Engineering Statics-Spring 2003

(EngM 223, Section 001)

Week Sec Topic Homework

1: Jan 13 1.1-6 Introduction Mechanics Readiness
Test in room 308 & N15
2.1-6 Addition and resultant of forces WSEC

2.7-8 Rectangular component of a force 2.7,12,23,36

2: Jan 20
Matin Luther
2.9-11 2.55,65,75,89
King Day
2.12-14
Equilibrium of a particle

Forces in space
3: Jan 27 2.15 Equilibrium in Space 2. 103,122

3.1-5 Vector product 3.1, 10, 21, 32

3.6-8 Moment of a force about a point

4: Feb 3 3.9-10 Scalar product 3. 37, 48, 61, 65, 71, 87

3.11 Moment about an axis

3.12-16 Couples
5: Feb 10 3.17-21 Equivalent systems of forces 3. 104, 110, 123, 128
4.1-5 Equilibrium in two dimensions 4.1, 12, 15, 26, 31
6: Feb 17 4.1-5 Equilibrium in two dimensions 4. 36, 47, 52

4.6-7 Two and three force bodies 4.61, 75

Review
7: Feb 24 Exam I (up to end of week 5)

4.8-9 Equilibrium in three dimensions 4.93, 98, 114, 120, 134

5.1-5 Centroids of areas and lines 5.1,10

8: Mar 3 5.1-5 Centroid of areas and lines 5.36, 43, 63, 68, 75, 84,
113
5.6-7 Centroids by integration
 5.8,10-12 Distributed loads, Centroids of volumes
9: Mar 10 5.10-12 Centroids of volumes 5. 117, 129, 133

6.1-5 Trusses by method of joints 6. 1, 10, 26, 29

6.7 Trusses by method of sections 6. 45, 54, 65, 70

10: Mar 17
Spring Vacation
11: Mar 24 6.9-12 Frames and machines 6. 75, 88, 99, 112, 123
8.1-4 Laws of friction and applications 6.130, 145, 152

Review
12: Mar 31 Exam II (up to end of section 6.7) 8. 16, 39, 54
8.5-6 Wedges and screws 8. 70, 81,84
13: Apr 7 8.9 Rolling resistance 8. 128, 141, 144

8.10 Belt friction 9. 10, 15, 26

9.1-5 Area moments

14: Apr 14 9.6-7 Parallel axis theorem and composite areas 9. 32, 42,53, 58
15: Apr 21 9.11-15 Moment of inertia of masses 9. 111, 120, 135, 148

E-Week
16: Apr 28 9.11-15 Three-dimensional bodies

Composite bodies

Review
17: May 9 Final 1:30-9:30 a.m., Friday, May 9

Book: Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics, Sixth Edition, by F. P. Beer and E. R. Johnson, pu

Dr. Mehrdad Negahban

W311 Nebraska Hall

Phone: 472-2397

E-mail: mnegahban@unl.edu

Home page for the class: HTTP://em-ntserver.UNL.EDU

Office Hours: MW 10:30-12:00 p.m., or when available (Tutors are available in room 308 WSEC)

Book: Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics, Sixth Edition, by F. P. Beer and E. R. Johnson,
published by McGraw-Hill.

Final class grade will be based on:

Participation (Quizzes, etc.) 10%

1 Mechanics Readiness 3%

2 Hour Exams (20% each) 40%

1 Final 30%

Homework 20%

Bonus Project 5%

Total 108% (or more!)

Grading policy:

 The following straight scale will be used:

A+ = 94-100 C = 70-74
A = 90-94 C- = 67-70
A- = 87-90 D+ = 64-67
B+ = 84-87 D = 60-64
B = 80-84 D- = 57-60
B- = 77-80 F = 0-57
C+ = 74-77
 Only neatly written problems will be graded

 A correct answer without a correct outline of the work will not carry any grade

 All incorrect work must be clearly crossed out on the page

 In cases where more than one solution is presented for a problem, the solution with the most errors
will be graded

 Each solution must have proper units

 Makeups will be given only under extreme circumstances. It is expected that the student will
contact the instructor sufficiently in advance of an exam or have sufficient reason that they could not
do so.

Quizzes:

 Will cover theoretical aspects (definitions and derivations) and problem solving skills

 Will be closed book, closed notes, with no crib sheet

 No makeup quizzes

 May or may not be announced, may or may not be in class

Hour exams:

 Will be announced one week before the exam

 Will contain three or four problems: One problem will be from the homework

 Will be closed book and closed notes

 I will provide a sheet containing the main equations

Final:

 Will contain four to eight problems

 Will be comprehensive

 Will be closed book and closed notes

 I will provide a sheet containing the main equations

Homework:

 Problems are due the Wednesday of the week after they are assigned

 Problems will be graded only if they are written neatly

 Cooperation on understanding and doing the homework is allowed, but the final presentation
must be your own (no copying of homework)

 No late homework! There will be a “No Questions Asked/No Excuses Needed” policy
of dropping your lowest homework grade to cover any special circumstances

Preparation and Responsibilities:

 You are responsible for all sections in the book written on the outline of the course (even if not
covered in class)

 You are responsible for the material presented in class (even if not in the book)

 Please look over the sections that will be covered in class before coming to class

 Please read both the book and the class notes before coming to office hours

 Please make an honest attempt at solving the problems before coming to office hours
Prerequisites:

 Analytical Geometry and Calculus I and II (Math 106 and 107): Limits, Differentiation, Related
Rates, Integration, Exponentials, Trigonometric, Analytic Geometry and Inverse Trigonometric
Functions, Polar Coordinates, Parametric Equations, Quadratic Surfaces

 Physics 211

Statement on Academic Dishonesty: Cheating on exams and plagiarism in the preparation of homework will be
considered unacceptable conduct. Academic sanctions will be taken against all parties involved in the act of cheating and/or
plagiarism. A student participating in the act of cheating and/or plagiarism for the second time will receive a failing grade in this
class. Consult the Student Code of Conduct section in the Undergraduate Bulletin for more details.

Statement on Disruptive Conduct: I would appreciate it if all students be considerate of the learning mission of the
class and to refrain from activity which is disruptive.

