LEADERSHIP
Dr. Lien TRAN
Semester : 2022-2023
The nature and importance of leadership
Chapter 1
The art of influencing people by persuasion or example to follow a line of action.
The principal dynamic force that motivates and coordinates the organisation in the
accomplishment of its objectives (Bass 1993).
A willingness to take the blame (Zaslow 1998).
1.1 The meaning of leadership
Several other representative definitions of leadership are as follows:
Interpersonal influence, directed through communication toward goal attainment.
The influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with directions and
orders.
An act that causes others to act or respond in a shared direction.
1.1.1 Leadership as a partnership
Four things are necessary for a valid partnership to exist:
Exchange of purpose: In a partnership, every worker at every level is responsible
for defining vision and values. Through dialogue with people at many levels, the
leader helps articulate a widely accepted vision.
A right to say no: The belief that people who express a contrary opinion will be
punished runs contrary to a partnership. Rather, a person can lose an argument but
never a voice.
Joint accountability: In a partnership, each person is responsible for outcomes and
the current situation. In practice, this means that each person takes personal
accountability for the success and failure of the organisational unit.
Absolute honesty: In a partnership, not telling the truth to one another is an act
of betrayal. When power is distributed, people are more likely to tell the truth
because they feel less vulnerable (Block 1993).
1.1.2 Leadership versus management
Following are several key distinctions between management and leadership:
Management is more formal and scientific than leadership. It relies on universal
skills such as planning, budgeting, and controlling. Management is an explicit set
of tools and techniques, based on reasoning and testing, that can be used in a
variety of situations.
Leadership, in contrast to management, involves having a vision of what the
organisation can become.
Leadership requires eliciting cooperation and teamwork from a large network of
people and keeping the key people in that network motivated, using every manner or
persuasion.
Leadership produces change, often to a dramatic degree, such as spearheading the
launch of a new product or opening a new market for an old product. Management is
more likely to produce a degree of predictability and order.
1.2 The impact of leadership on organisational performance
1.2.1 Research and opinion: Leadership does make a difference
Organizations required a higher level of leadership than ever before to survive and
prosper.
Research showed that executive succession could successfully reorient the firm by
knowledge experiences.
Top-level leaders are likely to transform their organisations, whereas top-level
managers just manage (or maintain) organisations.
A leader creates a vision (lofty goal) to direct the organisation. In contrast, the
key function of the manager is to implement the vision. The manager and his or her
team thus choose the means to achieve the end that the leader formulates (Kotter
1990, Whetton & Cameron 1995, Leonard 1999, Locke 1991).
In addition, the perception of these differences is also meaningful.
An understanding of these perception derives from attribution theory, the process
of attributing causality to events.
Such substitutes are factors in the work environment that provide guidance and
incentives to perform, making the leader's role almost superfluous (Howell et al.
1990).
Figure 1.1 shows four leadership substitutes: closely knit teams, intrinsic
satisfaction, computer technology, and professional norms.
1.2.2 Research and opinion: Formal leadership does not make a difference
[Link] Substitutes for leadership
The factor outside the leader’s control have a larger impact on business outcomes
than do leadership actions.
Another aspect is that high-level leaders have unilateral control over only a few
resources.
The leader irrelevance argument would have greater practical value if it were
recast as a leader constraint theory.
[Link] Leader irrelevance
Organizations are complex systems that cannot be explained by usual rules of
nature.
Leaders and managers can do little to alter the course of the complex
organisational system.
The system, rather than the leader, dictates that all companies ultimately die.
[Link] Complexity theory
1.3 Leadership roles
Researchers identified nine roles that can be classified as part of leadership
function of management:
1. Figurehead: leaders, particularly high-ranking managers, spend some part of
their time engaging in ceremonial activities, or acting as a figurehead.
2. Spokesperson: the emphasis is on answering letters or inquiries and formally
reporting to individuals and groups outside the manager's direct organisational
unit.
3. Negotiator: the job is trying to make deals with others for needed resources.
4. Coach: an effective leader takes the time to coach team members.
5. Team builder: a key aspect of a leader's role is to build an effective team.
6. Team player: related to the team-builder role is that of the team player.
7. Technical problem solver: it is particularly important for supervisors and
middle managers to help team members solve technical problems.
