applied

sciences
Article
Solar–Hydrogen Storage System: Architecture and Integration
Design of University Energy Management Systems
Salaki Reynaldo Joshua * , An Na Yeon, Sanguk Park * and Kihyeon Kwon *

Department of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineering, Kangwon National University,

Samcheok-si 25913, Republic of Korea; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.R.J.); [email protected] (S.P.);
[email protected] (K.K.)

Abstract: As a case study on sustainable energy use in educational institutions, this study examines
the design and integration of a solar–hydrogen storage system within the energy management
framework of Kangwon National University’s Samcheok Campus. This paper provides an extensive
analysis of the architecture and integrated design of such a system, which is necessary given the
increasing focus on renewable energy sources and the requirement for effective energy management.
This study starts with a survey of the literature on hydrogen storage techniques, solar energy storage
technologies, and current university energy management systems. In order to pinpoint areas in
need of improvement and chances for progress, it also looks at earlier research on solar–hydrogen
storage systems. This study’s methodology describes the system architecture, which includes fuel
cell integration, electrolysis for hydrogen production, solar energy harvesting, hydrogen storage, and
an energy management system customized for the needs of the university. This research explores
the energy consumption characteristics of the Samcheok Campus of Kangwon National University
and provides recommendations for the scalability and scale of the suggested system by designing
three architecture systems of microgrids with EMS Optimization for solar–hydrogen, hybrid solar–
hydrogen, and energy storage. To guarantee effective and safe functioning, control strategies and
safety considerations are also covered. Prototype creation, testing, and validation are all part of
the implementation process, which ends with a thorough case study of the solar–hydrogen storage
Citation: Joshua, S.R.; Yeon, A.N.; system’s integration into the university’s energy grid. The effectiveness of the system, its effect on
Park, S.; Kwon, K. Solar–Hydrogen
campus energy consumption patterns, its financial sustainability, and comparisons with conventional
Storage System: Architecture and
energy management systems are all assessed in the findings and discussion section. Problems
Integration Design of University
that arise during implementation are addressed along with suggested fixes, and directions for
Energy Management Systems. Appl.
further research—such as scalability issues and technology developments—are indicated. This study
Sci. 2024, 14, 4376. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app14114376
sheds important light on the viability and efficiency of solar–hydrogen storage systems in academic
environments, particularly with regard to accomplishing sustainable energy objectives.
Academic Editors: Hicham Idriss and
Leonarda Liotta
Keywords: solar–hydrogen storage system; university energy management; renewable energy;
Received: 9 April 2024 energy storage technologies; sustainable energy
Revised: 14 May 2024
Accepted: 19 May 2024
Published: 22 May 2024
1. Introduction
In a university setting, a solar–hydrogen system serves multiple roles, including
community involvement, education, research, and sustainability [1–3]. It exemplifies the
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
university’s commitment to environmental responsibility by providing a clean energy
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
source and reducing reliance on fossil fuels through solar-powered electrolysis [4–7]. This
distributed under the terms and
aligns with efforts to promote sustainable behaviors and combat climate change [8,9]. The
conditions of the Creative Commons
system also enhances instructional initiatives by offering hands-on learning opportunities
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// in environmental science, energy management, and renewable technologies, acting as
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ a living laboratory [10,11]. Engagement with the system equips students with practical
4.0/). experience and prepares them for careers in related fields [11,12]. Additionally, it enriches

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114376 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 2 of 31

academic programs by offering interdisciplinary learning in subjects such as chemistry,

engineering, environmental studies, and policy development [13,14].
A solar–hydrogen system within the institution serves as a hub for research and in-
novation. Academic staff and researchers can conduct studies on system optimization,
performance monitoring, and technological advancements in hydrogen generation, storage,
and utilization [15–17]. This research contributes to future developments in renewable
energy technology and fosters partnerships with businesses and academic institutions
to facilitate technology transfer and commercialization [18–20]. Additionally, the system
supports outreach and community involvement initiatives by serving as a focal point for
public awareness campaigns and educational events [21–23]. Partnerships with external
entities further promote sustainability projects and the adoption of renewable energy tech-
nologies beyond campus boundaries [24–26]. By integrating sustainable energy solutions
into campus operations, universities set a positive example, educate future environmental
leaders, and drive societal change [27–29].
Temperature sensitivity is a problem in proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
research, especially for high-power applications like automobiles. A study looks at this
sensitivity and suggests an active temperature control method to improve an 85 kW fuel
cell stack’s output performance. The research extends prior investigations by quantitatively
analyzing temperature effects using a semi-empirical equivalent circuit model and electro-
chemical impedance spectroscopy. The paper also presents an active temperature control
method with temperature tracking and a decoupling management strategy designed for
high-power PEM fuel cell stacks. By combining a Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy theory coupling
algorithm, a simplified temperature tracking control linear model, and Model Predictive
Control (MPC), this method effectively regulates operational temperature in response to
variations in load current, hence optimizing stack performance [30]. The study highlights
how crucial it is to deal with PEM fuel cells’ temperature sensitivity problems in order
to successfully integrate them into high-power applications. Furthermore, in order to
prevent flooding and preserve gas diffusion efficiency, advancements in Gas Diffusion
Layer (GDL) water management are crucial for enabling the large-scale commercialization
of PEMFCs [31]. Electrochemical energy conversion and storage (EECS) devices show great
promise for bridging gaps between energy availability and demand in the larger context
of renewable energy integration. These devices offer high efficiency, fast reaction times,
scalability, and location independence. These revelations highlight how important it is to
develop fuel cell technology as well as energy storage technologies in order to facilitate the
broad use of renewable energy sources [32].
The potential of a solar–hydrogen system to meet the institution’s energy needs
and act as a role model for sustainable energy solutions makes it crucial to deploy in
a university setting [33–35]. Universities have a special chance to set the standard for
environmental stewardship and the adoption of renewable energy sources since they
are hubs for learning and innovation [36–39]. A solar–hydrogen system combines solar
energy harvesting with hydrogen production and storage technologies to offer a clean,
dependable energy supply that lowers carbon emissions, lessens environmental impact,
and encourages energy independence [40–42]. Furthermore, by providing researchers and
students with practical learning opportunities in energy management, sustainability prac-
tices, and renewable energy technology, such a system complements the academic goals of
institutions [43–45]. Universities may inspire the next generation of environmental lead-
ers, demonstrate their commitment to sustainability, and support international efforts
to battle climate change by researching, developing, and implementing solar–hydrogen
systems [46–48]. Furthermore, the versatility of hydrogen as an energy carrier makes it
possible to use it for purposes other than producing electricity, such as heating, transporta-
tion, and energy storage. This increases the significance and influence of solar–hydrogen
systems on college campuses [49–51].
The increased need for sustainable energy solutions in educational institutions is the
driving force behind the research on the Solar–Hydrogen Storage System: Architecture
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 3 of 31