Notation:

Book By hand
Scalar a a
Vector a (bold faced) a or

Units:

SI U.S.
Mass M kilogram kg slug
Length L meter m feet Ft
Force F Newton N pound Lb
Time T second s second Sec

Relation between units is based on the equation F=ma:

 1 N = (1 kg) (1 m/s2)

1 lb= (1 slug) (1 ft/sec2 )

Example of calculating mass in U.S. system: The mass, m, of a particle which

weighs W=10 lb and is in a gravitational field of with an acceleration of gravity
g=32.2 ft/sec2 is

Unit conversion:

l lb = 4.4482 N
1 slug = 14.5938 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 ft = 12 in
1 = 5,280 ft
mile
1 kip = 1,000 lb
1 ton = 2,000 lb

Rounding numbers:

Round your final answers to 3 significant figures

Check equations by checking that all terms in an equation have the same dimensions
 Scalars and Vectors
 Scalar: A quantity like mass or temperature which only has a magnitude
 Vector: A quantity like heat flux or force which has both a magnitude and a direction
(denoted by a bold faced character, an underlined character, or a character with a arrow
on it)
 Vector Addition: Vector Addition follows the parallelogram law described be the figure

 Resolution of a Vector: A vector can be resolved along different directions using the
parallelogram rule. The figure shows how one resolves vector c into components a and b
which are along the given directions
 The math you need:
o For a right triangle:

a2+ b2 = c2

tan() = b/a

sin() = b/c

cos() = a/c

o For a general triangle:


 Sine law:

Cosine law:

o A line intersecting parallel lines:

Coordinates and Addition of Vectors

Unit vector: A vector of unit length

Components of a vector in orthogonal bases: Unit vectors i and j are along the x and y
directions
Addition of vectors using the components:

Vectors in 3-D
Unit vector: A vector of unit length.

Base vectors for a rectangular coordinate system: A set of three mutually orthogonal unit
vectors

Right handed system: A coordinate system represented by base vectors which follow the right-
hand rule.

Rectangular component of a Vector: The projections of vector A along the x, y, and z

directions are Ax, Ay, and Az, respectively.
Magnitude of a Vector:

Direction Cosines: Cos(Cos(Cos(

Unit vector along a vector: The unit vector uA along the vector A is obtained from

Addition of vectors: The resultant vector FR obtained from the addition of vectors F1, F2, …, Fn
is given by

Coordinates of points in space: The triplet (x,y,z) describes the coordinates of a point.

The vector connecting two points: The vector connecting point A to point B is given by

A unit vector along the line A-B: A unit vector along the line A-B is obtained from
A vector along A-B: A vector F along the line A-B and of magnitude F can be obtained from

The dot product: The dot product of vectors A and B is given by

Projection of a vector by using the dot product: The projection of vector A along the unit
vector u is given by

Examples:

 Problem 2-101

Static Equilibrium for a Particle

A particle: An object with inertia (mass) but of negligible dimensions
Equilibrium equations for a particle: A particle is in equilibrium if the resultant of ALL forces
acting on the particle is equal to zero

Equilibrium equations in component form: In a rectangular coordinate system the equilibrium

equations can be represented by three scalar equations:

Free-Body diagram: A diagram showing the particle under consideration and all the forces
acting on this particle. Each force in this diagram must labeled.

String or cable: A mechanical device that can only transmit a tensile force along itself.

Linear spring: A mechanical device which exerts a force along its line of action and
proportional to its extension.
Frictionless pulleys: For a frictionless pulley in static equilibrium, the tension in the cable is the
same on both sides of the pulley.

Examples:

 Problem # 3-30
 Moment of a force: Part 1

 The magnitude of the moment of a force:
 MO: Magnitude of the moment of F around point O
 d: Perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of F



 F
 d
 O
 Line of action of F
 r
 
 



 Note: moving a force along its line of action does not change its moment
 Note:

 Direction of the moment in 2-D: The direction of the moment is given by the right hand
rule: Counter Clockwise (CCW) is out of the page, Clockwise (CW) is into the page.
 O
 F
 CCW-out of the page
 O
 F
 CW-into the page


 Calculating the moment in 2-D using components: Moments add together as vectors.
Select a positive direction (CCW or CW), then calculate each moment and add them
using the proper sign for each term. For example:



 F
 d2
 d1
 Fx
 Fy
 O



 Moment of a force: Part 2
 The cross product: Math you need to know week 4-5
 Moment of Force F around point O: MO


 


 Calculating the moment using rectangular components:




 Resultant moment: Mro


 Moment of a force about a specified axis a-a: Ma


 O: any point on a-a
 


 Couple: C
 


 Note: The moment of a couple does not depend on the point one takes the moment about.
In other words, a moment of a couple is the same about all points in space.

 Equivalent force systems: Part 1

 The basic idea: Two force systems are equivalent if they result in the same resultant
force and the same resultant moment.

 Moving a force along its line of action: Moving a force along its line of action results in
a new force system which is equivalent to the original force system.
 

 Moving a force off its line of action: If a force is moved off its line of action, a couple
must be added to the force system so that the new system generates the same moment as
the old system.

 The resultant of a force and couple system: For any point O, every force and couple
system can be made equivalent to a single force passing through O and a single couple.
The single force passing through O is equal to the resultant force of the original system,
and the couple is equal to the resultant moment of the original system around point O.
 

 When can one reduce a force and couple system to a single force?: For a force and
couple system if the resultant force and the resultant couple are perpendicular, then one
 can find an equivalent system with a single force and no couple. To obtain this system,
move the resultant force a distance d along the line perpendicular to the plane of the
resultant force and resultant couple until the resultant force creates a moment equivalent
to the resultant couple.

 Note: All 2-D force systems can be reduced to a single force. To find the line of action of
the force, the moment of the original system must be forced to be the same as the system
with the single force.
 

 Equivalent force systems: The wrench

 A wrench: A wrench is a force and couple system in which the force and couple are
parallel.


 Every force and couple system can be reduced to a wrench: As above, the
perpendicular part of the resultant moment can be replaced by sliding the resultant force
along the line perpendicular to the plane of the resultant force and resultant couple. What
remains after this operation is a wrench which has a moment equal to the component of
the resultant couple parallel to the force.

Equivalent force systems: Distributed loads

Replacing distributed loads by a resultant load and resultant couple applied at a given
point O :

Replacing a distributed load by single resultant load:

Note: Since the equation for d is the same as that for determining the centroid of the area under
the w(x) curve, it follows that F must pass through the centroid of the area under the curve w(x).

 Equilibrium of rigid bodies


 Static equilibrium for a rigid body: A body (or any part of it) which is currently
stationary will remain stationary if the resultant force and resultant moment are zero for
all the forces and couples applied on it.




 


 Newton’s 3rd law: Each action has a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. This law provides the method used for one body (or part of a body) to interact
with another body (or another part of the body).

 Free-Body Diagram: A diagram of a body (or a part of it) which shows all the forces
and couples applied on it, and which has all the forces and couples labeled for use in the
solution of the problem is called a free-body diagram. Follow these steps to draw a free-
body diagram.

1. Select the body (or part of a body) that you want to analyze, and draw it.
2. Identify all the forces and couples that are applied onto the body and draw them on
the body. Place each force and couple at the point that it is applied.
3. Label all the forces and couples with unique labels for use during the solution
process.
4. Add any relevant dimensions onto your picture.
Composite bodies and internal forces: Forces and couples which are a result of
interaction between one part of an object and another part of it will not appear in the free-
body diagram of the whole object. This is due to Newton’s 3rd law. The two bodies in the
following example are welded at A. When the two parts are looked at as a single body,
the internal forces and couples are added together, and as a result of Newton’s third law
will cancel.