8. Entrepreneur: although not self-employed, managers who work in large
organisations have some responsibility for suggesting innovative ideas or
furthering the business aspects of the firm.
9. Strategic planner: top-level managers engage in strategic planning, usually
assisted by input from others throughout the organisation. Carrying out the
strategic planner role enables the manager to practise strategic leadership.
1.4 The satisfaction and frustration of being a leader
1.4.1 Satisfactions of leaders
There are seven sources of satisfaction that leaders often experience:
1. A feeling of power and prestige
2. A chance to help others grow and develop.
3. High income
4. Respect and status.
5. Good opportunities for advancement.
6. A feeling of being in on' things.
7. An opportunity to control money and other resources.
1.4.2 Dissatisfactions and frustrations of leaders
The frustrations experienced by a wide range of people in leadership roles revolve
around the problems described next:
1. Too much uncompensated overtime
2. Too many headaches
3. Not enough authority to carry out responsibility
4. Loneliness
#5. Too many problems involving people#
6. Too much organisational politics
7. The pursuit of conflicting goals.
1.5 A framework for understanding leadership
The framework presented here focuses on the major sets of variables that influence
leadership effectiveness.
The formula- L= f (l, gm, s)- means that the leadership process is a function of
the leader, group members (or followers), and other situational variables.
Leader
characteristics and traits
Internal and
external
environment
Group member
characteristics
Leader
behaviour and
style
Leadership
effectiveness
Figure 1.2
1.6 Skill development in leadership
Although students of leadership will find this information encouraging, developing
leadership skills requires a number of different strategies:
1. Conceptual knowledge and behavioural guidelines
2. Conceptual information demonstrated by examples and brief descriptions
3. Experiential exercises
4. Feedback on skill utilisation, or performance, from others
5. Practice in natural settings
Traits, motives, and characteristics of leaders
Chapter 2
2.1 Personal traits of effective leaders
2.1.1 General personality traits
A general personality trait is defined as a trait that observable both within and
outside the context of work.
There are nine traits that contribute to successful leadership
[Link] Self-confidence
In virtually every leadership setting, it is important for the leader to be
realistically self-confident.
Self-confidence was among the first leadership traits researchers identified.
In addition to being self-confident, the leader must project that self-confidence
to the group.
Self-confidence is not only a personality trait; it also refers to the behaviour a
person exhibits in a number of situations.
[Link] Trustworthiness
The following trust builders are worthy of prospective leader’s attention and
implementation:
Make your behaviour consistent with your intentions. Practise what you preach and
set the example. Let others know of your intentions and invite feedback on how well
you are achieving them.
When your organisation or organisational unit encounters a problem, move into a
problem-solving mode instead of looking to blame others for what went wrong.
[Link] Trustworthiness
The following trust builders are worthy of prospective leader’s attention and
implementation:
Make your behaviour consistent with your intentions. Practise what you preach and
set the example. Let others know of your intentions and invite feedback on how well
you are achieving them.
When your organisation or organisational unit encounters a problem, move into a
problem-solving mode instead of looking to blame others for what went wrong.
Honor confidences. One incident of passing along confidential information results
in a permanent loss of trust by the person whose confidence was violated.
Maintain a high level of integrity. Building a reputation for doing what you think
is morally right in spite of the political consequences will enhance your
integrity.
Tell the truth. It is much easier to be consistent when you do not have to keep
patching up your story to conform to an earlier lie.
Conduct yourself in the way you ask others to conduct themselves. If you urge
others to treat work associates fairly, practise fairness yourself.
[Link] Extroversion
It is helpful for leaders to be gregarious and outgoing in most situations.
Extroverts are more likely to want to assume a leadership role and participate in
group activities.
However, many effective leaders are laid-back and even introverted.
[Link] Assertiveness
Assertiveness refers to being forthright in expressing demands, opinions, feelings,
and attitudes.
To be assertive differs substantially from being aggressive or passive.
An assertive leader/manager makes explicit remarks without turning them into
bullying threats
[Link] Emotional stability
Emotional stability refers to the ability to control emotions to point that one’s
emotional responses are appropriate to the occasion.
Emotional stability is an important leadership trait because group members expect
and need consistency in the way they are treated.