and Integration Design of the University Energy Management System. Universities are
placing a greater emphasis on energy efficiency and environmental stewardship; thus, there
is a need for energy management system strategies that can lower carbon emissions and
dependency on fossil fuels [52–57]. By creating a comprehensive system that combines
solar energy collection, electrolysis for hydrogen production, and storage technologies,
this research seeks to overcome these issues. The system provides a clean, renewable
energy source that can be stored and used as needed, making it resilient to grid failures
and variations in energy demand, by utilizing solar power to generate hydrogen gas.
The emphasis on university energy management systems also highlights how academic
institutions may lead by example in sustainability activities and support larger movements
towards a low-carbon future [58–60]. The design, implementation, and optimization of
solar–hydrogen storage systems can be improved with the help of this research, opening
the door to a wider acceptance of renewable energy technology in educational settings and
beyond [61–63].

2. Solar–Hydrogen Storage System

2.1. Solar–Hydrogen Technologies and Storage System
An innovative method of producing and storing sustainable energy is through solar–
hydrogen technologies and storage devices. These systems use concentrated solar power
or photovoltaic technology to capture the sun’s plentiful energy, which is then used to
electrolyze hydrogen gas [64–66]. The intermittency problem with renewable energy
sources like solar power can be resolved with the convergence of solar energy and hydrogen
generation [67–69]. These systems improve the stability and dependability of renewable
energy systems by converting solar energy into hydrogen, which allows excess energy
produced during times of high solar irradiation to be stored for use at a later time when
sunlight is scarce [70–72]. Sunlight is first collected using solar panels or concentrators,
which turn solar energy into heat or power. Concentrated solar power systems direct
sunlight onto a receiver to produce heat, whereas photovoltaic systems use solar cells
to directly convert sunlight into electrical energy [73–75]. After being directed to an
electrolyzer, where water molecules (H2 O) are electrolyzed to produce hydrogen (H2 )
and oxygen (O2 ), the heat or electricity produced by the sun is used. When water is
exposed to an electric current, it splits into its component parts and undergoes this chemical
reaction [76–78].
Photovoltaics (PVs) use semiconductor materials such as silicon to directly turn sun-
light into electricity. Concentrated solar power (CSP) and other solar thermal power
systems use sunlight to generate heat for the production of electricity using a variety of
devices, including steam turbines. Solar thermal technologies are superior in utility-scale
installations, providing continuous power generation through thermal energy storage,
whereas photovoltaics (PVs) are modular and scalable for a wide range of applications.
While both strategies make use of solar radiation, they vary in terms of deployment scale
and energy conversion techniques [79–81].
After it is created, the hydrogen gas is kept for use at a later time in a variety of
storage methods, such as chemical storage, solid-state storage, compression, or liquefac-
tion [82–84]. Hydrogen may be efficiently and safely stored using these techniques until it
is required for the production of energy. When there is a need for energy, the hydrogen
that has been stored can be utilized directly as fuel for a variety of purposes, such as
driving cars or lighting buildings, or it can be transformed back into electricity using fuel
cells [85–87]. Utilizing a sustainable energy source, effectively storing excess solar energy,
and producing clean electricity with minimal greenhouse gas emissions are just a few bene-
fits of solar–hydrogen systems. These systems aid in the shift to a sustainable energy future
and lessen the effects of climate change by combining solar energy with the production
and storage of hydrogen [88–90]. Nonetheless, issues including the cost and effectiveness
of electrolysis, the storage and transportation of hydrogen, and system integration as a
whole still need to be resolved. To overcome these obstacles and realize the full potential
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 4 of 31

of solar–hydrogen technologies for widespread deployment and acceptance, research and

development efforts must continue [91–93]. To use hydrogen as a clean and renewable
energy carrier, hydrogen storage (Table 1) is essential [94–103]. There are various forms of
hydrogen storage techniques, each with pros and cons of their own.

Table 1. Types of hydrogen storage.

No Hydrogen Storage Description

In tanks composed of lightweight materials like carbon fiber or composite materials, hydrogen
gas is kept at high pressures, usually between 350 and 700 bar (5000 and 10,000 psi).
Compression is appropriate for applications like fuel cell vehicles since it permits a
1 Gaseous
comparatively high energy density and quick refueling times. The processes of compression and
decompression can cause energy losses and demand a large amount of energy. Taking safety into
account is essential because of the enormous pressure involved.
The process of turning hydrogen gas into a liquid involves cooling it to extremely low
temperatures (−253 ◦ C or −423 ◦ F), which greatly boosts the gas’s energy density. Compared to
compressed gas storage, liquid hydrogen has a higher energy density, allowing for more effective
2 Liquid
storage and transmission. Boil-off losses over time owing to heat leakage occur, and liquefaction
necessitates a significant energy input for cooling. It takes insulated storage tanks to keep the
temperature down.
Hydrogen molecules attach themselves physically to the surface of solids like metal–organic
frameworks (MOFs), activated carbon, and nanoporous materials. Compared to compression or
liquefaction, adsorption offers the possibility of large storage capacities at lower pressures and
3 Solid
temperatures. It can also be effective and reversible. It is still difficult to achieve quick kinetics
and high efficiency in reversible adsorption–desorption cycles. Important considerations include
the stability and durability of the adsorbent material as well as its selection.
Metal hydrides and other hydride compounds are created when hydrogen forms a chemical
bond with a solid substance. Hydrides provide stable storage at moderate temperatures and
pressures and can store considerable amounts of hydrogen by weight. The efficiency of a system
4 Chemical
may be impacted by hydrides that require heating or cooling during cycles of hydrogen
absorption and desorption. Important factors to take into account are the kinetics of hydrogen
release and uptake as well as the stability and reversibility of the material.
A liquid organic substance, such as an aromatic compound or a heterocycle containing nitrogen,
is chemically linked to hydrogen. Transporting and storing hydrogen at room temperature and
Liquid Organic
pressure is made safe and effective with LOHCs. Additionally, they have a high volumetric
5 Hydrogen
energy density. The kinetics of hydrogen uptake and release, as well as the requirement for
Carriers (LOHCs)
catalysts or energy input, are crucial considerations. It is also necessary to take into account the
carrier molecules’ regeneration and recycling.

