HEALTH, SAFETY AND

ENVIRONMENT PLAN

A Guide to
Laboratory Hazards,
Recommended Working Practices
and
Hazardous Waste Disposal

Department of Chemical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

June 2010
 Health, Safety & Environment Committee (2009 -10)
Prof. Sandip Roy (Convener)
Prof. Chandra Venkataraman
Prof. S.B. Noronha
Prof. Madhu Vinjamur
Prof. Mani Bhushan

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 Table of Contents
Section No. Title Page
1 Introduction 4
2 HSE Policy 4
3 HSE Responsibilities 5
4 The Nature of Chemical Hazards 5
5 Examples of Hazardous Classes of Chemical Compounds 6
6 HSE-Relevant Properties of Chemical Substances 7
7 Occupational Exposure Limits 9
8 Criteria for Major Hazard Chemicals 10
9 Hazardous Material Labelling 11
10 Stability and Reactivity of Chemicals: Use of Interaction Matrix 13
11 Ingress of Chemicals into Human Body 14
12 Chemical Absorptivity of Human Skin 15
13 HSE Information Requirements for a Laboratory 16
14 Information on Carcinogenic Compounds 17
15 Biohazards and Related Safety Measures 18
16 Safety in Nanomaterials Research 19
17 Human Physiological Responses to Toxic Substances 21
18 Chemical Hazard Control: Technical Measures 24
19 Exposure Control through Personal Protection 25
20 Chemical Hazard Identification and Management 26
21 Safe Laboratory Practices: General Recommendations 26
22 Management of Chemical and Bio-wastes 27
23 Electrical Safety 29
24 HSE System Audits 31
25 Conclusions 32
26 References 32
27 Appendix: Examples of Hazardous Chemicals

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1. Introduction
This document prepared by the Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay, is a guide to the desirable practices relating to the protection of
personnel health, safety and environment (HSE) which may be adopted and adhered to in
connection with all laboratory-based research activities. The objective of this document is to
provide all relevant information on safety and environmental disposal practices to the
students, technical staff, and other concerned personnel. This is expected to help eliminate or
minimize hazards that may be encountered during laboratory activities. It is anticipated that
every personnel associated with the Departmental laboratory activities will strive to enhance
the practices suggested here so as to ensure that potential health effects due to accidental
exposure to the relevant hazards, and environmental impacts due to discharge of chemicals
are either eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels as prescribed by regulatory authorities.
Adherence to the best laboratory safety practices may not only be mandated, it is also in the
best interest of a personnel and that of his / her co-workers.

2. HSE Policy
The Department’s HSE policy may be summarized as follows:
• create and maintain a work place that is free of any hazards and environmental
impacts associated with laboratory activities
• enable dissemination of all knowledge relevant to laboratory safety and waste
disposal through focussed training sessions, expert lectures, posters, signage, etc.
• ensure adherence to the requisite safety and environmental (HSE) norms by all users
through regular monitoring
• update the safety manual and associated HSE practices continuously
• appoint faculty co-ordinator(s) to oversee the HSE practices and ensure compliance
• discourage instances of non-compliance with suitable penalty
• publicize lessons from instances of accidental personnel exposure and environmental
releases
• publicize compliance and innovative adoption of HSE practices by individual (or
group of) students and technical staff

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3. HSE Responsibilities:
The responsibilities in relation to adherence to safe practices within the Department would
be as follows:
1. The Head of the Department would be responsible for appointing a faculty co-
ordinator to oversee HSE practices, ensure compliance, and setting up HSE related
committees
2. The HSE faculty co-ordinator would be responsible for continuous updating of the
safety practices and the relevant documents, periodic auditing of practices in the
Departmental Laboratories, and investigation of any instances of accidental
personnel exposure, property damage and unacceptable environmental discharge.
Other concerned and expert faculty may be co-opted in the above tasks in
consultation with the Department Head.
3. The faculty-in-charge of each laboratory would be foremost responsible for
overseeing and ensuring compliance with Departmental HSE norms within his/her
laboratory; he/she need also enhance the practices through collection and
dissemination of relevant HSE information.
4. The primary responsibility of complying with recommended HSE practices would
devolve to the students and support technical staff in each laboratory.

4. The Nature of Chemical Hazards

The term hazard may be broadly defined as “anything that has a potential to cause damage to
human health, property and environment”. Hazards in a research laboratory may be of
various forms: mechanical, electrical, and chemical. Examples include: noise, rotating
equipments, compressed gas cylinders, electricity, high temperature / high pressure
equipments, chemicals that are toxic / flammable / corrosive / radioactive, etc [Ref. 1]. Of
these by far the most common and dominant hazard is the possible exposure to a variety
chemicals that are implicated today in research in various fields of science and engineering.
Many of these chemicals, especially if not properly used, may endanger health and safety,
and pollute the environment, often irreversibly. Thus, a systematic assessment of the nature
of personnel, property and environmental hazard posed by a chemical employed in the
laboratory is necessary as part of a Department’s HSE goal.

The following material attributes contribute to toxic heath-hazard due to possible acute,
repeated or prolonged exposure [Ref. 2]:

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 • toxic to human specific human organs (kidney, liver, lung, etc)

• toxic to human physiological systems (reproductive, nervous, blood, etc)

• corrosive (strong acids, bases, dehydrating agents, oxidizing agents)

• irritant (non-corrosive chemicals that cause reversible inflammatory effects on

human tissue)

• cancer causing

• sensitizing (allergenic)

• radioactive

Fire and explosion hazards may be classified as follows:

• explosive

• oxidizing

• extremely flammable

• highly flammable

• flammable

The following properties present hazard to the environment:

• toxic to living organisms

• persistent in the environment (bio-persistent)

• bio-accumulative

Also, substances and preparations that cannot be classified by using the above system may be
regarded as dangerous if they have properties which are hazardous to human health, to other
living organisms or if they can damage property / environment.

