DC MOTORS
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NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE
Welcome to the lecture on direct current
motors. DC motors are constructed of the same
components as DC generators. The difference
between the two machines is that a generator
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy,
while a motor does the opposite, converting
an input of electrical energy into mechanical
energy in the form of a rotating shaft. This
mechanical energy can be used to perform all
kinds of useful work. Large industrial facilities
such as factories and power plants may contain
many thousands of motors. Motors find
countless uses in commercial, residential, and
transportation settings as well. As described in
the previous lecture, most motors for industrial
purposes are AC, but DC motors are used for
certain applications with very heavy torque
requirements. DC motors are also commonly
found in transportation applications and certain
small or portable applications.
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MOTOR ACTION
Torque is the rotational force applied to the motor shaft.
The torque applied to the motor shaft results from the Adding commutator
repulsion of magnetic fields, one magnetic field originating segments and armature
in the rotor and the other magnetic field originating in the loops:
stator.
The torque developed by the DC motor is proportional
to the strength of the stationary field and the strength of
N
the rotating field, which in turn are proportional to the S
strengths of the currents flowing in the rotor armature or
stator field windings. DC motors are thus able to produce
- N
+
high torque even at zero speed. S
As in the case of a DC generator, the stationary field from DC Power Supply -
the stator can be provided by electromagnets known Commutator +
as field windings, or it can be provided by permanent
magnets in the case of permanent magnet motors. Larger
DC motors use field windings for the stationary field. Direction of Turning Force
Direction of Stationary Magnetic Field
The magnetic field from the rotor, which repels against
the stationary field, can also be provided by permanent Direction of Magnetic Field
Around Each Loop
magnets or by armature windings.
A type of motor known as the brushless DC motor
that uses permanent magnets in the rotor is becoming
increasingly popular for many applications because
it eliminates the high- maintenance commutator and
N S
brushes. However, in a traditional DC motor with armature
windings in the rotor, a commutator and brushes are
required.
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MOTOR ACTION
In a DC motor, a commutator functions as a rotary switch
to maintain the proper polarity of the armature as it rotates Adding commutator
360 degrees through the stationary field. Because the segments and armature
armature conductors rotate and the brushes supply DC to loops:
these conductors, an armature conductor must connect to
the opposite brush as it rotates past 180 degrees toward
the next stator pole so that current direction and polarity N
remain constant relative to that pole, ensuring continual
magnetic repulsion and attraction between poles as the
S
armature rotates. Without this switching action of the - N
commutator, the rotor would lock into one position. +
S
From this analysis, it is also clear that the stator field and
the rotor field cannot both be provided by permanent
DC Power Supply -
Commutator +
magnets, since the respective north and south poles of
both fields would be attracted to each other and the rotor
would lock into one position. Direction of Turning Force
Direction of Stationary Magnetic Field
Finally, note that in real DC motors, armatures are
constructed with many loops and commutator segments. Direction of Magnetic Field
Around Each Loop
This ensures a more continuous torque on the armature.
N S
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RIGHT HAND RULE FOR MOTORS
The preceding analysis can be visualized by using the
right-hand rule for motors, similar to the left-hand rule Direction
of Force
for generators. Place the thumb, index finger, and middle
finger of the right hand at right angles to each other.
If the index finger points in the direction of the lines
of magnetic flux, and the middle finger points in the
direction of current flow in the armature loop conductor,
then the thumb will point in the direction of force
(motion) of that conductor. Field
Note that this procedure depends on the electron
flow model. If using the conventional current model,
the opposite hands would be used (right hand for
generators, left hand for motors).
Electron
Current Flow
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GENERAL ACTION IN A MOTOR
A motor contains all of the conditions necessary for
magnetic induction to occur in a conductor cutting lines
of a magnetic field. Generator action thus takes place
in a motor when an armature has relative motion to the
Rotation
field, which is of course happening whenever the motor
is in operation.
CEMF
When a motor’s armature rotates through the field, a
Brush
voltage is induced in the armature conductors that is
in the opposite direction to the applied voltage from
the source powering the motor. This induced voltage is CEMF
known as the counter-electromotive force (or counter-
emf) since it counters the applied voltage. It is also
sometimes known as back-emf.
The value of the counter-emf depends on field strength,
the number of armature turns, and armature speed. The
net result is that the effective voltage at the armature is
equal to the applied voltage minus the counter-emf, and
armature current is reduced.
Counter-emf is actually key to understanding why motor
+ D-C Power Source
−
current increases when load on the motor increases.
When load on the motor increases, the armature will
start to slow down. Counter-emf is reduced, because the
armature conductors cut the field more slowly. Armature
current then increases.
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SERIES-WOUND DC MOTORS
Like DC generators, DC motors can also be wound in series, A1 A2 S1 S2
shunt, or compound. These terms once again refer to how
the field windings are connected to the armature windings. Series
Field
In a series-wound DC motor, the field and armature currents
are identical. The amount of load on the motor thus
affects both the armature current and field current. As load
increases and speed decreases, current and torque increase
significantly. When load is reduced or removed, speed will
increase significantly.
Series motors should not be operated in a no-load condition
because overspeed can result in catastrophic destruction.