Forces and couples on a free-body diagram: Each force or couple you put on a free-
body diagram represents a model of how the body in the free-body diagram is effected by
its surroundings. In selecting the forces and couples that are to be applied on the free-
body diagram follow these steps:

1. Identify all the forces which come from the interaction of one body with
another. Many of the common supports and their effects are shown in Table 5-1 on
page 184. Remember that for each way in which a support restricts the free motion
of the body, a force or a moment must be applied to the body to impose the
restriction on the motion.
2. Apply the weight of the body to its center of gravity (if it is uniform, then apply
it to the centroid).
3. Remember that strings and cables can only pull on an object.
4. Remember that internal loads cancel out and should not be put on the free-body
diagram.
5. Remember that if you have selected the direction of forces or couples of
interaction on one body, then Newton’s 3rd law states that you must apply the forces
or couples in the opposite direction on the other body.

Solving for unknowns: You can write one set of equilibrium equations for each free-
body diagram you draw. Things to remember are:

1. In 2-D problems the equilibrium equations result in three independent scalar

equations (two components of force and one component of moment). Therefore, you
can only solve for three scalar unknowns.
2. Try to select the point you take moments around such that the line of action of
at least one unknown force passes through that point. This will eliminate one
unknown from your moment equation and will result in simpler equations to work
 with. This step is not essential, but will significantly simplify the algebra involved in
solving your system of equations.
3. You can sometimes take moments about two or three different points in a
problem. Select each point so that you eliminate one or more unknowns from the
resulting moment equation. Remember that the additional equations you generate
in this way are not independent of the original equations, and, therefore, you will
still have only three independent equations in 2-D problems per free-body diagram
and you can only solve for three unknowns per free-body diagram.
4. For a composite body, if you have drawn a free-body diagram and written the
equilibrium equations for each of its subsections, you will gain no additional
information if you draw the free-body diagram of the entire composite body and
write its equilibrium equations.
5. In 3-D problems the equilibrium equations result in six independent scalar
equations (three components of force and three components of moment). Therefore,
you can solve for up to six scalar unknowns per free-body diagram.

 A two-force member: A body which has forces applied onto it at only two points, and
no couples applied onto it at all, is called a two-force member. A two-force member can
only be in equilibrium if the line of action of the resultant of the forces at each point
passes through the other point, and each resultant force is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the resultant of the forces applied to the other point.
 A three-force member: A body which has forces applied onto it at only three points,
and no couples applied onto it at all, is called a three-force member. A three-force
member can only be in equilibrium if the lines of action for the resultants of the forces at
each point intersect at a single point.
  The analysis of trusses

 A truss: A truss is a structure made of two force members all pin connected to each other.

 The method of joints: This method uses the free-body-diagram of joints in the structure to
determine the forces in each member. For example, in the above structure we have 5 joints
each having a free body diagram as follows
 Note how Newton’s third law controls how one introduces on the joints A and on the

joint B. For each joint one can write two equations ( ). The moment
equation is trivially satisfied since all forces on a joint pass trough the joint. For example,
for the above truss we have 5 joints, therefore we can write 10 equations of equilibrium
(two for each joint). In the above example there are seven unknown member forces (FAB,
FBC, FCD, FED, FEC, FBE, FAE) plus three unknown support reactions (A, Dx, Dy), giving a
total of 10 unknowns to solve for using the 10 equations obtained from equilibrium.

 The method of sections: This method uses free-body-diagrams of sections of the truss to
obtain unknown forces. For example, if one needs only to find the force in BC, it is
possible to do this by only writing two equations. First, draw the free body diagram of the
full truss and solve for the reaction at A by taking moments about D. Next draw the free
body diagram of the section shown and take moments about E to find the force in BC.
 In the method of sections one can write three equations for each free-body-diagram (two
components of force and one moment equation).

Things to consider:
 Zero force members: Some members in a truss cannot carry load. These
members are called zero force members. Examples of zero force members are the colored
members (AB, BC, and DG) in the following truss.

Consider the following free-body-diagrams

 If you sum the forces in the y-direction in the left free-body-diagram, you will see
that FAB must be zero since it is not balanced by another force. Then if you sum forces in
the y-direction you will find that FBC must also be zero. If you sum the forces in the y
direction in the right free-body-diagram, you will see that FDG must be zero since it is not
balanced by another force.
 A redundant joint: Sometimes a joint is redundant. For example, in the following free-
body-diagram the load is directly transmitted from each member to the one opposite it without
any interaction.
 By summing forces along the y-direction one will get F2=F4, and by summing forces
along the Y-direction one will get F1=F3.
 Redundant members: Sometimes a structure contains one or more redundant
members. These members must be removed from the truss, otherwise one will have an
insufficient number of equations to solve for the unknown member forces. Slender
members are not very useful in compression since they buckle and, as a result, lose their
load carrying capability. For example, in the following truss one of the two members AC
or BD is redundant. To solve the problem, we remove member BD which will go into
compression as a result of the applied loading (i.e., the diagonal AC will have to increase
in length and the diagonal BD will have to decease in length for the structure to bend to
the right). If we did not remove this member we would have 9 unknowns (five member loads
and four support reactions) and only 8 equations (two for each joint).

 Mechanisms: Sometimes there is too much freedom in a structure. For example,

the following structure cannot carry any load since it will collapse under the load.
  Curved members: Remember that the two forces acting on a two-force-member are
along the line connecting the two points on which the loads are applied.

Frames and Machines

Frames and Machines represent problems that are applications of using the equilibrium
equations. As such, they do not represent any new ideas.

Strategies and ideas for solving problems:

 Don't write down any equations until you have developed your plan of action.
 Develop your strategy for solving the problem by drawing free-body-diagrams of the
entire frame or machine and each one of sub-units. Remember that the free-body-diagram
of the complete body is equal to the sum of the free-body-diagrams of its sub-sections.
 For each free-body-diagram analyze the diagram in terms of how you can use the
equations to directly solve for some unknowns (Don't write down the equations until you
finish analyzing all the free body diagrams).
 Look for any two force members.
 Remember that you can write three equations for each free-body-diagram.
 Don't forget to take advantage of the moment equation to eliminate unknowns.
 After you have analyzed all the free body diagrams, look for the simplest way to get to
the solution without writing any extra equations. This will become your plan of attack.
 Once you have formulated your plan, write down the necessary equations and solve for
the unknowns.