5. Examples of Potentially Hazardous Chemical Classes of Compounds

Of the large variety of chemicals that may potentially be used in a chemical laboratory the
following classes of substances are generally regarded to pose HSE hazards [Ref 3]:
• Acids

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 • Aldehydes
• Alkaline metals
• Amines
• Ammonia and Ammonium Compounds
• Azo and Diazo Compounds
• Hydrazines
• Carbonyls
• Chlorates and Perchlorates
• Cyanides
• Epoxides
• Ethers
• Halogens
• Hydrocarbons
• Hydroxides
• Isocyanates
• Mercaptans
• Nitro-compounds
• Organophosphates
• Peroxides and Hydroperoxides
• Phenols and Cresols
• Silanes and Chlorosilnaes

6. HSE-relevant Properties of Chemical Substances

The hazardous nature of all chemicals is strongly grounded in their physico-chemical

properties, the magnitude of which determine the degree (or intensity) of the hazard posed
by them. Table 1 provides a list of such common properties of substances, which often are
indicative of the level of hazard and which constitute inputs to quantitative (or semi-
quantitative) assessment of hazard posed by a chemical [Refs. 3, 4, 5].
Table 1. Physico-chemical Properties defining Hazards
Appearance: - indicate physical state (solid, liquid, gas), and colour
Odour: - if odour is perceptible, give a brief description

Boiling point/boiling - specify here the temperature at which the material changes from liquid to gas. If

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 range: it decomposes without boiling, the temperature at which it decomposes may be
given with the abbreviation `dec.'
Melting - indicate the temperature at which the solid material changes to a liquid
point/melting range:
Flash point: - the lowest temperature at which a liquid or solid produces enough vapour to
form a flammable air-vapour mixture near its surface so that it can be ignited by a
spark or flame at atmospheric pressure.
pH: - to provide an indication of acidic or alkaline (basic) properties, give the pH of
the substance or preparation as supplied or that of an aqueous solution (in the
latter case indicate the concentration).
pH is expressed on a scale from 0 to 14, which can be divided into the following
ranges:

• pH 0-2 Strongly acidic

• pH 3-5 Weakly acidic

• pH 6-8 Neutral

• pH 9-10 Weakly basic

• pH 12-14 Strongly basic

Substances or preparations with pH values 0-2 or 11.5-14 may be classified as

corrosive.
Flammability: - describes the ability of the material to ignite and burn readily. A liquid or solid
with a flash point above 21°C but less than 55°C is flammable.
- Highly flammable relates to substances or preparations with a flash point above
0°C but below 21°C, as well as to solids spontaneously flammable in air or which
may readily ignite after brief contact with source of ignition and which continue to
burn after removal of the source of ignition.
- Extremely flammable relates to liquids which have a flash point below 0°C and a
boiling point below 35°C, and to flammable gases when liquefied.

Auto-flammability: - some materials have the feature of igniting in air in the absence of a spark or
flame. The auto-ignition temperature can be found in the literature.
Explosive properties: - specify, if appropriate, the concentrations for the lower and upper explosion
limits. This is usually in volume percentage of air, for example, for xylene 1.1-
7.0%, and for benzene 1.2 - 8.0%.
Oxidizing properties: - substances which can generate and maintain heat producing chemical reaction

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 with other materials, especially burning flammable material.
Vapour pressure: - describes the tendency of a material to form a vapour. It is used e.g. for
estimating the inhalation or fire hazards. Vapour pressure is expressed usually at
the temperature of 20°C.
Relative density: - the density of the substance or preparation compared to the density of water (=
1). This figure indicates whether the substance floats in water or sinks (when the
relative density is more than 1).
Solubility: - indicate here the solubility in water. If the solubility is not accurately known
describe with words such as: poor, moderate, miscible...
Partition coefficient: - the ratio of the solubility of a substance or preparation in n-octanol to that in
water.
Other data: - provide here data relevant for safety aspects, such as vapour density,
evaporation rate, conductivity, viscosity, etc.
LD50
- abbreviation used for the dose which kills 50% of the test population. LD50 is
expressed in milligrams per kilogram of body weight of the test animal (which must
be mentioned).

LC50 - abbreviation used for the exposure concentration of a toxic substance lethal to
half of the test animals. LC50 is expressed in millilitres per kilogram of body
weight of the test animal (which must be mentioned), exposed to the substance by
inhalation during a specified period.
TLV-TWA (Threshold
- time-weighted average concentration for an eight hour working day or 40 hours a
Limit Value - Time
week to which nearly all personnel may be repeatedly exposed without adverse
Weighted Average)
effect.

TLV-STEL - concentration to which a person may be exposed for a short time (usually 15
(Threshold Limit minutes) without suffering from irritation, long-term or irreversible tissue
Value - Short Term damage or impairment likely to increase accidental injury, affect self-rescue or
Exposure Limit) reduce work efficiency
TLV-C (Threshold - concentration that should not be exceeded at all during work exposure
Limit Value - Ceiling)

7. Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs)

In order to control toxic effects in workplaces the commonest strategy is to define

Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs). OELs are based on the best available information
from industrial experience, from experimental laboratory studies and from accidents.

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 Different kinds of OELs are applied in practice. The TLVs (Threshold Limit Values)
which have been defined in Table 1 are published by the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (amongst others) [[Link]
They set a limit concentration below which it is believed that nearly all workers can be
repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect [Refs. 6, 7]. Therefore, these may
also be regarded as target airborne concentrations that should never be exceeded in a
laboratory environment. The TLVs are regularly reviewed and corrected when new
information becomes available. Annexure 1 provides the latest Occupational Exposure
Limits (termed alternatively as Workplace Exposure Limits) set by the UK Health and Safety
Executive.

Almost all countries in the world today have adopted similar table of values of OELs
for regulating personnel health at workplace (industry and laboratory). For detailed
information on effects of various chemicals one may access the following website of
International Program on Chemical Safety (a World Health Organization subsidiary):
[Link]

8. Criteria for Major Hazard Chemicals

Typically any assessment of the degree of hazard from a chemical is based on multiple
parameters which include: values of relevant physico-chemical properties, operating
conditions, available inventory etc. Of these, the property values generally provide a very
critical input to hazard assessment. Thus, several international and national bodies across
the world have defined criteria based on substance physico-chemical properties, primarily
for classifying substances into various hazard categories. One of the widely accepted
classification criteria is due to the International Labour Organization ([Link]
which recommends the following taxonomy for hazardous substances that pose significantly
high level (major) hazard:

Toxic substances:

Toxic substances are classified into hazard categories according to their acute toxicity.
Classification can be done by determining the acute toxicity in animals, expressed in LD50 or
in LC50 values (see table 1). In general three categories are suggested: Very Toxic (Category 1

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and 2) and Toxic substances (Category 3). These are demarcated by LD50 and LC50 values as
shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Classification of toxic chemicals based on LD50 and LC50

Category LD50 absorbed orally LD50 dermal LC50 absorbed by
in rat absorption in rat or inhalation in rat
(mg/kg bodyweight) rabbit (mg/litre per 4
(mg/kg bodyweight) hours)
1 <5 <10 <0.10
2 5-25 10-50 0.1 - 0.5
3 25 - 200 50 - 400 0.5 - 2

Flammable substances:

• Gases which form flammable mixtures with air

• Highly or extremely flammable liquids with flash points lower than 21 °C

• Flammable liquids with flash points lower than 55 °C

Explosive substances:

This category includes substances which may explode when brought in contact with a source
of ignition or which are more sensitive to shock and friction than dinitrobenzene.