There are trade-offs associated with each method of hydrogen storage, including cost,
energy efficiency, safety, storage capacity, and application compatibility. A number of
factors, including the desired use case, energy requirements, infrastructure availability,
and regulatory considerations, influence the choice of storage technology [104–106]. In
order to remove technological obstacles and enhance the efficiency and economic via-
bility of hydrogen storage systems, more research and development will be necessary.
This will eventually allow hydrogen to be widely used as a clean and sustainable energy
source [107–109].

2.2. Hydrogen Storage System Components

Systems for storing hydrogen safely and effectively until it is required for energy
production or other uses are made up of a number of essential components [110–112].
These elements (Table 2) are essential [113–122] to guaranteeing the hydrogen storage
system’s dependability and integrity. Here is a summary of the key elements.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 5 of 31

Table 2. Hydrogen storage system components.

No Component Description
Depending on the manner of storage, the storage vessel is a container made to keep hydrogen gas
at either high pressure or low temperature. Carbon fiber, composite materials, and high-strength
metals like steel or aluminum are frequently used to make storage vessels. For the purpose of
1 Storage Vessel
storing compressed gas or liquid hydrogen, the vessel has to be designed to endure high
pressures and low temperatures. In order to stop leaks or ruptures, it must also adhere to safety
regulations.
The storage vessel has a pressure relief mechanism designed to guard against overpressurization
and guarantee safe functioning. In order to prevent damage to the vessel and lower the possibility
2 Pressure Relief Device of mishaps, this device releases excess pressure from the storage vessel if it goes beyond the
design limitations. Depending on the particular application and storage system requirements,
pressure relief devices can be rupture discs, burst diaphragms, or pressure relief valves.
A thermal management system is essential in systems that use liquid hydrogen storage in order
to maintain the low temperatures needed to keep hydrogen in its liquid condition. Typically, this
Thermal Management
3 system uses cooling mechanisms to eliminate any heat that enters the storage tank and insulation
System
to reduce heat transfer. In order to reduce boil-off losses and guarantee the long-term stability of
liquid hydrogen storage, effective thermal control is essential.
To move hydrogen gas from the storage vessel to the point of use, such as fuel cells or other
hydrogen-consuming devices, the hydrogen delivery system is made up of pipes, valves, and
Hydrogen Delivery connectors. The system needs to be built to withstand the high pressures and high purity needs
4
System of hydrogen gas. Additional parts like filters, regulators, and safety devices may be included in
the distribution system, depending on the application, to manage the hydrogen flow and
guarantee a secure and effective delivery.
Systems for monitoring and controlling the hydrogen storage system’s operation are crucial for
guaranteeing its dependable and safe functioning. Sensors that measure variables like
Monitoring and temperature, pressure, and hydrogen purity are commonly included in these systems, along with
5
Control System control devices to manage the functioning of pumps, valves, and other system parts. Through
real-time monitoring and control, operators may minimize the likelihood of accidents and
optimize system performance by identifying and addressing any anomalies or safety concerns.

Systems for storing and delivering hydrogen gas safely for a variety of uses are made
up of a number of components. To fully utilize hydrogen as a clean and sustainable energy
source, these elements must be integrated effectively [6,123,124]. Improvements in materi-
als, design, and technology are propelling the development of hydrogen storage systems,
which is making them more and more practical for a variety of uses, from stationary power
generation to transportation [125–127].

2.3. Workflow of Solar–Hydrogen Storage System

A solar–hydrogen storage system’s workflow consists of a number of interrelated
procedures that allow solar energy to be converted into hydrogen gas, which is then stored
and used for energy production or other purposes [128,129]. The following is a detailed
breakdown of the standard procedure:
• Solar Energy Harvesting: Using solar panels or concentrators, solar energy is first
captured to start the process. Through the process of the photovoltaic effect, solar
panels, which are made up of photovoltaic cells, directly transform sunlight into
electricity. Solar dishes and parabolic troughs are examples of concentrators that direct
sunlight onto a receiver in order to produce heat [130–132].
• Electricity Generation and Heat Production: Depending on the solar energy harvesting
technology being employed, the solar energy collected by the solar panels or con-
centrators is transformed into either heat or electricity. The following phase of the
operation is then fed with the produced heat or energy [133–135].
• Electrolysis for Hydrogen Production: Once the electrolyzer, which separates water
(H2 O) into its component parts of hydrogen (H2 ) and oxygen (O2 ), is powered by the
electricity or heat produced, water in the electrolyzer undergoes electrolysis when an
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 6 of 31

electric current flows through it. At the cathode, hydrogen gas is released, and at the
anode, oxygen gas is released [136–138].
• Hydrogen Gas Collection and Purification: After being generated, the hydrogen gas
is collected and refined to get rid of any moisture or contaminants. By adopting
this purification method, hydrogen gas is guaranteed to meet storage and use re-
quirements without contaminating or harming components further down the supply
chain [139–141].
• Hydrogen Storage: The hydrogen gas that has been purified is kept in storage tanks
or containers until it is required for energy production or other uses. Hydrogen can
be kept in three different states: liquid, compressed gas, or adsorbed onto a solid
substance like metal hydrides, depending on the storage method employed [142–144].
• Energy Generation or Utilization: The hydrogen gas that has been stored is supplied
into a fuel cell or other hydrogen-consuming device to generate or use energy when
needed. Hydrogen and airborne oxygen react in fuel cells to produce electricity, with
the byproducts being heat and water vapor. In order to meet energy demand, this
electricity can be sent into the grid and used to power buildings or power electric
cars [145–147].
• Monitoring and Controlling: Monitoring and control systems supervise the actions
of several components during the workflow, guaranteeing their safe and effective
functioning. In order to maximize system performance, control units manage the
flow of energy, water, and hydrogen, while monitoring sensors measure variables like
solar irradiance, electrolyzer efficiency, hydrogen purity, and storage tank
conditions [148–150].
• Maintenance and Optimization: The solar–hydrogen storage system is maintained
and optimized on a regular basis to guarantee its efficiency and dependability. To
enhance system performance over time, this may entail checking storage tanks,
cleaning solar panels, examining electrolyzer components, and upgrading control
algorithms [151–153].
Solar–hydrogen storage systems facilitate the effective conversion of solar energy into
hydrogen gas through a prescribed workflow. This not only offers a clean and sustainable
energy source for a range of applications but also a way to store excess energy for future
use [154–156].