 Internal forces
 As one can calculate the forces and moments transmitted through joints between
members, one can also calculate the internal forces which one part of a member exerts on
another. To calculate these internal forces, simply draw a free-body diagram of only part
of the member, cutting through the member at the point you are interested in knowing the
forces and moments. For example, consider the following member

 If you are interested in knowing the forces and moments that are transmitted through the
member at point D, you can draw the free-body-diagram of the portion to the left of D to
get
 

 For the body to be in equilibrium one must have

 In this example, is the axial force exerted by the right side of the bar on the left side
of the bar at D, is the shear load exerted by the right side of the bar on the left side of
the bar at D, is the bending moment exerted by the right side of the bar on the left
side of the bar at D.

 The example shows the basic elements of how one find the internal forces at a given
point in a member. Like any other constraint, one must introduce a force or a moment for
every way in which the motion of one side of the point is restricted by the other side. For
example, in the above the right side of D exerted restricts the left side from freely moving
along the axial direction, transverse to the axial direction, and restricts its free rotation.
Consequently, two forces and one moment are introduced to enforce the restriction.

 Note: the forces and moment applied by the left-hand side onto the right-hand side are
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the forces applied by the right-hand side
on the left-hand side.
  Dry Friction
 Friction force: When two surfaces come into contact, forces are applied by each surface
on the other. The part which is tangent to the contacting surfaces is called the frictional
force. If the two surfaces in contact do not move relative to each other, one has static
friction. If the two contacting surfaces are moving relative to each other, then one has
kinetic (dynamic or slipping) friction.

 Static Friction: The frictional force F that can result between two surfaces without
having the surfaces slide relative to each other is bounded by the equation

 where N is the normal force to the surface, and is the static coefficient of friction.

 Kinetic friction: The frictional force F that results when two surfaces are sliding on each
other is proportional to the normal force applied on the surfaces and is directed opposite
to the relative motion of the surfaces. The factor of proportionality is the coefficient of
kinetic friction, , and the equation for F is

 In general the coefficient of kinetic friction is smaller than the coefficient of static
friction, which explains the initial difficulty of getting an object to slide.

 Pending motion: Pending motion refers to the state just before surfaces start to slip. In
this case the static frictional force has reached its upper limit and is given by the equation
. The direction of the frictional force is opposite to the pending relative
motion of the surfaces.
  Tipping: When a object starts to tip, it starts to pivot around a point. As a result the
contact forces (frictional and normal) must be applied at the pivot point. If the object tips
before it slips, then one can find the frictional force from the equations of equilibrium.

Calculating the location of the normal force: If the contact is a surface as opposed to a point,
then there is a distribution of normal and frictional forces on that surface. The location of the
resultant normal force can be determined from the equilibrium equations.

Wedges and screws

Wedge: A wedge is in general a triangular object which is placed between two objects to either
hold them in place or is used to move one relative to the other. For example, the following shows
a wedge under a block that is supported by the wall.

If the force P is large enough to push the wedge forward, then the block will rise and the
following is an appropriate free-body diagram. Note that for the wedge to move one needs to
have slip on all three surfaces. The direction of the friction force on each surface will oppose the
slipping.

Since before the wedge can move each surface must overcome the resistance to slipping, one can
assume that
These equations and the equations of equilibrium are combined to solve the problem. If the force
P is not large enough to hold the top block from coming down, then the wedge will be pushed to
the left and the appropriate free-body diagram is the following. Note that the only change is the
direction of the frictional forces. A similar analysis to the above yield the solution to the
problem.

Screws: One can consider a screw and a bolt as a combination of two wedges. One wedge is
obtained from opening the helical treads of the screw and the other will come from opening the
helical threads of the bolt. For example, if one opens one revolution of the thread of a screw
having a lead of l and mean thread diameter 2r, one gets the following wedge where is the
lead angle.
Now consider the situation where a screw is in a bolt or threaded hole. In the picture the screw is
being pushed into the hole as the screwing moment is trying to unscrew it. Depending on the lead
angle, the magnitude of the axial load W, and the magnitude of the applied moment M, either the
axial load will dominate and the screw will move down or the moment will dominate and the
screw will move up.
If the axial moment is sufficient to unscrew the screw, then the frictional force will oppose
moving up of the screw threads and one will use the following free-body diagram for the wedge.

If the axial load is large enough to screw the screw into the bolt, then the frictional force will
oppose the downward motion of the screw threads and one must use the following free-body
diagram.

One can reverse the axial load W to be pulling the screw out or one can reverse the direction of
the screwing moment. These cases can be studied in a similar way. If you need to know how
much axial force W or screwing moment M is needed to make the screw turn in a given way,
then you assume that the threads are slipping and set . Take the static coefficient of
friction if you need the initial value to get the screw started turning, and take the kinetic
coefficient of friction if you would like to know what is needed to keep the screw turning.

Self-locking screw: A screw is considered self-locking if the lead angle is selected such that in
the absence of a screwing moment (i.e., M=0) the frictional force will remain less than so
that the threads will not slip relative to each other. This can be studied using the following free-
body diagram. The maximum thread angle for the screw to be self-locking is given by setting
.


Belts 

 When a belt slides on a surface, the friction between the

belt and the surface makes the tension in the belt change. If
the belt is sliding on a cylindrical surface, the tension will
depend on the contact angle and the coefficient of friction
between the belt and the cylinder.


 To show this we can draw the free body diagram of a
segment of the belt
 


 The equilibrium equations for this segment are

 Substitution of , using the small angle

approximations, and taking a limit yields




 Combining the two equations to eliminate N yields


 Integrating this over the interval of contact yields


 The relation between tension on one side of the contact and
on the other side can be then calculated from the equation

 where is the contact angle in radians and is the
coefficient of friction.

 Area Moment of inertia
 The area moment of inertia is the second moment of area around a given axis.
For example, given the axis O-O and the shaded area shown, one calculates the

second moment of the area by adding together for all the elements of

area dA in the shaded area.

 The area moment of inertia, denoted by I, can, therefore, be calculated from

 If we have a rectangular coordinate system as shown, one can define the area
moment of inertial around the x-axis, denoted by Ix, and the area moment of
inertia about the y-axis, denoted by Iy. These are given by


 

 The polar area moment of inertia, denoted by JO, is the area moment of inertia
about the z-axis given by

 Note that since one has the relation


 The radius of gyration is the distance k away from the axis that all the area can
be concentrated to result in the same moment of inertia. That is,

 For a given area, one can define the radius of gyration around the x-axis,
denoted by kx, the radius of gyration around the y-axis, denoted by ky, and the
radius of gyration around the z-axis, denoted by kO. These are calculated from
the relations





 It can easily to show from that

 The parallel axis theorem is a relation between the moment of inertia about an
axis passing through the centroid and the moment of inertia about any parallel
axis.
 

 Note that from the picture we have

 Since gives the distance of the centroid above the x'-axis, and since
the this distance is zero, one must conclude that the integral in the last term is
zero so that the parallel axis theorem states that

 where x' must pass through the centroid of the area. In this same way, one can
show that


 

 In general, one can use the parallel axis theorem for any two parallel axes as
long as one passes through the centroid. As shown in the picture, this is written
as


 

 where is the moment of inertia about the axis O'-O' passing through the
centroid, I is the moment of inertia about the axis O-O, and d is the
perpendicular distance between the two parallel axis.