9. Hazardous Material Labeling:

There are several conventions of classifying and labeling hazardous chemicals across various
continents. However, in an effort to develop a uniform, global system of classification of
chemicals, labels and safety data sheets, the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) was
initiated by the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development in 1992.
The work was co-coordinated and managed under the auspices of the Interorganization
Programme for Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC) Coordinating Group for the
Hamonization of Chemical Classification Systems (CG/HCCS). The technical focal points of
completion of the work were the International Labour Organization (ILO), The Organization
of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the United Nations Economic and
Social Council’s Sub-Committee of Experts on Transportation of Dangerous Goods
(UNSCETDG). The first version became available in 2003 in the form of the so called purple
book (compared to the orange book for transportation). The GHS harmonizes most

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classification criteria for supply and transportation and is based on the intrinsic properties of
substances.

The following table 3 provides the signs used to label different types of hazardous
substances enlisted in the UN Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of
Chemicals (GHS). More details on the system are available at:
[Link]

Table 3 Labels Representing Various Chemical Hazard Classes

Hazardous Substance Classes Label
Unstable explosives

Flammable substances
- gases
- aerosols
- liquids
- solids

- Oxidizing gases
- Oxidizing liquids

- Compressed gases
- Liquefied gases
- Refrigerated liquefied gases
- Dissolved gases

- Corrosive to metals
- Skin corrosion / irritation
- Serious eye damage / irritation

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Acutely Toxic Substances
- oral
- dermal
- inhalation

Highly Toxic Substances & Substances with Specific Organ Toxicity

- oral
- dermal
- inhalation
- hazardous to ozone layer

- Respiratory sensitizer
- Germ cell mutagenic
- Carcinogenic
- Effects via or on Lactation
- Toxic to Reproduction
- Specific Target Organ Toxicity following Single Exposure
- Specific Target Organ Toxicity following Repeated Exposure
- Aspiration Hazard
Substances posing acute, long term hazard to aquatic environment

Radioactive Substances*

*
From US Department of Transportation

10: Stability and Reactivity of Chemicals: Use of Interaction Matrix

During the hazard assessment of a chemical one must also scrutinize the stability of the
substance and the possibility of hazardous reactions occurring under certain conditions. It is
necessary to list the conditions which should be avoided, such as high or low temperatures,
pressure, light and shock effects [Refs. 3, 8, and [Link] which may cause a
dangerous reaction and if possible include a brief description of these.

As part of the assessment one also must identify the materials which may cause a
dangerous reaction if they come into contact with the substance or preparation concerned,

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such as water, air, acids, bases, oxidizing agents, etc. In addition it is necessary to list
materials which may be produced in dangerous quantities upon decomposition. In a
laboratory environment, the information pertaining to stability and reactivity of chemicals
may be conveniently documented in the form of an “interaction matrix” [Ref. 2] which (for
example) is illustrated in table 4.

Table 4 Interaction Matrix

Chemical A Chemical B Chemical C Mixture X Mixture Y Mixture Z
Chemical A

Chemical A

Chemical A

Mixture X

Mixture Y

Mixture Z

Low Temperature

High Temperature

High Pressure

Humidity

Light

Shock

As may be evident from fig 1, the interaction matrix essentially is a means to record the
consequence of an accidental combination of the substances and / or conditions in the first
column and the substances enlisted in the first row. The number of elements in the first row
and the column may be expanded as a user may feel the need for. The user may then fill in
the table (i.e, the individual boxes at the juncture of each row and column) with information
on the expected consequences of each combination. Such a document may then become a
source of information for decisions on expected experimental programs.

11. Ingress of Chemicals into Human Body

Chemical substance cause adverse health effects by either entering the body or coming in
contact with it. There are four main routes for chemical substances to enter the human body:

• Inhalation (breathing in)

• Absorption (through the skin or eyes)

• Ingestion (eating, swallowing)

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 • Transfer across the placenta of a pregnant woman to the unborn baby

As already introduced above, the common chemical groups that cause health risks are: dusts,
fumes and gases, solvents, acids, bases, heavy metals etc. Many chemicals may be dispersed
into the air to form dust, mist, fumes, gas or vapour and can then be inhaled. Skin absorption
is, after inhalation, the second most common route through which exposure may take place.
Handling chemical substances without proper protection exposes one to the risk of absorbing
harmful amounts of chemical through the skin. This usually happens when handling the
chemical in liquid form. Dust may also be absorbed through the skin if it is wetted by, for
instance, sweat. The capacity of different chemical substances to penetrate the skin varies
considerably. Some substances pass through it without creating any feeling
[[Link]

The protective external layer of skin may be softened (by toluene, dilute washing soda
solution, etc) thus permitting other chemicals to enter readily into the bloodstream (such as
aniline, phenol, benzene, etc). Eyes may also absorb chemical substances, either from
splashes or from vapours. Dangerous chemicals can enter the body through ingestion as
gases, dusts, vapours, fumes, liquids or solids. Inhaled dust may be swallowed, and food or
cigarettes may be contaminated by dirty hands.

Whatever the route of entry, chemicals can reach the blood stream and be distributed
all over the body. In this way damage can be caused at the site of entry as well as to organs
distant from the exposed area. Chemical exposure may also cause adverse impacts at
systemic levels: such as nervous and reproductive systems [Refs. 2, 5].

12. Chemical Absorptivity of Skin

In many countries a “skin notation” is used for cautioning against skin contact in cases where
the skin is significantly permeable to the chemical in question. The stratum corneum
provides the greatest barrier against hydrophilic compounds, whereas the viable epidermis is
most resistant to highly lipophilic compounds. Skin absorption depends on the
physicochemical properties (e.g. octanol–water partition coefficient (Po/w), molecular weight,
electron structure and dissociation constant (pKa) of the compound, but also on interactions
with other compounds. Additionally, the vehicle, occlusion, concentration, exposure pattern
and the site of the skin also play a role [Refs. 2, 5].
Evaluations of hazards due to skin penetration are generally complicated due to
various factors that need to be considered: type of vehicle for the chemical, size of the

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exposed area, applied dose, etc. The simplest, semi-quantitative assessments consider the
flux (in mg/cm2hr) derived from in vitro studies. Theoretically, skin absorption depends,
amongst others things, on the volume of the molecule and hence on the molecular weight of a
compound as well as on the hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding properties, which are often
based on the Po/w [Ref. 9]. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) has a free service that allows the calculation of a skin permeation coefficient (KP)
for substances: [Link] Also, skin
penetration data can be obtained from the EDETOX database
[[Link]

13. HSE Information Requirements for a Laboratory

The key information that must be collected and disseminated amongst all users in a
laboratory are:
• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) pertaining to all chemicals used in a laboratory;
these are generally available from manufacturers of chemicals and provide safety-
related information for a chemical. This broadly includes: hazards, safe exposure
levels, over-exposure symptoms, safe handling practices, waste disposal methods,
etc. MSDS of many chemicals are also freely available on the internet
• Interaction Matrices containing information on stability and reactivity of various
chemicals (may be abstracted from MSDSs)
• Documents containing detailed information on safety practices to be followed for all
other classes of substance under usage: biological, radioactive, nanomaterials, etc.
Information on these materials may be sourced and consolidated from all possible
sources.
• Relevant Laboratory Standards recommended by regulatory agencies and other apex
bodies (for example: OSHA Laboratory Standard (US) and its Appendices available
at the OSHA website under the regulation number “1910.1450”:
[[Link]
01910.1450]
• Consolidated information on safe handling and disposal information on all chemicals
for ready reference (to be prepared from MSDSs and any other source, and made
available in both hard and online formats)
• Consolidated information on management of accidental spills / release of hazardous
chemicals and other forms of abnormal situations that may potentially cause harm to