2.4. Implementation of Solar–Hydrogen Storage System

A solar–hydrogen storage system’s implementation consists of multiple phases,
such as system design, component procurement, installation, testing, and
commissioning [157–159]. An outline of the standard implementation procedure is pro-
vided below:
• System Design: The solar–hydrogen storage system’s design is the first step in the
execution process. To ascertain the ideal system layout, this entails evaluating the
energy requirements, site circumstances, and technical viability. The choice of solar
energy harvesting technologies, electrolysis apparatus, hydrogen storage techniques,
and utilization devices like fuel cells or hydrogen generators are important factors
to take into account. The arrangement of the component parts, the integration of
the control and monitoring systems, and safety considerations are all included in the
system design [160–162].
• Component Procurement: Obtaining the required parts and machinery is the next
stage after the system design is complete. Obtaining solar panels or concentrators,
electrolyzers, storage tanks or vessels, pipework and connectors, control units, moni-
toring sensors, and safety equipment may be necessary for this. Budgetary restrictions,
quality requirements, and performance requirements all play a role in the selection
of components. Purchasing directly from producers, suppliers, or contractors is one
method of procurement [163–165].
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 7 of 31

• Installation: Assembling and integrating the various components in accordance with

the system design is the installation process for the solar–hydrogen storage system. To
collect sunlight, solar panels or concentrators are placed, and the electrolysis apparatus
is set up to generate hydrogen gas. The generated hydrogen is placed in storage tanks
or other containers, and pipelines are set up to deliver the hydrogen gas to equipment
for use. To supervise its functioning and guarantee safety, control and monitoring
systems are also included in the system [166–168].
• Testing and Commissioning: After installation, the system is put through a rigorous
testing process to make sure all of the parts work properly and that the system per-
forms as intended. This entails doing integrated system tests to confirm overall system
operation in addition to testing individual components for functionality, performance,
and safety. A variety of operational scenarios, including varying solar irradiation
levels, electrolysis rates, and hydrogen storage capacity, may be simulated during
testing. Prior to commissioning, any problems or shortcomings found during testing
are addressed and fixed [169–171].
• Commissioning and Operation: The solar–hydrogen storage system is put into service
following successful testing. This entails putting the system online formally and
starting regular operations. System performance is continuously checked during
the commissioning phase to make sure it satisfies performance goals and design
standards. Operators are trained in safety measures, maintenance techniques, and
system operation. After it is put into service, the system runs constantly, creating and
storing hydrogen as needed to meet demand for energy [172–174].
• Monitoring and Maintenance: The solar–hydrogen storage system is routinely ob-
served over its operating life in order to track performance, identify any problems or
abnormalities, and improve system performance. To guarantee the system’s contin-
uous dependability and effectiveness, maintenance tasks like testing storage tanks,
cleaning solar panels, and examining electrolysis equipment are performed. To alle-
viate wear and tear or enhance system performance, any necessary modifications or
repairs are made [175–177].
A solar–hydrogen storage system can be effectively installed to capture solar energy,
create hydrogen gas, and store it for use as a clean, renewable energy source by following
these implementation steps. Careful planning, coordination, and attention to detail are
necessary for an effective implementation in order to guarantee that the system satisfies
performance standards and yields long-term advantages [178–180].

3. Research Approach and Design

3.1. Research Approach
The methodology used in the study “Solar–Hydrogen Storage System: Architecture
and Integration Design of University Energy Management System” entails a number of
crucial steps that must be taken in order to methodically explore, create, and put into
practice the suggested system. Below is a summary of the steps in the research approach:
• Literature Review: Perform a thorough analysis of the body of knowledge about solar–
hydrogen systems, energy management, the integration of renewable energy sources,
and university sustainability programs. This includes reading research articles, books,
and pertinent studies. In order to identify knowledge gaps, build a firm grasp of
the state-of-the-art, and guide the creation of research objectives and procedures, this
phase is necessary.
• Needs Assessment and System Requirements: Examine the university’s energy needs
and requirements to ascertain the proposed solar–hydrogen storage system’s scope
and specifications. This entails looking at campus infrastructure, energy sources,
and sustainability objectives, in addition to evaluating past data on energy use and
peak demand times. To ensure congruence with institutional priorities, stakeholder
meetings may also be held with university officials, faculties, students, and facilities
management staff.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 8 of 31

• System Design and Modeling: Formulate a conceptual design for the solar–hydrogen
storage system in accordance with the determined goals and specifications. This entails
choosing suitable electrolysis apparatus, hydrogen storage techniques, solar energy
gathering technology, and usage devices. To analyze system performance, optimize
component sizing and configuration and to determine whether the suggested system
is economically feasible, use modeling and simulation techniques.
• Component Procurement and Integration: Purchase the equipment and parts required
for the solar–hydrogen storage system in accordance with the approved design param-
eters. To find premium components that satisfy performance standards and financial
limitations, this may entail working with manufacturers, suppliers, and contractors.
Make sure that the components are installed, connected, and functionally correct by
integrating them into the system in accordance with the design plan.
• Experimental Setup and Testing: Install pilot-scale or experimental prototype systems
to evaluate the solar–hydrogen storage system’s operation and performance in real-
world scenarios. To assess system performance overall as well as energy output,
hydrogen generation, storage efficiency, and system operation, this may entail field
testing, laboratory studies, or on-site demonstrations. For analysis and validation,
gather data on energy output, environmental effects, and system characteristics.
• Data Analysis and Optimization: Examine the gathered data to determine areas in
need of improvement and to evaluate the solar–hydrogen storage system’s efficacy
and efficiency. To improve energy conversion efficiency, optimize system performance,
and fix any operational issues or deficiencies, apply modeling strategies, statistical
analysis, and optimization algorithms. To attain desired results and fulfill project
objectives, make necessary iterations to the design and implementation.
• Documentation and Reporting: Complete reports, research papers, and technical
documents should contain the research findings, methods, and results. Through pa-
pers, conferences, and seminars, share the findings with industrial partners, academic
audiences, and stakeholders. Discuss best practices, takeaways, and suggestions for
further study, the creation, and the application of solar–hydrogen storage systems in
academic and other environments.
Through the use of this research methodology, the project hopes to further our un-
derstanding of energy management techniques, sustainability initiatives, and renewable
energy technologies. It also hopes to offer useful advice and solutions for establishing
solar–hydrogen storage systems in university settings.