 The moment of inertia of composite bodies can be calculated by adding

together the moment of inertial of each of its sections. The only thing to
remember is that all moments of inertia must be evaluated bout the same axis.
Therefore, for example,


 

 To calculate the area moment of inertia of the composite body constructed of

the three segments shown, one evaluates the moment of inertial of each part
about the x-axis and adds the three together.

 Mass moment of inertia

 Mass moment of inertia for a particle: The mass moment of inertia is one measure of
the distribution of the mass of an object relative to a given axis. The mass moment of
inertia is denoted by I and is given for a single particle of mass m as

 where O-O is the axis around which one is evaluating the mass moment of inertia, and r
is the perpendicular distance between the mass and the axis O-O. As can be seen from the
above equation, the mass moment of inertia has the units of mass times length squared.
The mass moment of inertial should not be confused with the area moment of inertia
which has units of length to the power four. Mass moments of inertia naturally appear in
the equations of motion, and provide information on how difficult (how much inertia
there is) it is rotate the particle around given axis.
 Mass moment of inertia for a rigid body: When calculating the mass moment of inertia
for a rigid body, one thinks of the body as a sum of particles, each having a mass of dm.
Integration is used to sum the moment of inertia of each dm to get the mass moment of
inertia of body. The equation for the mass moment of inertia of the rigid body is
 
 The integration over mass can be replaced by integration over volume, area, or length.
For a fully three dimensional body using the density one can relate the element of
mass to the element of volume. In this case the density has units of mass per length cubed
and the relation is given as

 and the equation for the mass moment of inertia becomes


 The integral is actually a triple integral. If the coordinate system used is rectangular then
dV=dxdydz . If the coordinates uses are cylindrical coordinates then .
 For a two dimensional body like a plate or a shell one can use density per unit area
(units of mass per length squared) to change the integration using the relation

 where A is the surface are and dA differential element of area. For example, for
rectangular coordinates dA=dxdy and for polar coordinates . After this
substitution one gets the equation to calculate the mass moment of inertia as


 If the body is a rod like object then one can use the relation

 to get


 where l is a coordinate along the length of the rod and the density is in units of mass
per unit length.
 Radius of gyration: Sometime in place of the mass moment of inertia the radius of
gyration k is provided. The mass moment of inertia can be calculated from k using the
relation

 where m is the total mass of the body. One can interpret the radius of gyration as the
distance from the axis that one could put a single particle of mass m equal to the mass of
the rigid body and have this particle have the same mass moment of inertia as the original
body.
 Parallel-axis theorem: The moment of inertia around any axis can be calculated from
the moment of inertia around parallel axis which passes through the center of mass. The
equation to calculate this is called the parallel axis theorem and is given as


 where d is the distance between the original axis and the axis passing through the center
of mass, m is the total mass of the body, and is the moment of inertia around the axis
passing through the center of mass.
 Composite bodies: If a body is composed of several bodies, to calculate the moment of
inertia about a given axis one can simply calculate the moment of inertia of each part
around the given axis and then add them to get the mass moment of inertia of the total
body.
 Example 1
 Example 2
 Example 3


 Equation Sheet for Engineering Statics

 Moment of a force:
 Scalar projection of A along e:
 Equivalent systems: Two systems are equivalent if the resultant force for the systems is
equal and if the resultant moment for the systems is equal
 Equilibrium for a particle:

 Equilibrium for a rigid body:

 Centroid of a line:

 Composite bodies:

 Centroid of an area:

 Composite bodies:

 Centroid of a volume:

 Composite bodies:
 Theorems of Pappus:
 Surface of revolution:
 Volume of revolution:
 Static friction: , Pending Motion:
 Kinetic friction:
 Belt friction:

 Area moment of inertia: , ,

 Mass moment of Inertia: ,

 Statics-Sample Exam I
 Note to the students: The following is a typical "Exam I" for statics. It should give you an
idea of the difficulty of the exam. Try to do the exam in 50 minutes without the aid of
your book or your notes, only using your one page of equations (no solutions to
problems). For each problem, first layout the procedure to obtain the desired solution,
then complete the problem by doing all the details. Don't forget to draw free-body
diagrams for the equilibrium problems, and to present your result in three significant
digits with proper units. If the figures are not clear, you can find them in the book.
 Problem 1: The window is held open by chain AB. Determine the length of the chain,
and express the 50-lb force acting at A along the chain as a Cartesian vector. Determine
its coordinate direction angles.


Problem 2: The cords BCA and CD can each support a maximum load of 100-lb.
Determine the maximum weight of the crate that can be hoisted at constant velocity, and
 the angle  for equilibrium.

 Problem 3: The 2500-N crate is to be hoisted with constant velocity from the hold of a
ship using the cable arrangement shown. Determine the tension in each of the three
cables for equilibrium.


 Statics-Sample Exam II
 Note to the students: The following is a typical "Exam II" for statics. It should give you
an idea of the difficulty of the exam. Try to do the exam in 50 minutes without the aid of
your book or your notes, only using your one page of equations (no solutions to
problems). For each problem, first layout the procedure to obtain the desired solution,
then complete the problem by doing all the details. Don't forget to draw free-body
diagrams for the equilibrium problems, and to present your result in three significant
digits with proper units. If the figures are not clear, you can find them in the book.
 Problem 1: The column is used to support the floor which exerts a force of 3000 lb on
the top of the column. The effect of the soil pressure along its side is distributed as
shown. Replace this loading by an equivalent resultant force and specify where it acts
along the column, measured from the base A.

 Problem 2: The wall footing is used to support the column load of 12,000 lb. Determine
the intensities w1 and w2 of the distributed loading acting on the base of the footing for
equilibrium.


 Problem 3: the pipe assembly supports the vertical loads shown. Determin the
components of reaction at the ball-and-socket joint A and the tension in the supporting
cables BC and BD.


 Statics-Sample Exam III

 Note to the students: The following is a typical "Exam III" for statics. It should give you
an idea of the difficulty of the exam. Try to do the exam in 50 minutes without the aid of
your book or your notes, only using your one page of equations (no solutions to
problems). For each problem, first layout the procedure to obtain the desired solution,
then complete the problem by doing all the details. Don't forget to draw free-body
diagrams for the equilibrium problems, and to present your result in three significant
digits with proper units. If the figures are not clear, you can find them in the book.
 Problem 1: Determine the force in members BC, FC, and FE and state if these members are in
tension or compression.

 Problem 2: Determine the normal force, shear force, and moment at a section passing
through point D of the two-member frame.