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 personnel / environment (information may be obtained from MSDSs and other
relevant sources)

For developing documents on the best practices in a customized manner at the laboratory
level, the user of this manual is also advised to refer to the comprehensive compendium
of safety and waste-disposal information related to all forms of laboratory hazards
(including chemicals / biohazardous materials / radioactive substances, etc) available at:
[Link]

14. Information on Carcinogenic Compounds

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is internationally recognized for
evaluation of compounds, complex mixtures with a carcinogenic potential. For the current
state of the science of classification and evaluation see Annexure 2. The IARC evaluations
rank the compounds and complex mixtures into five groups. Select examples of workplace
carcinogens are enlisted below:
• Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans, which are based mainly on studies in humans. This
group comprised 28 definite occupational carcinogens, including asbestos, crystalline
silica, wood dust, arsenic and arsenic compounds, beryllium, cadmium and cadmium
compounds, hexavalent chromium compounds, nickel compounds, benzene, vinyl
chloride monomer, 4-aminobiphenyl, benzidine, 2-naphthylamine, ethylene oxide, 1,3-
butadiene (recently reclassified to Group 1, cf. below), and coal tars and pitches.
• Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans, which are based on sufficient evidences
from animal studies. This group comprised 27 probably occupational carcinogens,
including benzo[a]pyrene, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, acrylamide,
epichlorohydrin, benzidine-based dyes, diethyl sulphate, and formaldehyde.
• Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans, which are based on a combination of
effects in humans, animals and other evidences. This group comprised more than 100
occupational exposures, including antimony trioxide, cobalt and cobalt compounds, lead
and inorganic lead compounds, naphthalene, acrylonitrile, ethyl acrylate, isoprene,
styrene, toluene diisocyanate, acetaldehyde, acetamide, chloroform, 1,2-dichloroethane,
dichloromethane, some aromatic amine dyes, some azo dyes (including trypan blue),
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), catechol, 1,4-dioxane, and hydrazine.
• Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans due to limitations in the
data set.

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• Group 4: Probably not carcinogenic to humans, which are based on a combination of
effects in epidemiologic and animal studies together with other evidences.

For more details on classifications and the various categories and examples of carcinogenic
compounds see article in Annexure 3. The summary and overall evaluations by IARC are
available from the home web of the International Programme on Chemical Safety
[[Link] and
[Link] Another comprehensive list with
documentations of carcinogenic compounds is available from the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services through the home web of the National Toxicology Program
[[Link] The list is published biennially and
distinguishes between compounds ‘‘known to be human carcinogens”, which is based on
epidemiological studies, and compounds ‘‘reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens”,
which is based on human and/or animal studies as well as on other relevant data. The lists
are useful as a first choice of information about potential carcinogenic effects.

15. Biohazards and Related Safety Measures

The World Health Organization (WHO) divides the Biohazardous Substances class into two
categories: Category A: Infectious; and Category B: Samples (virus cultures, pathology
specimens, used intravenous needles). The procedures for handling of all such materials,
intermediates, products and waste, and the attendant protective equipment in laboratories
engaged in biological research require special attention. The pertinent safety information
and hazard assessment procedures, standard laboratory practices must be identified,
maintained and disseminated in the form of a manual by the concerned faculty-in-charge. As
indicated in section XIV, a wide-ranging compilation of biosafety and waste-disposal
information is available at:
[Link]

Select critical requirements with respect to biosafety are summarized below:

• Training of all personnel on standard procedures, techniques and safety practices to
be adopted in microbial research
• Identifying the level of hazard posed by each biological material handled in the
laboratory (by use of standard classification schemes recommended by regulatory
agencies)

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 • Restricting access to all experimental apparatuses in use / display of appropriate bio-
hazard signage
• Use of appropriate safety equipment (bio-safety cabinets) and appropriately designed
apparatus for preventing release of biological materials during processing
• Use of specialized personal protection equipment during laboratory activities (face
protection, gloves, respirators, coats, etc)
• Use of any special immunization procedures that may be required for personnel
working in the laboratory
• Adherence to strict sterilization / decontamination procedures for laboratory
equipment and exposed surfaces
• Decontamination of bio-wastes prior to disposal
• Development of emergency procedures to be adopted in the event of accidental
spillage of biological materials
• Avoidance of intake of food in the laboratory

16. Safety in Nanomaterials Research

Engineered nanomaterials are those that are intentionally created (in contrast with natural
or incidentally formed) and possess dimensions <100 nanometers. This definition excludes
biomolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates). Like most other laboratory
chemicals nanoparticles may enter the human body through inhalation, skin exposure and
ingestion. The specific hazards associated with most nanomaterials are yet to be identified in
a systematic manner. Limited safety information available on such materials suggests that
nano-sized particles are likely to be relatively more toxic than larger sized particulate matter.
Owing to their reduced size and hence higher specific surface area, such materials have been
found to be more reactive than higher sized particulate matter. Also, for the same reason
nanomaterials are expected to be far more penetrable into the human body and hence can
find their way to the body fluids (blood) and to specific organs more readily. Thus, if the
material is toxic on its own, a higher level of toxic response is anticipated. Also, the
nanoparticulate forms of some materials show unusually high reactivity, especially for fire,
explosion, and in catalytic reactions.
In spite of the uncertainties on the nanomaterial hazards it is believed that the same
general technical hazard control measures which are usually adopted for most chemicals may
also be applied effectively for nanoscale materials. The Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
Education (ORISE) a U.S. Department of Energy institute which focuses on scientific

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 initiatives to research health risks from occupational hazards, prescribes, amongst other, the
following work practices for nanomaterials:

• Transfer engineered nanomaterials samples between workstations (such as

exhaust hoods, glove boxes, furnaces) in closed, labeled containers, e.g., marked
“Zip-Lock” bags.
• Take reasonable precautions to minimize the likelihood of skin contact with
engineered nanoparticles or nanoparticle-containing materials likely to release
nanoparticles (nanostructures).
• If engineered nanoparticle powders must be handled without the use of exhaust
ventilation (i.e., laboratory exhaust hood, local exhaust) or enclosures (i.e., glove-
box), evaluate hazards and implement alternative work practice controls to
control potential contamination and exposure hazards.
• Wear appropriate PPE on a precautionary basis whenever the failure of a single
control, including an engineered control, could entail a significant risk of exposure
to researchers or support personnel. Alternatively, ensure that engineered
controls (e.g., laboratory chemical hoods) are equipped with performance
monitors that will notify users if equipment malfunctions.
• Keep potentially contaminated clothing and PPE in the laboratory or change out
area to prevent engineered nanoparticles from being transported into common
areas.
• Consider any material that has come into contact with dispersible, engineered
nanoparticles (that has not been decontaminated) as belonging to a nanomaterial-
bearing waste stream. This includes PPE, wipes, blotters and other disposable
laboratory materials used during research activities. Do not put material from
nanomaterial-bearing waste streams into to the regular trash or down the drain.
• Evaluate surface contamination or decontaminate equipment used to manufacture
or handle nanoparticles before disposing of or reusing it. Treat wastes (cleaning
solutions, rinse waters, rags, PPE) resulting from decontamination as
nanomaterial-bearing waste.
For more relevant information and guidance on preferred HSE practices for nanoscale materials
the user may refer to the following document (from the US Department of Energy, Nanoscale
Science Research Centres) on Approaches to Nanomaterials ES&H (NSRC, Revision 3a, May
2008) available at: [Link]

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering/IIT Bombay/June 2010 20

17. Human Physiological Responses to Toxic Substances

The human body needs very small quantities of chemicals that are poisonous in large doses. This
applies, for example, to some heavy metals, such as copper, magnesium and manganese. The
adverse effect is strongly related to the dose. The effects may be immediate or delayed, and they
may be reversible or irreversible toxic effects [Ref. 1, 2, 5; and [Link] The worst
possible effect is fatality.

• Local/systemic toxicity: There are two main ways in which chemicals may exert their
effects. Local effects occur at the area of the body which has been in contact with the
chemical. Examples include external tissue injuries from acids or lung injuries from
inhaled reactive gases. Systemic effects occur after the chemical has been absorbed and
distributed from the entry point to other parts of the body. Most substances produce
systemic effects, but some substances may cause both types of effects. An example is
tetraethyl lead, which is a gasoline additive and produces skin effects at the contact site.
It may also be absorbed and transported into the body causing adverse effects on the
central nervous system and on other organs.

• Target organs: The degree of the toxic effect is not the same in all organs. Usually there
are one or two organs which show the major toxic effect. These are referred as target
organs of toxicity of the particular substance. The central nervous system is the target
organ of toxicity most frequently involved in systemic effects. The blood circulation
system, liver, kidneys, lungs and skin follow in frequency of systemic effects. Some
substances attack muscle and bones. Both the male and female reproductive systems are
susceptible to adverse and often debilitating impacts from many substances.

Skin. The largest organ in the human body (~1.5-2 m2 in area) provides a protective cover to the
body organs but can allow permeation of chemicals if the load is excessive. Many substances can
infiltrate through the skin and find its way to the hematological system, for example phenol,
which may even lead to fatality in the event of heavy exposure. Most common forms of skin
disorders that may occur due to chemical contact are: eczemas, irritation and local inflammation.
This condition can be either a non-allergic or allergic reaction to exposure to chemical substances.
Examples of common contact allergens are several colorants and dyes, nickel, chromium, cobalt
and their salts, organomercuric compounds, acrylate and methacrylate monomers, rubber

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 21

additives and pesticides. Chemical skin injury may also be influenced by extreme levels of
humidity and heat.

Lung. The lung is the major route through which toxic substances in the workplace enter the
body. It is also the first organ to be affected by dusts, metal fumes, solvent vapours and corrosive
gases. Allergic reactions may be caused by substances such as cotton dust, toluene diisocyanate
(TDI, used in the manufacture of polyurethane plastics), and methylisocyanate (MIC, used in
production of carbaryl insecticide). Allergic reactions may result from exposure to bacteria or
fungi. When dust particles of size lower than 0.1µm are inhaled the lungs are unable to exhale
them. They become embedded in the lung leading to a condition called pneumoconiosis.
Pneumoconiosis is mainly a problem for human beings exposed to the dust of silica (quartz) and
asbestos, and is the commonest non-malignant occupational lung disease throughout the world.
Other substances, such as formaldehyde, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and acid mists may
cause irritation and reduce the breathing capacity [Refs. 2, 5].

Nervous System. Several types of substances act as neurotoxins. The nervous system is
sensitive to the hazardous effects of organic solvents, such as carbon disulphide. Some heavy
metals also affect the nervous system; examples include lead, mercury and manganese. Several
organophosphate insecticides (malathion, parathion) and other chemicals such as acrylamide
hinder chemical neurotransmitter function in the nervous system, leading to weakness, paralysis
and sometimes death [Ref. 2].

Blood. The blood circulation system may also be adversely affected by solvents. For example,
benzene affects the bone marrow; the first sign is mutation in the lymphocytes. Pure as well as
compounds of lead, carbon monoxide, and cyanides, may overcome enzyme activities involved in
the production of hemoglobin in red blood cells. Chronic lead poisoning, for example, may result
in anaemia, a condition in which the ability of the blood to distribute oxygen through the body is
impaired.

Liver. The main function of liver is to break down unwanted substances in the blood. Solvents
such as carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, nitrosamines and vinyl chloride, as well as alcohol, are
hazardous to the liver. Such substances are termed hepatotoxins.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 22

Kidneys. Kidneys help excrete waste substances that the blood transports from various organs of
the body. This helps: (i) ensure that the body fluids contain an adequate blend of various
necessary salts; (ii) maintain the blood pH constant. Solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, other
halogenated hydrocarbons, may irritate and can severely damage kidney function. Turpentine in
large quantities is also harmful to the kidneys: `painter's kidney' is a known condition related to
occupational exposure. Other well-known kidney- damaging substances (otherwise termed
nephrotoxins) are lead and cadmium [http:[Link]].

Reproductive system. Several classes of compounds are also known to produce disorders of
the reproductive system and impair birth functions. Examples include thalidomide, formamide,
tetracycline, etc.

Allergic reactions. An allergic reaction (or sensitization) may appear after repetitive contact
with a substance. Once the sensitization has been produced, even very low doses can provoke a
reaction. Allergies can range from minor skin irritation to very severe or even fatal reactions. The
pattern of sensitization varies according to the organism exposed to an allergen. In humans, the
skin and the eyes are the most common areas of allergic response.

Interactive effects of chemicals on human body. The effect manifested by combination of

chemicals (and mixtures) is known to be varied [[Link] In some cases the effect
may be additive (1+1=2). Organophosphate pesticides (for example, dialiphos, naled and
parathion) exhibit such additivity of effects.

In other cases the combined effect of chemicals may exceed that of the individual ones (e.g.,
1+1=4).It has been found that the risk of developing lung cancer after exposure to asbestos fibres
is forty times greater for a smoker than for a non-smoker. In the domain of solvents,
trichloroethylene and styrene manifest similar behaviour.