3.2. Case Study

The Kangwon National University Samcheok Campus provides an excellent case
study for this study’s investigation of the installation of a solar–hydrogen storage system in
an academic setting. The Joint Laboratory and Practice Building (Building 123), Engineer-
ing Building V (Building 120), Engineering Building IV (Building 118), and Engineering
Building II (Building 122) are the four main campus structures that are the subject of the
investigation (Figure 1). These buildings, which represent a variety of academic and ad-
ministrative facilities within the institution, were chosen based on their varied roles and
energy usage characteristics. This research attempts to evaluate the viability and efficacy of
incorporating solar–hydrogen technology into university energy management systems by
looking at these buildings as part of the case study. The possible advantages, difficulties,
and opportunities of installing renewable energy solutions on university campuses might
be better understood by carefully analyzing and evaluating energy consumption patterns,
peak demand times, and infrastructure requirements. Additionally, by concentrating on
a particular university campus, the study makes it possible to conduct a more contextu-
ally relevant and localized analysis, which facilitates useful suggestions and methods for
improving sustainability and energy efficiency in the academic setting.
 ties, and opportunities of installing renewable energy solutions on university campuses
might be better understood by carefully analyzing and evaluating energy consumption
patterns, peak demand times, and infrastructure requirements. Additionally, by concen-
trating on a particular university campus, the study makes it possible to conduct a more
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376
contextually relevant and localized analysis, which facilitates useful suggestions9 ofand
31

methods for improving sustainability and energy efficiency in the academic setting.

Figure1.1.Kangwon
Figure KangwonNational
NationalUniversity
UniversitySamcheok
SamcheokCampus.
Campus.

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Modeling aa Solar–Hydrogen
Solar–HydrogenSystem
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theUniversity
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4.1. Designing Energy Management System Model
4.1. Designing Energy Management System Model
In
Inorder
ordertotoprovide
provideeffective
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sustainableenergy
energygeneration,
generation,storage,
storage,and distribu-
and distri-
tion, a microgrid with EMS (energy management system) Optimization for
bution, a microgrid with EMS (energy management system) Optimization for solar–hy- solar–hydrogen
utilizing SimulinkSimulink
drogen utilizing Matlab requires the integration
Matlab requires and synchronization
the integration of numerous
and synchronization com-
of numer-
ponents (Figure 2). The utility point-of-connection, which acts as the bidirectional
ous components (Figure 2). The utility point-of-connection, which acts as the bidirectional energy
exchange link between
energy exchange the microgrid
link between and the
the microgrid andexternal power
the external grid,grid,
power is its fundamental
is its fundamen-
component.
tal component. The dynamic energy demands inside the microgrid are representedby
The dynamic energy demands inside the microgrid are represented bythe
the
variable load component, which varies over time. This allows it to simulate real-world
variable load component, which varies over time. This allows it to simulate real-world
scenarios such as varying loads from different sources or peak demand periods. The ap-
scenarios such as varying loads from different sources or peak demand periods. The ap-
pliances and electronics that consume electricity inside the microgrid and add to the total
pliances and electronics that consume electricity inside the microgrid and add to the total
amount of energy consumed are represented by the load component. The hybrid hydrogen
amount of energy consumed are represented by the load component. The hybrid hydro-
system includes storage tanks and electrolyzers for producing hydrogen. This allows excess
gen system includes storage tanks and electrolyzers for producing hydrogen. This allows
renewable energy—especially from solar arrays—to be electrolyzed into hydrogen. In a
excess renewable energy—especially from solar arrays—to be electrolyzed into hydrogen.
similar vein, the Solar Array component stands for the photovoltaic panels that capture
In a similar vein, the Solar Array component stands for the photovoltaic panels that cap-
solar radiation and transform it into electrical energy that can either directly power the
ture solar radiation and transform it into electrical energy that can either directly power
load, charge the Energy Storage System (ESS), or help produce hydrogen. Lastly, the
the load, charge the Energy Storage System (ESS), or help produce hydrogen. Lastly, the
energy storage system, which is usually made up of batteries, stores extra energy produced
energy storage system, which is usually made up of batteries, stores extra energy
by renewable sources for use at times when demand is at its highest or production is at
its lowest. One of the most important components of the microgrid design is the EMS
Optimization algorithm, which constantly analyzes and optimizes the performance of
these components based on variables including energy demand, availability of renewable
energy, and grid conditions. Engineers may improve control techniques, maximize energy
usage, and guarantee the dependable and effective functioning of the microgrid with EMS
Optimization for solar–hydrogen through simulation and analysis in Simulink Matlab. This
helps to create a more resilient and sustainable energy infrastructure.
Several interconnected components are used in the design of a Simulink Matlab hybrid
solar–hydrogen system to enable effective energy conversion, storage, and consumption
(Figure 3). Its central component is the solar array, which uses photovoltaic technology to
capture sunlight and transform it into electrical energy. This electricity can be stored in the
Energy Storage Unit, used immediately to power loads, or directed toward the Electrolysis
Unit to produce hydrogen. Using electrical energy, the Electrolysis Unit separates water
into hydrogen and oxygen, storing the hydrogen for later use. When demand outpaces
supply, energy storage serves as a buffer, storing extra energy from hydrogen synthesis
and solar generation. The system’s smooth and stable operation is guaranteed by the Gate
Driver and Voltage Regulator, which regulate the energy transfer between parts and keep
voltage levels within ideal bounds. The solar array, energy storage, and electrolysis unit’s
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 10 of 31