  Problem 3: The homogeneous semicylinder has a mass of m and mass center at G.
Determine the largest angle of the inclined plane upon which it rests so that it does not
slip down the plane. The coefficient of static friction between the plane and the cylinder
is . Also, what is the angle for this case.




essons
 Credits for Lecturing and Authoring
Mechanics
Statics and Force
Scalars and Vectors
Force
Resolution of forces into components
A Moment
Free Body Diagram
Inclined Plane
Cable, Rope, or Chain
Roller or Simple Support
Pin or Hinge
Equilibrium
Steps In Solving A Statics Problem
Example #2
Example #3

Statics
Lecture Written by: Prof. Martha Selby

Authored for presentation by: Prof. Martha Selby

Revised by: Lex Jacobson
HTML Documentation by: Larry Genalo Jr.
Date last updated: 7/24/96

Mechanics
The study of forces acting on bodies.

3 Branches of Mechanics:
 1. Statics
2. Dynamics
3. Strength of Materials

Statics
The study of rigid bodies that are in equilibrium.

Force
A "push" or "pull" exerted by one body on another, such as:
A person pushing on a wall
Gravity pulling on a person

Scalar
A quantity possessing only a magnitude such as mass, length, or time.

Vector
A quantity that has both a magnitude and direction such as velocity or force.

Force
Force is a vector quantity, therefore a force is completely described by:
1. Magnitude
2. Direction
3. Point of Application
Types of vectors used in statics:

Vector Addition - the parallellogram law.

 Resolution of forces into components.
The net effect of a number of forces on one point can be the same as the effect
of one force.
 Free Body Diagram
A free body diagram is a sketch of the body and all the forces acting on it.

3 steps in drawing a free body diagram:

1. Isolate the body, remove all supports and connectors.
2. Identify all EXTERNAL forces acting on the body.
3. Make a sketch of the body, showing all forces acting on it.
 Equilibrium
A body is in equilibrium if the sum of all the external forces and moments
acting on the body is zero.

Steps in solving a statics problem.

1. Draw a free body diagram.
2. Choose a reference frame. Orient the X & Y axes. (Most often X is chosen
in the horizontal direction and Y is chosen in the vertical direction.)
3. Choose a convenient point to calculate moments around.
4. Apply the 3 equilibrium equations and solve for the unknowns.

Problem
 Two children balance a see-saw in horizontal equilibrium. One weighs 80
pounds, and the other weighs 60 pounds and is sitting 4 ft. from the fulcrum.
Find the force the fulcrum applies to the beam and the distance to the fulcrum
to the 80 lb. child. (Neglect the mass of the see-saw.)

EXAMPLE #2
EXAMPLE #3
EN3: Introduction to Engineering and Statics

Division of Engineering

Brown University
4. Moment of a force

The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to rotate an object about some point. The
physical significance of a moment will be discussed later. We begin by stating the mathematical
definition of the moment of a force about a point.

4.1 Definition of the moment of a force.

To calculate the moment of a force about some point, we need to know three things:

1. The force vector, expressed as components in a basis

, or better as

2. The position vector (relative to some convenient origin) of the point

where the force is acting or better

3. The position vector of the point (say point A) we wish to take moments
about (you must use the same origin as for 2)
 or

The moment of F about point A is then defined as

We can write out the formula for the components of in longhand by using
the definition of a cross product

The moment of F about the origin is a bit simpler

or, in terms of components

Often the best way to find the moment of a force about some point is simply to use the
point of interest as the origin. Then you use the simpler formula.

4.2 Resultant moment exerted by a force system.

Suppose that N forces act at positions

. The resultant moment of the force
system is simply the sum of the moments exerted by the forces. You can calculate the
resultant moment by first calculating the moment of each force, and then adding all the
moments together (using vector sums).

Just one word of caution is in order here – when you compute the resultant moment, you
must take moments about the same point for every force.
Taking moments about a different point for each force and adding the result is
meaningless!

4.3 Examples of moment calculations using the vector formulas

We work through a few examples of moment calculations

Example 1: The beam shown below is uniform and has weight W. Calculate the moment
exerted by the gravitational force about points A and B.

We know (from the table provided earlier) that the center of gravity is half-way along the
beam.

The force (as a vector) is

To calculate the moment about A, we take the origin at A. The position vector of the
force relative to A is

The moment about A therefore

To calculate the moment about B, we take B as the origin. The position vector of the
force relative to B is

Therefore

Example 2. Member AB of a roof-truss is subjected to a vertical gravitational force W and

a horizontal wind load P. Calculate the moment of the resultant force about B.

Both the wind load and weight act at the center of gravity. Geometry shows that the
position vector of the CG with respect to B is

The resultant force is

Therefore the moment about B is

Example 3. The structure shown is subjected to a force T acting at E along the line EF.
Calculate the moment of T about points A and D.

This example requires a lot more work. First we need to write down the force as a
vector. We know the magnitude of the force is T, so we only need to work out its
direction. Since the force acts along EF, the direction must be a unit vector pointing
along EF. It’s not hard to see that the vector EF is

We can divide by the length of EF ( ) to find a unit vector pointing in

the correct direction

The force vector is

Next, we need to write down the necessary position vectors

Force:

Point A:

Point D:

Finally, we can work through the necessary cross products

Clearly, vector notation is very helpful when solving 3D problems!

Example 4. Finally, we work through a simple problem involving distributed loading.

Calculate expressions for the moments exerted by the pressure acting on the beam about
points A and B.

An arbitrary strip of the beam with length dx is subjected to a force

The position vector of the strip relative to A is

The force acting on the strip therefore exerts a moment

The total moment follows by summing (integrating) the forces over the entire length of
the beam
The position vector of the strip relative to B is

The force acting on the strip exerts a moment

The total moment follows by summing (integrating) the forces over the entire length of
the beam

4.4 The Physical Significance of a Moment

A force acting on a solid object has two effects: (i) it tends to accelerate the object
(making the object’s center of mass move); and (ii) it tends to cause the object to rotate.

1. The moment of a force about some point quantifies its tendency to rotate
an object about that point.

2. The magnitude of the moment specifies the magnitude of the rotational

force.

3. The direction of a moment specifies the axis of rotation associated with

the rotational force, following the right hand screw convention.
Let’s explore these statements in more detail.

The best way to understand the physical significance of a moment is to think about the
simple experiments you did with levers & weights back in kindergarten. Consider a
beam that’s pivoted about some point (e.g. a see-saw).

A force applied to a pivoted beam causes the beam to rotate

Hang a weight W at some distance d to the left of the pivot, and the beam will rotate
(counter-clockwise)

To stop the beam rotating, we need to hang a weight on the right side of the pivot. We
could

(a) Hang a weight W a distance d to the right of the pivot

(b) Hang a weight 2W a distance d/2 to the right of the pivot

(c) Hang a weight W/2 a distance 2d to the right of the pivot

(d) Hang a weight a distance to the right of the

pivot.
 Four ways to balance the beam

These simple experiments suggest that the turning tendency of a force about some point
is equal to the distance from the point multiplied by the force. This is certainly consistent
with

To see where the cross product in the definition comes from, we need to do a rather more
sophisticated experiment. Let’s now apply a force F at a distance d from the pivot, but
now instead of making the force act perpendicular to the pivot, let’s make it act at some
angle. Does this have a turning tendency Fd?