One study found that executive leaders who are emotionally unstable and lack
composure are more likely to handle pressure poorly and give in to moodiness,
outbursts of anger, and inconsistent behaviour.
[Link] Enthusiasm
Group members tend to respond positively to enthusiasm, partly because enthusiasm
may be perceived as a reward for constructive behavior.
Enthusiasm is also a desirable leadership trait because it helps build good
relationships with team members.
[Link] Sense of humour
Humour adds to the approachability and people-orientation of a leader.
Humour serve such functions in the workplace as relieving tension and boredom and
defusing hostility.
In an increasingly global environment, humour should be used with care and never be
used to humiliate or belittle others.
[Link] Warmth
First warmth facilitates the establishment of rapport with group members.
Second, the projection of warmth is a key component of charisma.
Third, warmth is a trait that facilitates providing emotional support to group
members.
Fourth, warmth comes with territory. Cold fish don’t make good leaders because they
turn people off.
[Link] High tolerance for frustration
High tolerance for frustration refers to the ability to cope with the blocking of
goal attainment.
This trait is important because a leader encounters a great many frustrations.
2.1.2 Task-related personality traits
[Link] Passion for the work and people
This is a dominant characteristic of effective leaders.
The passion goes beyond enthusiasm and often expresses itself as an obsession for
achieving company goals.
Passion for their work is especially evident in entrepreneurial leaders and small-
business owners who are preoccupied with growing their businesses.
[Link] Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence refers to qualities such as understanding one’s feeling,
empathy for others, and the regulation of emotions to enhance living.
5 key factors in emotional intelligence:
Self-awareness: the ability to understand your moods, emotions, and needs, as well
as their impact on others.
Self-regulation: the ability to control impulsiveness. calm down anxiety and react
with appropriate anger to situations.
3. Motivation: a passion to work for reasons other than money or status such as
finding joy in the task itself.
4. Empathy: the ability to respond to the unspoken feelings of other.
5. Social skill: competency in managing relationships and building networks of
support and having positive relationships with people.
[Link] Flexibility and adaptability
Flexibility, or the ability to adjust to different situations, has long been
recognised as an important leadership characteristic.
The public utility industry exemplifies a field in which situation adaptability is
particularly important because top executives are required to provide leadership
for both the regulated and non-regulated units within their organisation.
[Link] Internal locus of control
People with an internal locus of control believe that they are the prime movers
behind events.
An internal locus of control is closely related to self-confidence.
A strong internal locus facilitates self-confidence because the person perceives
that he or she can control circumstances enough to perform well.
[Link] Courage
Leaders need courage to face the challenges of taking prudent risks and taking
initiative in general.
It takes courage for a leader to suggest a new undertaking because if the
undertaking fails, the leader is often seen as having failed.
It also takes courage to take a stand that could backfire.
2.2 Leadership motives
2.2.1 The power of motive
Leaders with high power motives have three dominant characteristics;
they act with vigour and determination to exert their power
they invest much time in thinking about ways to alter the behaviour and thinking of
others
they care about their personal standing with those around them
[Link] Personalised power motive
Leaders with a personalised power motive seek power mostly to further their own
interests.
They crave the trappings of power, such as status symbols, luxury, and money.
[Link] Socialised power motive
Leaders with a socialised power motive use power primarily to achieve
organisational goals or a vision.
Leaders with socialised power motives tend to be more emotionally mature.
They exercise power more for the benefit of the entire organisation and are less
likely to manipulate others through the use of power.
They have longer-range perspectives.
2.2.2 Drive and achievement motive
Drive also includes achievement motivation- finding joy in accomplishment for its
own sake.
A person with a strong achievement motivation has a consistent desire to:
achieve through one's own efforts and take responsibility for success or failure
2. take moderate risks that can be handled through one’s own efforts.
3. receive feedback on level of performance
4. introduce novel, innovative, or creative solutions
5. plan and set goals
2.2.3 Strong work ethic
Effective leaders typically have a strong work ethic, a firm belief in the dignity
of work.
People with a strong work ethic are well motivated because they value hard work;
not to work hard clashes with their values.
A strong work ethic helps the organisational leader believe that the group task is
worthwhile.