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 10 of 32

DC electricity is converted by the inverter into AC electricity that can be connected to a

load or the grid. Real-time measurement of system parameters, including voltage, current,
produced
and powerby renewable
output, sources
is made for by
possible usethe
at times when and
monitoring demand is at mechanisms
feedback its highest orprovided
produc-
tion is at its lowest. One of the most important components of the microgrid
by the measurement grid and measurement inverter components. Engineers can simulate design is the
EMS Optimization
different operatingalgorithm,
situations,which
modelconstantly analyzes
the interactions and optimizes
between the performance
these components, and
of these components
improve based onfor
system performance variables
optimalincluding
efficiencyenergy demand,using
and reliability availability of renew-
Simulink Matlab
able energy,
R2022b. and grid
Utilizing bothconditions.
renewableEngineers may improve
and hydrogen control
technologies techniques,
to meet energy maximize
demands
energy usage, and guarantee the dependable and effective functioning
while lowering carbon emissions and fostering energy independence, the of the microgrid
hybrid solar–
with EMS Optimization
hydrogen system designfor solar–hydrogen
offers a flexible andthrough simulation
sustainable andto
solution analysis
energyingeneration
Simulink
Matlab. This helps to create a more resilient and sustainable energy infrastructure.
and storage.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 11 of 32

technologies to meet energy demands while lowering carbon emissions and fostering en-
ergy independence, the hybrid solar–hydrogen system design offers a flexible and sus-
tainable solution to energy generation and storage.
Figure 2. Microgrid with EMS Optimization for solar–hydrogen.
Figure 2. Microgrid with EMS Optimization for solar–hydrogen.

Several interconnected components are used in the design of a Simulink Matlab hy-
brid solar–hydrogen system to enable effective energy conversion, storage, and consump-
tion (Figure 3). Its central component is the solar array, which uses photovoltaic technol-
ogy to capture sunlight and transform it into electrical energy. This electricity can be
stored in the Energy Storage Unit, used immediately to power loads, or directed toward
the Electrolysis Unit to produce hydrogen. Using electrical energy, the Electrolysis Unit
separates water into hydrogen and oxygen, storing the hydrogen for later use. When de-
mand outpaces supply, energy storage serves as a buffer, storing extra energy from hy-
drogen synthesis and solar generation. The system’s smooth and stable operation is guar-
anteed by the Gate Driver and Voltage Regulator, which regulate the energy transfer be-
tween parts and keep voltage levels within ideal bounds. The solar array, energy storage,
and electrolysis unit’s DC electricity is converted by the inverter into AC electricity that
can be connected to a load or the grid. Real-time measurement of system parameters, in-
Figure3.3.Hybrid
Figure Hybridsolar–hydrogen.
solar–hydrogen.
cluding voltage, current, and power output, is made possible by the monitoring and feed-
back mechanisms
Several partsprovided by the
are included measurement
in the grid and
Simulink Matlab measurement
design inverter
of an energy storagecompo-
system
nents. Engineers
with the goal ofcan simulatecontrolling
effectively different operating situations,
energy flow, model
storage, and the interactions
usage. The State be-of
tween these components, and improve system performance for optimal efficiency
Charge (SOC) parameter, which represents the battery system’s current level of charge and re-as
liability using Simulink Matlab R2022b. Utilizing both renewable and hydrogen
a percentage of its entire capacity, is the essential component of this design (Figure 4). The
charge that is kept in the battery, or Qbat, is constantly changed in response to the opera-
tions of charging and discharging. To ensure ideal charging and discharging rates, the
DC–DC converter component controls the energy flow between the battery and external
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 11 of 31

Several parts are included in the Simulink Matlab design of an energy storage system
with the goal of effectively controlling energy flow, storage, and usage. The State of
Charge (SOC) parameter, which represents the battery system’s current level of charge
as a percentage of its entire capacity, is the essential component of this design (Figure 4).
The charge that is kept in the battery, or Qbat, is constantly changed in response to the
operations of charging and discharging. To ensure ideal charging and discharging rates, the
DC–DC converter component controls the energy flow between the battery and external
sources, such as solar panels or the grid. The actual battery acts as the storage medium,
holding electrical energy in reserve for eventual use and releasing it as needed. The battery
system’s current and voltage levels are represented by the visStorage.i and visStorage.v
parameters, which offer information on how well the system is working. Lastly, the voltage
level between the battery terminals is indicated by visStorage.vBatt. Engineers can simulate
different operating situations, describe the interactions between these components, and
optimize the system’s performance in terms of longevity, efficiency, and dependability
using Simulink Matlab. Demand response capabilities in a variety of applications, the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 12 of 32
integration of renewable energy sources, grid stability, and the efficient management of
energy resources are all made possible by this design of the energy storage system.

Figure 4. Energy storage.

Figure 4. Energy storage.
4.2. Simulation Result
4.2.In order to simulate
Simulation Result the dynamic behavior of a solar–hydrogen system using Simulink
MATLAB, a number of components, including SOC, PSolar, PStorage, PElectrolyzer, and
In order to simulate the dynamic behavior of a solar–hydrogen system using Sim-
mH2, must be integrated. The representation of solar power generation (PSolar), which is
ulink MATLAB, a number of components, including SOC, PSolar, PStorage, PElectrolyzer,
based on solar irradiance levels and panel properties, is at the center of the simulation. Next,
andelectrical
this mH2, must power beisintegrated.
put to use The representation
in a variety of ways,ofsuch
solar
as power
powering generation (PSolar),
the electrolyzer
which is based on solar irradiance levels and panel properties,
(PElectrolyzer) to create hydrogen and charging energy storage devices (PStorage) is at the center of thelike
sim-
ulation. Next, this electrical power is put to use in a variety of ways,
batteries. As energy is stored or released, the energy storage system’s State of Charge such as powering the
electrolyzer
(SOC), (PElectrolyzer)
which dynamically to create
adjusts, hydrogen
indicates and charging
the quantity of energy energy
that isstorage
accessibledevices
for
usage. The mass of hydrogen created throughout the hydrogen generation processState
(PStorage) like batteries. As energy is stored or released, the energy storage system’s is
of Charge (SOC),
represented by mH2, which dynamically
which adjusts, indicates
further influences the quantity
the dynamics of energy
of the system as athat is ac-
whole.
cessiblethe
Through foruse
usage. The mass
of Simulink of hydrogen
simulations, created are
engineers throughout the hydrogen
able to examine generation
the functionality,
process is represented
effectiveness, by mH2,
and interplay of thewhich further influences
solar–hydrogen system the
in adynamics
variety ofofscenarios.
the systemThe as a
whole. Through
development the usealgorithms
of control of Simulink forsimulations, engineers are
energy management, the able to examine
optimization of the func-
system
tionality,
design effectiveness,
parameters, andassessment
and the interplay ofofthe thesolar–hydrogen systemand
overall sustainability in a reliability
variety of ofscenar-
the
system are all made easier by this simulation. Engineers can improve solar–hydrogenof
ios. The development of control algorithms for energy management, the optimization
system design parameters, and the assessment of the overall sustainability and reliability
of the system are all made easier by this simulation. Engineers can improve solar–hydro-
gen system designs for maximum performance and to forward the development of clean
energy technologies by using extensive simulation (Figure 5).
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 12 of 31