For a force applied at an angle, the turning tendency is

A little reflection shows that this cannot be the case. The force F can be split into two
components – perpendicular to the beam, and
parallel to it. But the component parallel to the beam will not tend to turn the
beam. The turning tendency is only .

Let’s compare this with . Take the origin at the

pivot, then

so the magnitude of the moment correctly gives the magnitude of the turning tendency of
the force. That’s why the definition of a moment needs a cross product.

Finally we need to think about the significance of the direction of the moment. We can
get some insight by calculating for forces acting on
our beam to the right and left of the pivot

For the force acting on the left of the pivot, we just found
For the force acting on the right of the pivot

Thus, the force on the left exerts a moment along the +k direction, while the force on the
right exerts a moment in the –k direction.

Notice also that the force on the left causes counterclockwise rotation; the force on the
right causes clockwise rotation. Clearly, the direction of the moment has something to do
with the direction of the turning tendency.

Specifically, the direction of a moment specifies the axis

associated with the rotational force, following the right
hand screw convention.

It’s best to use the screw rule to visualize the effect of a

moment – hold your right hand as shown, with the
thumb pointing along the direction of the moment. Your
curling fingers (moving from your palm to the finger
tips) then indicate the rotational tendency associated
with the moment. Try this for the beam problem. With
your thumb pointing along +k (out of the picture), your fingers curl counterclockwise.
With your thumb pointing along –k, your fingers curl clockwise.
4.5 Relationships between moments and rotations - A preview of some dynamics

Introductory courses generally try to tell the truth, but do not always tell the whole truth.
If you want to know the full truth about moments and rotational motion, read on. If you
would prefer to live in a state of blissful ignorance, you can skip this section.

In the preceding section, we interpreted the direction of a moment by saying that it

specifies the axis about which the moment tends to rotate a body.

This is a correct interpretation, but the full story of rotational motion is much more
complicated.

It is very tempting to take the argument a step further, and deduce that something like
Newton’s law exists for rotational motion of a rigid body. That is to say, just as we can
write

where F is the resultant force acting on the body, m is its mass, and is the
acceleration of the center of mass, we might guess that

where is the resultant moment about the center of mass, is the angular
acceleration (rate of change of angular velocity) and is some measure of the
rotational inertia of the solid (equivalent to mass, but for rotations).

There is a law like this, but the correct equation is

where I is the inertia tensor of the body, is the angular acceleration of a body and
is its angular velocity. (You don’t want to know what an inertia tensor is!)
An important consequence of this law is that, the angular acceleration of a rigid body
subjected to a resultant moment will not, in general, be parallel to the
direction of .

The most striking demonstration of this rather counter-intuitive behavior is that a

spinning top, or gyroscope, will not fall down.

Thus, the conical spinning top (assumed to be on a frictionless table-top) shown in the
picture is subjected to a moment . If
the top were not spinning, its angular acceleration would be about the j axis, and it would
fall down. But because it’s spinning, its angular acceleration turns out to be about the k
axis instead, and it precesses slowly about the vertical axis.

All these subtle issues are way beyond the scope of this course (and even beyond the
scope of the freshman dynamics course). For now, you should note that

1. A moment is a rotational force – a `force’ that causes rotation.

2. It is correct to interpret the direction of a moment as specifying the axis

associated with its rotational driving force;
 3. A moment acting about the center of mass of a rigid body will
sometimes induce an angular acceleration that is parallel to , but the
angular acceleration could have a completely different direction.

4.6 A few tips on calculating moments

The safest way to calculate the moment of a force is to slog through the
formula, as described at the start
of this section. As long as you can write down position vectors and force vectors
correctly, and can do a cross product, it is totally fool-proof.

But if you have a good physical feel for forces and their effects you might like to make
use of the following short cuts.

1. The direction of a moment is always perpendicular to both and

F. For 2D problems, and F lie in the same plane, so the
direction of the moment must be perpendicular to this plane.
Thus, a set of 2D forces in the {i,j} plane can only exert moments in the
direction – this makes calculating moments in 2D problems rather simple; we just have to
figure out whether the sign of a moment is positive or negative.

You can do a quick experiment to see whether the direction is +k or –k. Suppose you
want to find the direction of the moment caused by F in the picture above about the point
A. To do so,

(i) Place your pencil on the page so that it lies on the line connecting A to the
force.

(ii) Pinch the pencil lightly at A so it can rotate about A, but A remains fixed.

(iii) Push on the pencil in the direction of the force at B. If the pencil rotates
counterclockwise, the direction of the moment of F about A is out of the
picture (usually +k). If it rotates clockwise, the direction of the moment is
into the picture (–k). If it doesn’t rotate, you’re either holding the pencil in a
death grip at A (then the experiment won’t work) or else the force must be
acting along the pencil – in this case the moment is zero.
In practice you will soon find that you can very quickly tell the direction of a moment (in
2D, anyway) just by looking at the picture, but the experiment might help until you
develop this intuition.

2. The magnitude of a moment about some point is equal to the perpendicular distance
from that point to the line of action of the force, multiplied by the magnitude of the force.

Again, this trick is most helpful in 2D. Its use is best illustrated by example. Let’s work
through the simple 2D example problems again, but now use the short-cut.

Example 1: The beam shown below is uniform and has weight W. Calculate the moment
exerted by the gravitational force about points A and B.
The perpendicular distance from a vertical line through the CG to A is L/2. The pencil
trick shows that W exerts a clockwise moment about A. Therefore

Similarly, the perpendicular distance to B is L/2, and W exerts a counterclockwise

moment about B. Therefore

Example 2. Member AB of a roof-truss is subjected to a vertical gravitational force W and

a horizontal wind load P. Calculate the moment of the resultant force about B.

The perpendicular distance from the line of action of W to B is L/2. W exerts a

counterclockwise moment about B. Therefore W exerts a moment
The perpendicular distance from the line of action of P to B is
. P also exerts a counterclockwise moment about B. Therefore

The total moment is

Example 4: It is traditional in elementary statics courses to solve lots of problems

involving ladders (oh boy! Aren’t you glad you signed up for engineering?) . The
picture below shows a ladder of length L and weight W resting on the top of a frictionless
wall. Forces acting on the ladder are shown as well. Calculate the moments about point A
of the reaction force at B (which acts perpendicular to the ladder) and the weight force at
C (which acts at the center of gravity, half-way up the ladder).