When two substances negate each other’s effect (1+1=0), it may provide an indication as to an
antidote (as say for a poison).

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 23

In still other instances, a relatively risk-free substance may aggravate the effect of another (e.g.,
0+1=3). Isopropanol and carbon tetrachloride have this kind of mutual effect. Isopropanol, at
concentrations which are not harmful to the liver, increases the liver damage caused by carbon
tetrachloride.

18. Chemical Hazard Control: Technical Measures

There are a variety of technical measures that can be used to prevent chemical hazards at source
and / or reduce personnel exposure [Ref. 1 & 2; also [Link]

• Substitution: An effective control method for any hazardous chemical is

substitution; a hazardous chemical is substituted with a less hazardous one. This is
preferred especially if highly hazardous substances such as carcinogens are implicated,
or those which may seriously impair human physiological systems. However, one must
ensure that the substitute substance allows the elimination of the hazard posed by the
previous substance.
• Engineering control (Closed system): If the option for substitution is not
available easily, the personnel must be safeguarded against any exposure. A usually
effective measure is to enclose the hazardous process or chemical. For example one
must use sealed pipes to transfer toxic or highly flammable solvents and other liquids
(especially the volatile ones) instead of pouring them in the open air. Exposures to
vapours and gases need also be controlled and minimized if hazards are implicated in
their use.
• Local exhaust ventilation: It may not always be possible to isolate experimental
activities involving hazardous materials. In such a case solution must be sought
through adequately designed local exhaust ventilation, which usually helps remove the
contaminants at the source. A local exhaust ventilation system consists of a fume hood,
ducts or pipes, a system to collect and separate the pollutants from the clean air, and
an efficient fan to create the necessary suction force. Hazardous gases, fumes and dust
collected from the vented air should, however, be treated before disposal. Inspection,
proper maintenance, regular cleaning and changing of filters are essential to protect to
protection against hazardous contaminants.
• General ventilation: Where it is difficult or impossible to prevent hazardous
chemicals, fumes, dusts, mists or particles from entering the laboratory air at the
source, general dilution ventilation can be installed so that the maximum airborne

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 24

 pollutant concentration does not exceed the TLV (see section VI) for the substance. At
its best it should consist of an inflow of clean air and an outflow of exhaust forced by
fans at placed at the right places. It can also be used with other preventive measures.
• Housekeeping: When working with dangerous chemicals, proper housekeeping is
essential. Storage areas / stacks / cupboards must be well organized and kept in order.
Maintenance of premises and equipment should also be planned. These tasks should
be dedicated to persons/laboratory work groups. Periodic testing and repairing faulty
equipment must also be ensured. The efficiency of housekeeping should be monitored
with a suitable periodicity; this should involve the faculty-in-charge / students / staff
associated with a laboratory.

19. Exposure Control through Personal Protection

Exposure control involves a wide variety of defensive measures to be taken during the use of
hazardous substances in order to minimize worker exposure [Ref. 1 & 2; also [Link]
However, it may be emphasized that engineering measures (see section XIX) should always be the
primary measure, to be reinforced by deployment of personal protection equipment (PPE). The
choice of the type of PPE should be commensurate with the type of likely exposure (inhalation,
contact, etc) and designed to provide effective protection against exposure. Examples are
summarized below:

• Respiratory protection: specify adequate masks and the filter type

• Eye protection: specify the type of protective equipment, such as safety glasses, safety
goggles, face shield

• Hand protection: specify the type and material of gloves to be worn when handling the
substance or preparation. An example of the importance of choosing the right material
is that polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) provides good protection against toluene diisocyanate
but offers poor resistance to trichloroethylene.

• Skin protection: specify the type and quality of equipment required, such as an apron,
boots or full protective suit. Indicate also the specific hygiene measures, such as eating
or smoking prohibition during handling, or washing methods.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 25

 • Additional protection / mitigation from emergency situations: specify safety showers,
eyewash stations, fire extinguishers, etc.

20. Chemical Hazard Identification and Management

The foregoing sections have introduced the various classes of hazardous chemicals, their hazard
criteria, effects they exert on human health, and the technical measures that one may adopt in
order to contain and / or mitigate the associated danger in working with them. Thus it may be
appropriate to summarize the entire process of hazard identification and management by means
of layered or step-by-step scheme. Such a decision tree is presented in fig. 1. It is expected to
provide a structured approach to selection and admittance of a chemical for use in laboratory
research.

21. Safe Laboratory Practices: General Recommendations

• Establish and follow safe chemical storage procedures for your laboratory
• While working outside normal hours ensure that information about your presence in
the laboratory is available to another person
• Avoid all skin contact with toxic and corrosive chemicals through minimum usage and
use of personal protective equipments
• Ensure good housekeeping, adequate spacing between experimental setups
• While handling flammables ensure that no ignition sources are available in the
vicinity; in case highly flammable substances are in use consider use of sensors to
detect leakages if reasonable amount of inventories are available
• Ensure all chemical containers are labelled (along with a date of purchase) according
to relevant industry guidelines
• Use appropriate signage to indicate highly hazardous chemicals and wastes
• Use signage to demarcate work areas subject to non-chemical hazards such as noise,
temperature, radioactivity, microwave exposure, etc.
• Document any known hazardous properties of new chemicals, nanomaterials, toxins,
etc
• While using a chemical ensure that information on other chemicals which are
incompatible with the former
• Segregate and avoid simultaneous use of all incompatible chemicals
• Maintain adequate number and type of personal protection equipment and first-aid kit
HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 26
 • Maintain adequate type of equipment and devices to manage accidental spills and
releases of hazardous chemicals
• Investigate all ‘abnormal occurrences’ that lead to (or potentially may have led to)
impact on a laboratory personnel / external environment
• Document lessons from abnormal occurrences and publicize them to prevent
recurrence
• Ensure that there is an emergency exit in the laboratory and always keep it clear
• Take special precautions to secure all high pressure gas storage cylinders against
accidental slippage and fall

22. Management of Chemical and Bio-wastes

Hazardous wastes of all forms generated during laboratory activities must be identified and
managed in a manner to ensure acceptable personnel exposure and environmental disposal as
specified by regulatory bodies [[Link] Some
recommended practices are as follows [Ref. 10; and
[Link]
• Laboratory activities should be consciously planned to help minimize generation of
wastes, particularly those which are hazardous
• All students / staff handling wastes need be fully informed of the associated hazards
• Safe practices for handling, storage, labelling and disposal of hazardous materials must
be identified and documented and displayed prominently in each laboratory
• The maximum quantity of hazardous waste that may be stored at any time for disposal
must be regulated by the laboratory with due reference to any standard that may be
available
• The maximum time of storage of hazardous wastes must be fixed and adhered to in
order to ensure timely disposal
• While storing hazardous wastes special caution and effort must exercised for
identifying container materials compatible with the waste
• In the instances when no adequate treatment / disposal facilities are available at the
laboratory level it is essential to label and store wastes in a safe manner and identify
contractors to whom the materials may be transferred for treatment and disposal

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 27

 Select Chemical

Enlist MSDS
Reject or Substitute

Identify Major Hazard

Yes Is it Carcinogenic by
IARC Classification
Scheme?