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 system designs for maximum performance and to forward the development of clean13
energy
of 32
technologies by using extensive simulation (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Performance results of SOC, PSolar, PStorage, PElectrolyzer, and mH2.

Figure 5. Performance results of SOC, PSolar, PStorage, PElectrolyzer, and mH2.

When
When simulating
simulating an an energy
energy storage
storage system
system using
using Simulink
Simulink Matlab,
Matlab, setting
setting thethe initial
initial
State
State of
of Charge
Charge (SOC)
(SOC) to to 100%
100% is is more
more commonly
commonly aa modeling
modeling convention
convention than than anan accurate
accurate
depiction
depiction of of the
the system.
system. For For simplicity’s
simplicity’s sake sake and
and to
to show
show that
that the
the battery
battery isis completely
completely
charged at the start of the simulation, many simulations begin
charged at the start of the simulation, many simulations begin with a SOC of 100%. with a SOC of 100%. AsAs aa
result, the starting circumstances are made simpler, and the simulation can start with the
battery fully
fullycharged
chargedand andprepared
prepared to provide
to provide energy
energy when when needed.
needed. However,
However, in real-
in real-world
world scenarios,
scenarios, a battery’s
a battery’s initialofState
initial State Chargeof Charge (SOC)change
(SOC) could could change
based on based on itspattern,
its usage usage
pattern, level of charging,
level of charging, and externalandfactors.
externalInfactors. In real-world
real-world situations, situations,
batteries mightbatteries might
not always
not
startalways start completely
completely charged since charged
they since
mighttheyhave might have self-depleted
self-depleted over timeover timepartially
or been or been
partially
discharged discharged
during priorduring prior
usage usage As
cycles. cycles. As a even
a result, result,while
even simulations
while simulations fre-
frequently
quently employ the starting SOC value of 100% for simplicity, it is crucial
employ the starting SOC value of 100% for simplicity, it is crucial to understand that actual to understand
that actual
battery battery
systems maysystems may have
have varied varied
initial SOCinitial
valuesSOC values depending
depending on their uniqueon their unique
operating
conditionsconditions
operating and past. More realistic
and past. More simulations of battery behavior
realistic simulations of batteryandbehavior
system performance
and system
can be achieved
performance canbybechanging
achievedthe by starting
changing SOC
the value to reflect
starting actual
SOC value toconditions.
reflect actual condi-
tions.A dynamic relationship between solar power intake and energy storage levels is indi-
catedAby the analytical
dynamic findings
relationship of PSolar
between and
solar SOC (State
power intakeof Charge)
and energy(Figure
storage 6).levels
Beginning
is in-
with a SOC of 100, the SOC progressively drops to 75, while
dicated by the analytical findings of PSolar and SOC (State of Charge) (Figure 6). PSolar fluctuates between
Begin-
230 and
ning with 250. Thisof
a SOC drop
100,intheSOCSOC illustrates how the
progressively system
drops may
to 75, adjust
while to shifting
PSolar fluctuatesenergy
be-
generating
tween conditions
230 and 250. Thisby using
drop stored
in SOCenergy in response
illustrates how the to system
fluctuatingmaysolar
adjustpower inputs.
to shifting
energyThere is a correlation
generating conditionsbetween solar power
by using stored generation
energy in and energytostorage,
response fluctuatingaccording
solar
to the analysis
power inputs. of PSolar and PStorage, where PSolar ranges from 230 to 250 and PStorage
from −10 to −2 (Figure 7). Higher energy storage rates at times of excess solar power
generation are indicated by PStorage becoming more negative as PSolar increases. In
contrast, PStorage tends to be less negative or even positive when PSolar drops, indicating
the release of stored energy to satisfy demand.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 1413of
of 32
31

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 15 of 32

Figure 6. Performance results of SOC and PSolar.
Figure 6. Performance results of SOC and PSolar.

There is a correlation between solar power generation and energy storage, according
to the analysis of PSolar and PStorage, where PSolar ranges from 230 to 250 and PStorage
from −10 to −2 (Figure 7). Higher energy storage rates at times of excess solar power gen-
eration are indicated by PStorage becoming more negative as PSolar increases. In contrast,
PStorage tends to be less negative or even positive when PSolar drops, indicating the re-
lease of stored energy to satisfy demand.
The analysis of PSolar (solar power generation) and PStorage (energy storage)
demonstrates the relationship between solar power generation and energy storage. The
band of 230 to 250 is where PSolar swings, showing changes in solar power output over
time. On the other hand, PStorage, which reflects variations in the system’s energy storage
levels, spans from −10 to −2. Higher energy storage rates are shown to correspond with
times when solar power generation is above average, according to the data. The fact that
PStorage becomes more negative as PSolar rises serves as evidence for this. The energy
storage system stores excess energy when solar power generation exceeds immediate
needs, which causes PStorage to further drop into the negative zone. By properly captur-
ing excess solar energy for future consumption, this negative figure indicates the quantity
of energy being stored for later use. On the other hand, PStorage tends to be less negative
or even positive during times of decreased solar power generation or increased energy
demand. This may indicate that the energy storage device is releasing stored energy to
satisfy present energy needs. The stored energy is used to make up the difference when
PSolar falls, indicating a decline in the availability of solar power, or when demand ex-
ceeds solar generation. As a result, PStorage values become less negative or positive. The
dynamic interplay between the system’s energy storage and solar power generation is re-
flected in the correlation between PSolar and PStorage. More negative PStorage values
Figure 7. Performance results of PSolar and PStorage.
7. Performance
Figure from
result results
the storage of PSolar
of energy forand PStorage.
later use during periods of surplus solar output. On
the other hand, stored energy is released to satisfy demand when solar generation is lim-
The analysis of
Thedemand
analysis shows
PSolarthe energy
(solar balance
power between solar
generation) power(energy
usage and electrolyzer
ited or exceeds generation, which results and PStorage
in less negative storage)
or positive demon-
PStorage
operation
strates the by looking at PSolar and PElectrolyzer, with PSolar ranging from 230 to 250 and
values. Thisrelationship between
link emphasizes how solar power
crucial generation
energy storageand energy
is for storage.grid
improving Thestability,
band of
PElectrolyzer
230 to 250 is going
where from
PSolar 179 to
swings, 195 (Figure
showing 8). PElectrolyzer
changes in solar values
power rise
output as PSolar
over time.rises
On
maximizing energy use, and balancing supply and demand in renewable energy systems.
because more energy is available for electrolysis. On the other hand, lower PSolar inputs
lead to lower PElectrolyzer values, which indicate a drop in the energy available to pro-
duce hydrogen.
The analysis of PSolar (solar power generation) and PElectrolyzer (energy consump-
tion by the electrolyzer) reveals the energy balance link between solar power usage and
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 14 of 31