The perpendicular distance from point A to the line along which N acts is
. The pencil experiment (or inspection) shows that the direction of the
moment of N about A is in the +k direction. Therefore the trick (perpendicular distance
times force) gives

The perpendicular distance from point A to the line along which W is acting is
. The direction of the moment is –k. Therefore

Let’s compare these with the answer we get using

. We can take the origin to be at A to make things simple.
Then, for the force at B

giving the same answer as before, but with a whole lot more effort!

Similarly, for the weight force

3. The moment exerted by a force is unchanged if the force is moved in a direction
parallel to the direction of the force.

This is rather obvious in light of trick (2), but it’s worth stating anyway.
4. The component of moment exerted by a force about an axis through a point can be
calculated by (i) finding the two force components perpendicular to the axis; then (ii)
multiplying each force component by its perpendicular distance from the axis; and (iii)
adding the contributions of each force component following the right-hand screw
convention.

The wording of this one probably loses you, so let’s start by trying to explain what this
means.

First, let’s review what we mean by the component of a moment about some axis. The
formula for the moment of a force about the origin is
This has three components -
about the i axis, about the j
axis, and about the k axis.

The trick gives you a quick way to calculate one of the components. For example, let’s
try to find the i component of the moment about the origin exerted by the force shown in
the picture.

The rule says

(i) Identify the force components perpendicular to the i axis – that’s and
in this case;

(ii) Multiply each force component by its perpendicular distance from the axis.
Drawing a view down the i axis is helpful. From the picture, we can see that
is a distance y from the axis, and is a distance z from the axis. The
two contributions we need are thus and .

(iii) Add the two contributions according to the right hand screw rule. We know
that each force component exerts a moment - we have to figure out
which one is +i and which is –i. We can do the pencil experiment to figure this
out – the answer is that exerts a moment along +i, while causes a
moment along –i. So finally
.

Example: The structure shown is subjected to a vertical force V and horizontal force H
acting at E. Calculate the k component of moment exerted about point A by the resultant
force.
Our trick gives the answer immediately. First, draw a picture looking down the k axis

Clearly, the force H exerts a k component of moment , while the

force V exerts a k component of moment . The total k
component of moment is
 This trick clearly can save a great deal of time. But to make use of it, you need excellent
3D visualization sk

QUESTIONS

1. What is friction? Briefly explain the origin of friction.

2. Distinguish between static friction, kinetic friction and rolling friction.

3. State the laws of static friction. How can these laws be verified experimentally?

4. State the laws of dynamic friction. Describe an experiment to verify the laws of dynamic
friction.

5. State the formula for pressure due to a fluid column. Explain how atmospheric pressure
can be measured.

6. State and explain Pascal's law for transmission of pressure by a fluid.

7. Explain with the help of neat diagrams the working of a hydraulic lift and hydraulic
brake.

8. What is hyrdostatic paradox? How is it explained?

9. What is the effect of gravity on pressure at a point in a liquid?

10. Explain the terms viscosity and viscous drag.

11. When is the flow of a liquid said to be streamline? What can you say about the velocity
gradient in a liquid when the flow is streamline?

12. State Newton's law of viscosity. Hence define coefficient of viscosity. State the S.I. unit
and dimensions of coefficient of viscosity.

13. State Stokes' law and derive it by the method of dimensional analysis.

14. Obtain an expression for the terminal velocity of a spherical body falling through a
viscous fluid.
15. Write down Reynold's formula. How does Reynold's number help in determining the
state of flow of a liquid through a tube or pipe?

16. State and explain Bernoulli's theorem for the streamline flow of an ideal fluid. How
does it lead to Bernoulli's principle?

17. Explain, with neat diagrams, any two applications of Bernaulli's principle.

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1. A 2 kg block is just prevented from sliding down a vertical wall by pressing it against the
wall with a force of 40 N. Compute the coefficient of static friction between the block and
the wall.

[Ans. 0.49]

2. A block of mass 3 kg rests on a rough horizontal surface. A force is applied to the block
at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. If ns between the block and the table is 0.4, find (a) the
force required to just pull the block along the surface, and (b) the force required to just
push the block along the surface.

[Ans. 11.88N; 27.71 N]

3. A horizontal force of 19.8 N moves a block of 10 kg along a rough horizontal surface with
an acceleration of 1 m/s . Calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and
the surface.

[Ans. 0.1]

4. A U-tube is filled with mercury till the level of mercury stands at the same height in both
the arms. Water is poured in one arm till the height of water column becomes 10 cm. What
will be the difference in the height of mercury levels in the two arms? If now glycerine is
added in the other arm, what will be the height of glycerine column when mercuxy levels
again stand at the same height in both the arms, [p^ = 1 gm/cm3, pHg = 13.6 gm/cm3,

Pgi = 0.8 gm/cm3] [Ans. 0.7353 cm, 12.5 cm]

5. Find the critical velocity for air flowing through a tube of diameter 2 m. [pair = 1.25
kg/m3, ri = 1.81 x 10 Pa.S, NR = 2000]

[Ans. 1.448 m/s]

2
6. A metal plate having an area of 100 cm rests on a layer of liquid of thickness 1 mm. If the
coefficient of viscosity of the liquid is 1.6Ns/m2, find the horizontal force required to move
the plate along the surface with a velocity of 20 cm/s.

[Ans. 3.2 N]

7. An oil droplet is found to descend through air under the action of gravity with a uniform
velocity of 0.25 mm/s. Find the radius of

the droplet. [poti = 800 kg/m3; pa(r =1.2 kg/m3;

rw= 1.82 x 10"5 Ns/m2]. [Ans> x 617 x

8. With what terminal velocity will an air bubble of radius 1 mm rise through water? [riwater
= 1.00 centipoise, pwater = 1 gm/cm ]. Neglect the weight of the air bubble.

[Ans. 2.18 m/s]

9. Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of variable cross-section. The pressure of

mercury at a point where the velocity of flow is 0.2 m/s is 3 cm of mercury. What fs the
pressure at a point where the velocity of flow is 0.1 m/s?

[Ans. 2.989 cm of mercury]

^ qflp ^
1
For example, it is quite easy to push a motor car manually when its wheels are free to roll but
very difficult to push it when brakes are applied and the wheels can only slide. In both cases the
normal reaction and apparent area of contact remain the same.
2
The viscous drag is experienced by a body of any shape, but only for a sphere the expressionfor
viscous drag can be easily obtained.
3
Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, in 1923, for his accurate measurement
of the charge on an electron.
4
Although NR is generally used to determine the critical velocity of a liquid through a tube or
pipe, it can also be used to find the critical velocity of a liquid when it is 'flowing round an
obstacle. For example, if the obstacle is a sphere, then D is the diameter of the sphere.

Related tags

SOLVED QUESTIONS in FRICTION IN SOLIDS , QUESTIONS in FRICTION IN SOLIDS

WITH ANSWERS

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