulated in Table 2. For each frequency, the
graph between VRand I (= VR /Ro ) is obtained and
inductive reactance XL for each frequency is
calculated from the slope of this linear graph.
OBSERVATIONS:
Table P 7. 2: Measurement of XL for
different values of ν.
s.no. V(Hz) I(mA) V(volt) I=Ivo/v Z=V/I
(A) (b)
CALCULATIONS AND GRAPH:
The values of XL for different frequencies are
calculated from the slope of the straight line (V-I )
graphs. Now the frequency response curve for
the inductor is obtained by plotting X L along y-
axis and frequency ν along x-axis (Fig.5).
The value of XL at ν = 0 Fig.5 gives the resistance
r of the inductor. In order to find L, we plot a
graph
between ZL2 and ν 2
. The impedance of inductor

ZL is given as
ZL2 = 4π 2
ν 2
L2 + r 2

So this graph would be a straight line (Fig.6). If

the slope of the graph is m and y intercept is c,
then it is clear that

1
√m √c
2π

L= and r =
(i) If the frequency is very large then
4π 2ν2L 2>> r 2 , then at this high
frequency range ZL≈ XL and the XL - ν
graph is straight line. The slope of
this graph at large frequency is
equal to 2πL, so it is possible to
determine the self inductance L of
the inductor from XL –ν graph. But in
order to carry out the experiment in
this frequency range, DMM is not
suitable, cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO) is to be used for measuring
voltage. With CRO, the voltages, VL
and VR are actually the measure of
amplitudes.

(ii) If the inductor of inductance L is

replaced by a carbon resistor (or any
non - inductive resistor) and the
experiment is repeated, then V/I = R
for all frequencies, so the graph
between R versus ν is a straight line
parallel to ν-axis (Fig.7). Resistance
 is independent of frequency.

(iii) Phasor diagrams

If the source voltage, VS , in the circuit in Fig.1

is also measured alongwith the voltage V C
across the capacitor and the voltage V R across
the resistor Ro and tabulated in Table .1, then it
can be found that

VS2 = Vc2 + VR2

for all observations. This means as if V C and VR
are two vectors and in the present case they
are perpendicular to each other. Hence, if we
draw a triangle ABC, whose length AB is

BC to VS , then ∠CAB = 90°.

proportional to VC , length AC to VR and length

This is true for all frequencies. This is due to

the fact that VC and VR have different phases
and in fact VR leads VC by 90° in phase. This is
why they are called phasors.
In case of inductance also it is possible to draw
phasor diagrams. Here the voltage V L across a
pure inductor (having no resistance of its own)
when connected in series with a resistor R and
an audio oscillator (having a small impedance),
leads over VR , the voltage across the resistor
R. So,
V S2 = V R 2 + V L2
But in reality, an inductor always has a small

voltage triangle ABC is drawn and VS ∝ BC, VL∝

but finite resistance r and so if a triangle, called

AB and VR∝ AC, then the ∠BAC is not 90°.

But if we draw a semicircle with BC as the
diameter and CA is produced to meet the circle
at A′ then CA′ represents the voltage drop

Here Vr∝ AA′ and BA′ represents the voltage

across the total resistance (R+r) in the circuit.

drop across the pure inductor.

Then, BC2 = BA′2 + CA′2

This can be verified by using a CRO which can
measure the phase difference between the
various voltages.
( ⅈⅈⅈ )Frequency response of LCR series
circuit
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Audio oscillator with frequency scale, a
resistance box, a digital voltmeter, a 4µF
capacitor, (if 4µF is not available; it can be
made using a few low valued capacitors in
parallel), an inductor of ~ 100 mH, connecting
wires.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.10. The

resistor R ~100 Ω is connected in series with L
and C.
2. Set the signal output to a low value say 2
V, when the switch K is kept open. Keep this
setting fixed throughout the experiment so
that output voltage VC is same at all values of
frequencies. (Keep the frequency below 400
Hz, otherwise digital meter readings will not
be reliable).
3. Set the signal generator at some low
frequency say 100 Hz and record its value.
4. Measure the voltage VR across the known
resistor R. So the current flowing in the circuit
vR
is ¿
R
.