Power transmission devices that are more prone to
Torque
disconnection, such as belts or chains, should not be used
between a series motor and its load. Because of their very
high starting torques, series motors are used in applications
such as car starter motors and crane motors. With a few
modifications, a series DC motor can be made to operate
effectively on AC as well. These modifications include
laminations, or layers, in the pole pieces to minimize eddy
currents that are induced during AC operation.
A series motor that can operate on AC or DC power is known
as a universal motor. Universal motors are used in appliances
and portable tools such as electric drills—applications where Speed
small size, high speed, high torque, and variable speed are
useful.
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SHUNT-WOUND DC MOTORS
In shunt-wound DC motors, the field winding is A1 A2
connected in parallel to the armature winding.
Field current is thus independent of armature
current, and field strength is more nearly
constant than in a series-wound motor. For this F1 F2
reason, shunt-wound motors maintain good
speed control, typically varying no more than Shunt Field
10% from no-load to full-load. For this reason,
DC shunt motors are sometimes referred to as
constant speed motors. Shunt-wound motors
do not have as high of a starting torque as
series-wound motors, however.
Torque
Speed
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COMPOUND DC MOTORS
Compound DC motors combine a series field with a shunt A1 A2 S1 S2
field. Although the starting torque of a compound motor
is not as high as that of the series motor, and the speed Series
regulation is not quite as good as that of the shunt motor, Field
the compound motor is a good compromise design that F1 F2
combines the advantages of both types of motors.
Compound DC motors are the most common type of
Long Shunt Compound Motor
DC motor in use. As with compound DC generators,
compound DC motors can be of the long shunt type, with
the shunt field parallel to both the armature and series
field, or of the short shunt type, with the shunt field parallel A1 A2 S1 S2
to the armature. The long shunt compound DC motor
is more commonly used because of its greater speed Series
regulation. Compound DC motors can also be cumulative Field
compound or differential compound. F1 F2
The cumulative compound motor connects the shunt field
so that it aids the magnetic field of the series field. The
Short Shunt Compound Motor
differential compound motor connects the shunt field so
that it opposes the magnetic field of the series field. There
are thus four possible configurations for compound DC
motors. In practice however, most compound DC motors
are of the cumulative type, due to speed instabilities of the
differential type at high load.
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DC MOTOR OPERATIONS
Resistors to Change Armature Current:
If an application requires variable speeds, one method A1 A2 S1 S2
to accomplish this with DC motors is to reduce armature
current. This can be done by connecting resistors in
series with the armature. Switches can bring resistors in S1 S2 S3 F1 F2
and out of the circuit as required, but this wastes power
in the resistors and can only change the speed in steps. A
more efficient means of speed control uses an electronic Reversing DC Motor Direction:
controller known as a DC drive to vary the voltage to the
armature.
Today, it is becoming more common to use AC motors
in applications requiring variable speed. In that case,
an electronic AC drive is used to vary the speed of an
AC motor by varying the frequency of the alternating
voltage.
DC motor direction can also be reversed if the
application requires it. This is usually accomplished by
reversing the armature leads, but the field leads can also
be reversed to reverse motor direction. For instance,
small shunt motors are sometimes reversed by using a S1 S2
A1 A2
small double-pole double-throw switch to reverse the
Series
direction of current in the shunt field. Electronic F1 F2 Field
Controller
to Change Power
Supply
Armature
Current:
Variable - Voltage
Current - Limited
Power Supply
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DC MOTOR OPERATIONS
Resistors to Change Armature Current:
Large compound DC motors that need to operate in A1 A2 S1 S2
forward and reverse usually use magnetic contactors
to reverse the armature connections, thereby reversing
current flow and thus rotor direction. S1 S2 S3 F1 F2
Finally, all DC motors are rated according to their
normal operating parameters, which are stamped on the
nameplate of the motor. The voltage and current ratings Reversing DC Motor Direction:
of the motor refer to the applied voltage and current at
which the motor is designed to operate at. The power
rating of the motor is the continuous power output of
the motor that will not exceed the thermal limits of its
conductor insulation, bearings, and other components.
The speed rating of a DC motor is the upper speed
limit that the motor is designed to operate at without
mechanical damage.
A1 A2 S1 S2
Series
F2 Field
Electronic F1
Controller
to Change Power
Supply
Armature
Current:
Variable - Voltage
Current - Limited
Power Supply
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BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS
As mentioned earlier, the brushless DC motor is becoming Three Phase Output
increasingly popular for many applications where DC
power is used because it eliminates the high-maintenance Brushless
commutator and brushes. The brushless DC motor uses Motor
permanent magnets in the rotor instead of armature Converter
windings.
The field windings are actually powered by alternating
current, which must first be converted to AC from the
DC input source using a converter. This converter is
technically known as an inverter, which is the opposite
of a rectifier. The alternating current sets up a rotating
magnetic field that turns the permanent magnet rotor in
the direction of rotation. Rotating magnetic fields are also
key to the operation of AC motors. The development of Brushless DC Motor Showing
rare-earth magnets, much stronger than ferrite magnets, Permanent Magnet Rotor
have expanded the range of applications for brushless DC
motors that have magnets in place of an armature winding,
and permanent magnet DC motors that have permanent
magnets in place of a field winding.
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