No
Toxic /
Is it Toxic / Biohazard Check organ and / or
Corrosive / systemic specificity
Flammable / a
Biohazard?

Assess effects of likely

Flammable routes of ingress human
body during intended use

Assess the degree of hazard

based on information from
MSDS and other sources

Very Is Hazard
High Low Accept without
Very High / High /
any controls
Moderate / Low?

High / Moderate

Use MSDS to Develop and Document Safe Work Practices / Apply Engineering
Controls / Select Personal Protective Equipments / Develop and Document Emergency
Plans to Minimize Damage due to Spillage / Exposure

Periodic Audit of Controls Physiological (blood / urine) Monitoring & Air

Sampling, if acute exposure is suspected due to
accidents and / or inefficient controls

Fig. 1 Schema for Chemical Hazard Identification and Management

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 28

 • Highly hazardous wastes such as radioactive materials must be handled and disposed
off in accordance to guidelines from concerned regulatory bodies
• Special disposal methods must be resorted to wastes generated in bio-laboratories,
including broken glassware which may be contaminated hazardous bio-materials
• Wastes whose chemical nature is not known may need specialized disposal procedures
and in all such instances expert advise must be sought and documented for any future
use
• All laboratories must display a prominent signage containing a list of unused or waste
materials that may be permissible for disposal into sinks; these may include: very weak
acids and base (5 < pH < 12), sugars, amino-acids, soaps / detergents, buffer solutions,
metal-free solutions, disinfected bio-matter, etc.
• Disposal of all other forms of unused / waste chemicals / wastewater into laboratory
sinks should be strictly controlled and avoided

23. Electrical Safety

A typical laboratory may house a large number of appliances that pose electrical hazards.
Examples include: power supplies, microwave devices, ovens, stirrers, heating mantles (in say,
distillation apparatus), pumps, compressors, sonicators, etc. In addition, some laboratories may
need to house equipments that require high voltage / power for operation. Also devices which
embody capacitors are hazardous as they may allow storage of high levels of electrical energy
which may discharge accidentally. All electrical devices need to be maintained and operated
following safe practices; in absence of either precautions such equipments may pose serious
hazards to an user, which in the worst case may prove fatal.

The major hazards associated with electricity are electrical shock and fire. In a flammable
atmosphere electrical equipment discharges cause fires and/or explosions. On the human body,
the severity and effects of an electrical shock depends critically the magnitude of current, the
duration of exposure to the shock. Since water is a good conductor, the effects are intensified if a
contact with an electrically energized source is made with a wet skin. Electrical shocks may have
minor to major consequences: a shiver to severe burns, and in the extreme case a cardiac arrest.
The table 5 below shows the range of response that the human body to current.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 29

 Table 5 Current Intensity and Human Response

Current (milli-amperes) Response

1 Perceptible magnitude

5 Experience of mild shock (not painful)

6 – 30 Feeling of pain

30 – 150 Severe muscular convulsion, Extreme

pain, Respiratory seizure,

1000 - 5000 Ventricular fibrillation

> 10000 Cardiac failure, severe burns, probable

fatality

Typical measures to control laboratory electrical hazards are:

• Ensure all electrical equipments are appropriately grounded; provided with suitable
insulation, and guarded so as to avoid direct contact; conduct periodic checks to ensure
the integrity of such measures

• Ensure adequate signage to indicate the location of main power supply which must be
deactivated in case of any emergency

• In case it is needed to handle equipments that are connected to electrical power source,
avoid contact through wet skin

• Use personnel protection such as non-conducting gloves and shoes when handling
electrical equipments that are energized

• Be sure to disconnect the power source before repairing / removing electrical

equipment

• Avoid using both hands while at work with electrical equipments, as bridge formed by
using both hands increases the chance of respiratory shock

• In case of accidental receipt of electrical shock by a person, first switch off /disconnect
the power source before touching the person or any part of the electrical system which
relayed the shock

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 30

 • In case of accidental spillage of a chemical onto an electrical equipment disconnect
the electrical supply source prior to any cleanup

• In cold rooms condensation may increase the chance of electrical shock due to most
conditions; hence it is desirable to minimize the use of electrical equipment in such
rooms

• Modifications to existing electrical service in a laboratory or building must be

subject to expert consultation and conform to standards

• Ensure that power loss doest not create hazardous situations in a laboratory

• Personnel handling high voltage/current equipment must be adequately trained on

the prospective hazards

For additional information see “Chemical, Fire and Electrical Safety Document” from WHO
available at: [Link]

24. HSE System Implementation and Audit

The present document provides a broad introduction to select critical HSE information and
guidelines to be followed within each laboratory. The Department encourages active participation
from the student and support laboratory staff to employ the guidelines in order to prepare further
specific documents outlined in section 14. The appointed HSE committee member along with the
faculty convener will provide due support and guidance for such efforts through provision of
suitable formats for maintenance of all information online.
However, the HSE committee will also perform periodic audits of compliance of HSE
norms and guidelines by each laboratory, in terms of the documentation and internal
dissemination of all relevant HSE information, adoption of safe practices on laboratory work,
housekeeping and waste disposal on a continual basis.
The framework of the audit process will be made available to all users, but it is expected that
all concerned personnel will strive to enhance the HSE system beyond primary compliance.
Wherever deficiencies are detected through audit, the appointed HSE committee will recommend
measures to ensure conformity with the norms. At the same time wherever innovative HSE
approaches are adopted, the committee may recommend special recognition of the effort in
suitable terms.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 31

25. Conclusions
The present document aims to be an introductory guide to the various safety practices essential to
laboratory activities. Its purpose is to offer an overview of the subject so as to help create an
appreciation of potential hazards within the laboratory environment and so enable their
elimination or mitigation. The user is urged to actively refer to the various literature and websites
enlisted here as well as others. Since the materials used in each laboratory is likely to be different
from those used in another, it is the responsibility of the user in each laboratory to establish and
update the essential safety and waste disposal information, and render them available in a form
that may be accessed and utilized with ease and promptitude.
The Department of Chemical Engineering at IIT Bombay holds the view that awareness of
hazards, and compliance with the best safety and waste disposal practices is integral to the
accomplishment of laboratory research. It is also an ethical imperative. The discipline of
occupational health and safety is a rapidly expanding field and all those who work in a laboratory
environment need to accept the task of pro-actively seeking and documenting all relevant
information and implementing practical measures to establish and sustain a safe working milieu.