5. Next measure the voltage V across the LC

combination (All voltages are root mean
square (rms) values)
Then impedance of the LC combination is Z =
V/I.
❑
I V0
6. Calculate '
I=
v
where Vo is some fixed value

of voltage.
Repeat steps four and five for different
frequencies.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Output voltage of generator , Vo =...
Table . 3: Measurement of Z for different
values of ν.
Inductance, L = ...
Capacitance, C = ...
1
Resonant frequency, νr = 2 π √ LC ...Hz.

GRAPH:
Plot graphs to observe variation of (i) current I′
with frequency (ii) voltage V with frequency
and (iii) impedance Z with frequency. Observe
the resonant frequency from the three graphs
and compare their values.

RESULT:
1. Resonant frequency from I′ vs ν graph = ...
Hz
2. Resonant frequency from V vs ν graph = ...
Hz
3. Resonant frequency from Z vs ν graph
= ...Hz
4. Minimum value of Z i.e., internal resistance
Ri from Z versus ν graph = ... Ω (should be
around ~ 100 Ω)
DISCUSSION:
1. Have you wondered, why to perform the
experiment at low voltage? As you approach
to resonant frequency νr , both VL and VC
increase enormously. Therefore, it may cause
damage to insulation of electrical
components. This is the reason for setting up
the generator at low voltage. Ensure that the
capacitor and inductor are rated atleast 300 V.
2. Phase relation between XL and Xc : For
frequencies, quite far away from resonant
frequency, individual voltages VL and VC may
be larger than the output voltage of the
oscillator and V is quite closely equal to their
difference. Check up this fact at one or two
frequencies by actually measuring V L and VC .
Obviously, it shows that inductive and
capacitive reactance are opposite in
character, i.e., voltage across inductor and the
capacitor are in a phase opposite to each
other. The ac current in circuit lags behind
voltage VL by 90° and VC lags behind the ac
current by further 90°. Hence VL and VC are
180° out of phase with each other.
3. Internal resistant of resonance circuit–
Resonance in the circuit is observed when X L
and XC are equal to each other. In case of ideal
inductor and capacitor their combined
reactance would be zero at resonance. It will
cause an infinite current at resonance, except
that it is limited by the output impedance of
the signal generator. Internal resistance Ri in
an inductive coil is due to finite resistance of
its windings and some hysterisis losses in its
iron core. In case of a capacitor, there is
energy losses in the dielectric. The minimum
value of X at resonance represents this
internal
Vmin
resistance Ri . It can be calculated as Ri = I max

4. Quality factor
The magnitude of voltage drop across L at
resonance is
Vm n
VL = XL Imax = 2πνr L i

Ri

= Q0Vmin
 2π Vr L 1
Here Q0= Ri = 2 π v r c Ri is the quality factor at
resonance.
It is the ratio of reactance of L (or of C) to the
value of X, both taken at resonant frequency
νr . Since Q0 is a number greater than 1, the
voltage drop across C or L would be greater
than Vmin, the voltage drop across L and C
combine together.
Calculate the value of Q0 , knowing the values
of νr , Ri , L and C.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONALEXPERIMENTS/
ACTIVITIES
1. Take a capacitor whose capacitance is not
known. Connect it in series with an inductor of
inductance L and measure their frequencies
by series resonant circuit. Find the value of
unknown capacitance using the equation, ν r
=1 / 2π (√ LC )
2. Take an inductor whose inductance is not
known. Repeat the above procedure to find
out its value.
3. Change the resistance of LCR series circuit
at three different values. In each of the three
sets of observations for I as a function of
frequency ν, convert values of I to I′, where I′
is current that would pass keeping V = Vo .
Then convert values of I′ as percentages of its
value at resonance in that set. Plot I I′ (in
percentage) versus frequency graph as shown
in Fig.12. Compare values of Qo , Q1 and Q2 .
Do you find that with smaller values of R, the
resonance is sharper? Discuss your result.
4. Half points: Find two frequencies ν 1 and ν2
on I′- ν graph Fig.11 (a) where the current has
its value equal to 70% of the current at
resonance. These frequencies are known as
half points, because the power consumed in
the circuit at these frequencies is half the
power consumed at resonance subject to
condition that constant ac potential difference
is applied to the resonance circuit. Find the

difference ν2 – ν1 .