2.2.4 Tenacity
Tenacity multiplies in importance for organisational leaders because it takes so
long to implement a new program or consummate a business deal such as acquiring
another company
Being tenacious is also essential for growing a business
2.3 Cognitive factors and leadership
Problem solving and intellectual skills are referred to collectively as cognitive
factors.
The term cognition refers to the mental process or faculty by which knowledge is
gathered.
There are five factors closely related to cognitive intelligence,
2.3.1 Knowledge of the business or group task
Intellectual ability is closely related to having knowledge of the business or the
key task the group is performing.
The importance of knowledge of the business is increasingly being recognised as an
attribute of executive leadership.
One of the basic ways in which top executives lead is through the expertise
approach.
Knowledge of the business or the group task is particularly important when
developing strategy and formulating mission statements.
At the middle of the creativity continuum are leaders who explore imaginative- but
not breakthrough solutions to business problems.
At the low end of the creativity continuum are leaders who inspire group members to
push forward with standard solutions to organisational problems
2.3.3 Insight into people and situations
Insight is a depth of understanding that requires considerable intuition and common
sense.
Insight into people and situations involving people is an essential characteristic
of managerial leaders.
Insight is also closely linked to perceiving trends in the environment.
You can gauge your insight by charting the accuracy of your hunches and predictions
about people and business situations.
2.3.2 Creativity
Creative ability lies on a continuum, with some leaders being more creative than
others
At one end of the creative continuum are business leaders who think of innovative
products and services.
2.3.4 Farsightedness and conceptual thinking
To develop visions and corporate strategy, a leader needs farsightedness, the
ability to understand the long-range implications of actions and policies.
A farsighted leader would recognise that hiring talented workers today will give
the firm a long-range competitive advantage.
Conceptual thinking refers to the ability to see the overall perspective, and it
makes farsightedness possible.
A conceptual thinker is also a systems thinker.
A good conceptual thinker would recognise how his or her organisational unit
contributes to the firm or how the firm meshes with the outside world.
2.3.5 Openness to experience
Yet another important cognitive characteristic of leaders is their openness to
experience, or their positive orientation toward learning.
People who have a great deal of openness to experience have well-developed
intellects.
Level 1
As an individual, the person makes productive
contributions through talent, knowledge, skills and good work habits.
Level 2
As a contributing team member, the person contributes individual capabilities to
the achievement of group objectives and works effectively with others in a groups
selling.
Level 3
As a manager, the person organises people and resources towards the effective and
efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives.
Level 5
The distinguishing traits are the ability to build enduring greatness
through a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will
Level 4
As a leader, the person catalyses commitment to and vigorous pursuit of a clear and
compelling vision, stimulating high performance standards.
2.4 Level 5 leadership
2.5 Gender and leadership
Gender, like heredity and environment, may influence traits and therefore we might
expect differences in the leadership styles of men and women leaders.
As women gain greater access to leadership roles, it becomes increasingly important
to understand the extent of similarities and differences between male and female
leaders.
2.5.1 The argument for male-female differences in leadership
Men and women do tend toward different styles.
Based on self-reports, men tended toward a command-and-control style. In contrast,
women tended toward a transformational style.
Fundamental differences in the biological and psychological makeup of men and women
have also been used as evidence that the two sexes are likely to manifest different
leadership behaviour
2.5.2 The argument against gender differences in leadership
There are apparently few, if any, personality or behavioural differences between
men and women managers
Studies indicate no consistent pattern of male-female differences in leadership
style.
Although male and female differences were small, they support the view that women's
typical leadership styles tend to be more transformational than those of men and
are therefore more focused on those aspects of leadership that predict
effectiveness.
2.6 The strengths and limitations of the trait approach
Compelling argument for the trait approach is that the evidence is convincing that
leaders possess personal characteristics that differ from those of nonleaders.
The current emphasis on emotional intelligence, which is really a group of traits
and forms of behaviour, reinforces the importance of the trait approach.
Understanding the traits of effective leaders serves as an important guide to
leadership selection.
Another important strength of the trait approach to leadership is that it can help
people prepare for leadership responsibility and all of the issues that accompany
it
A limitation to the rat approach is that it does not tell us which traits are
absolutely needed in which leadership situations. We also do not know how much of a
trait, characteristic. or motive is the right amount
A balanced perspective on the trait approach is that certain traits, motives. and
characteristics increase the probability that a leader will be effective.