26. References
1. Bretherick, L., Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory, 3rd edition, Royal Society of
Chemistry, London, 1986.
2. Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 1979. Edited by Julian B. Olishifski, 2nd ed. Chicago:
National Safety Council.
3. Guidelines to Hazard Evaluation Procedures (2nd Edition), 1992. Centre for Chemical
Process Safety, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).
4. Sax, N.I. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 5th edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold,
NY, 1979.
5. Harris, R.L. (Ed.), Patty’s Industrial Hygiene, 2000. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
6. Topping, M., 2001. Occupational exposure limits for chemicals. Occup. Environ. Med. 58,
138–144.
7. Zielhuis, R.L., Notten, W.R.F., 1979. Permissible levels for occupational exposure: basic
concepts. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 42, 269–281.
8. Bretherick, L., Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, 2nd edition, Butterworths,
London, 1979.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 32

 9. Nielsen, G. D., and Øvrebø, S., 2008. Background, approaches and recent trends for setting
health-based occupational exposure limits: A mini-review. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 51,
253–269.
10. Pepper, Ian L. (Ed.), Environmental and Pollution Science, 2nd ed, 2006. Burlington:
Elsevier.

Appendix: Examples of Hazardous Chemicals from Various Classes

Hazardous Material Classification due to US Department of Transportation

DOT Hazard Definition Examples Hazards Storage
Class
Thermodynamically
Class 1 picric acid, 2,4- Explosion caused Follow manufacturer's
unstable material, may
dinitro-phenol, by shock or recommendation. Discard
Explosive/Shock explode when brought in
organic azides chemical reaction. before expiration date.
Sensitive contact with a source of
Store minimum
ignition (or which are
quantities.
more sensitive to shock
and friction than
dinitrobenzene)
Class 2: Gases
Flammable Gas Gas with a flash point carbon monoxide, Ignites easily, burns Store away from ignition
less than 140° F. hydrogen, oxygen, rapidly. sources and oxidizers.
acetylene Secure with a double
chain to prevent falling.
Store oxygen away from
flammable gases. Check
connections regularly to
avoid leaking.

Non-Flammable Non-flammable, purified nitrogen, carbon toxic atmosphere, Store upright, secure with
Gas (including gas in a pressurized tank. dioxide, neon oxygen a double chain to prevent
compressed gas) displacement falling. Check connections
regularly to avoid
leaking.

Poisonous Gases: Gases liable to cause fluorine, chlorine, toxic atmosphere, Store upright, secure with
death or serious injury to hydrogen cyanide oxygen a double chain to prevent
human health if inhaled displacement falling. Check connections
regularly to avoid
leaking.

Class 3 Liquid with a flash point diethyl ether, Ignites easily, burns Store in flammable
less 140° F. carbon disulfide, rapidly. storage cabinet, away
Flammable Liquid methanol, acetone, from ignition sources and
acetaldehyde oxidizers. Quantities
should not exceed 10
gallons.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 33

Class 4 Solid that burns readily. sodium, calcium, Ignites easily, burns Store in flammable
potassium, calcium rapidly. storage cabinet, away
Flammable Solid carbide, from ignition source and
nitrocellulose, oxidizers.
magnesium,
aluminum alkyls,
white phosphorus

Class 5.1 Agents that react with nitric acid, Fire or explosion. Store away from organics
reducible material to bromine, calcium and flammables. Do not
Oxidizer initiate or promote hypochlorite, store directly on wooden
combustion. ammonium nitrate, shelves or paper. Store
hydrogen peroxide, chlorine separately from
potassium acids.
permanganate

Class 5.2 Any organic compound diethyl ether, Explosion resulting Dispose before expiration
that forms unstable benzoyl peroxides, from formation of date. If there is no
Organic Peroxide peroxides when exposed cumene concentrated marked expiration date,
to air. hydroperoxide peroxide crystals. label with receipt date
and maintain for no more
than 1 year or 6 months
after opening.

Class 6.1 Chemicals that cause chloroform, Acute or toxic Store in a secure, sealed
damage to target organs chromic acid, effects that may be container below shoulder
Poison / (liver, lungs, phenol, local, systemic, or level. Use only in
reproductive system, acetonitrile, both. designated areas. Store
Toxic / etc.) if inhaled, ingested, potassium cyanide, away from incompatibles.
or absorbed through the mercuric chloride,
Highly Toxic skin. Toxic chemicals pesticides,
have an LD50 of 50 - 500 methylene chloride
mg/kg, single oral dose
for rats. Highly toxic
chemicals have an LD50
of < 50 mg/kg, single
oral dose for rats

Class 6.1 Material of biological Bacterial /virus Acute or toxic Store in a secure, sealed
origin that could be cultures, pathology effects that may be containers / cabinets
Bio-hazardous infectious / pathological specimens, used local, systemic, or
substances etc intravenous both
needles
substances or a Exposure may lead Follow norms
Class 7: uranium,
combination of to genetic effects recommended by relevant
plutonium
substances which emit regulatory bodies
Radioactive
ionizing radiation

substances that can

Class 8:
dissolve organic tissue or
Corrosive
severely corrode certain
metals

Organic Acids Compound with pH of 1- phenol, acetic acid Tissue damage, Segregate from mineral
7, containing carbon. violent reaction acids, oxidizing acids and
with strong bases. bases.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 34

Inorganic Acids Compound with pH of 1- hydrochloric acid, Tissue damage, Segregate from organic
7, not containing carbon. sulfuric acid, boric violent reaction acids, oxidizing acids and
acid with strong bases. bases.

Caustics Compound with pH of 7- sodium hydroxide, Tissue damage, Segregate from mineral
14. potassium violent reactions acids, organic acids, and
hydroxide with strong acids. oxidizing acids.

Class 9:
Miscellaneous

Water Reactive Reacts violently when sodium metal, acid Explosion, fire, Store away from water,
exposed to water anhydrides, metal toxic atmosphere including sprinkler heads,
producing heat or toxic anhydrides sinks and drains, per
gases. manufacturers’
instructions.

Pyrophoric Ignites spontaneously in Phosphorus, Fire Store under inert

air. lithium atmosphere per
manufacturers
instructions.

Carcinogen Chemicals that cause formaldehyde, Carcinogenesis Store in a secure, sealed

cancer in humans or benzene container below shoulder
animals models. level. Use in only
designated areas with
approved controls. Store
away from incompatibles.

Cryogen Liquefied or solidified liquid nitrogen, dry Tissue damage Store in approved
gases at low ice (frost bite), oxygen containers. Store in well
temperatures. displacement, tank ventilated areas. (Do not
rupture store dry ice in cold
rooms.) Design transfer
lines such that liquids
cannot be trapped in a
non-ventilated part of the
system.
Sensitizer Substances that can glutaraldehyde, Allergic reaction Store in secure container
cause an allergic reaction isocyanates taking into account other
of the skin or respiratory hazards associated with
system. the substance.
Controlled Substances specifically narcotics Theft Store in a secure, locked
Substances controlled by law location. Maintain a
current inventory.

HSE Plan/Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay/June 2010 35