the other hand, PStorage, which reflects variations in the system’s energy storage levels,
spans from −10 to −2. Higher energy storage rates are shown to correspond with times
when solar power generation is above average, according to the data. The fact that PStorage
becomes more negative as PSolar rises serves as evidence for this. The energy storage
system stores excess energy when solar power generation exceeds immediate needs, which
causes PStorage to further drop into the negative zone. By properly capturing excess solar
energy for future consumption, this negative figure indicates the quantity of energy being
stored for later use. On the other hand, PStorage tends to be less negative or even positive
during times of decreased solar power generation or increased energy demand. This may
indicate that the energy storage device is releasing stored energy to satisfy present energy
needs. The stored energy is used to make up the difference when PSolar falls, indicating a
decline in the availability of solar power, or when demand exceeds solar generation. As a
result, PStorage values become less negative or positive. The dynamic interplay between
the system’s energy storage and solar power generation is reflected in the correlation
between PSolar and PStorage. More negative PStorage values result from the storage of
energy for later use during periods of surplus solar output. On the other hand, stored
energy is released to satisfy demand when solar generation is limited or demand exceeds
generation, which results in less negative or positive PStorage values. This link emphasizes
how crucial energy storage is for improving grid stability, maximizing energy use, and
balancing supply and demand in renewable energy systems.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 The analysis shows the energy balance between solar power usage and electrolyzer 16 of 32
operation by looking at PSolar and PElectrolyzer, with PSolar ranging from 230 to 250
and PElectrolyzer going from 179 to 195 (Figure 8). PElectrolyzer values rise as PSolar
rises because
hydrogen more energy
produced. is available
In order to enhanceforthe
electrolysis.
efficiency of On the otherproduction,
hydrogen hand, lowerit PSolar
is cru-
inputs lead to lower PElectrolyzer values, which indicate a drop in the energy available
cial to optimize solar power generation, which emphasizes the significance of solar power to
produce hydrogen.
as the principal energy source for electrolyzer operation in hydrogen production systems.

Figure 8. Performance results of PSolar and PElectrolyzer.

Figure 8. Performance results of PSolar and PElectrolyzer.

The analysis of PStorage and PElectrolyzer, which have ranges of −10 to −2 and 179
to 195, respectively, shows how energy storage and electrolyzer operation interact (Figure
9). A greater rate of hydrogen synthesis during times of surplus energy storage is indi-
cated by larger negative values of PStorage and increased PElectrolyzer values. On the
other hand, PElectrolyzer values often decline when PStorage becomes less positive or
negative, indicating lower rates of hydrogen synthesis as a result of lower energy storage
levels.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 15 of 31

The analysis of PSolar (solar power generation) and PElectrolyzer (energy consump-
tion by the electrolyzer) reveals the energy balance link between solar power usage and
electrolyzer operation. The solar power output is represented by PSolar, which varies
between 230 and 250, and PElectrolyzer, which varies between 179 and 195, which is the en-
ergy used by the electrolyzer to produce hydrogen. According to the analysis, PElectrolyzer
values increase in tandem with PSolar, which is a measure of solar power generation. This
positive association suggests that when solar power generation is abundant, more energy
becomes accessible for electrolysis. The electrolyzer can function more effectively with
additional solar input, using the extra energy to electrolyze hydrogen. PElectrolyzer values
thus tend to rise during times of increasing solar power generation, indicating greater
energy availability for the creation of hydrogen. On the other hand, PElectrolyzer values
typically decline in tandem with a decrease in PSolar, which indicates a decrease in solar
power output. This inverse relationship means that when solar input is reduced, there is
less energy available for electrolysis. PElectrolyzer reflects decreased energy consumption
numbers as a result of the electrolyzer receiving less energy to support hydrogen produc-
tion when solar power generation is lowered. The fall in PElectrolyzer values highlights
the reliance of the electrolyzer’s functioning on solar power generation levels, as it signifies
a reduction in the energy accessible for hydrogen production. The relationship between
PSolar and PElectrolyzer illustrates how solar power generation and electrolyzer opera-
tion are directly correlated in the analysis. Increased energy availability for electrolysis is
correlated with higher PSolar values, which raise PElectrolyzer values and improve hydro-
gen production. On the other hand, lower PSolar inputs mean less energy available for
electrolysis, which in turn means lower PElectrolyzer values and less hydrogen produced.
In order to enhance the efficiency of hydrogen production, it is crucial to optimize solar
power generation, which emphasizes the significance of solar power as the principal energy
source for electrolyzer operation in hydrogen production systems.
The analysis of PStorage and PElectrolyzer, which have ranges of −10 to −2 and 179 to
195, respectively, shows how energy storage and electrolyzer operation interact (Figure 9).
A greater rate of hydrogen synthesis during times of surplus energy storage is indicated
by larger negative values of PStorage and increased PElectrolyzer values. On the other
hand, PElectrolyzer values often decline when PStorage becomes less positive or negative,
indicating lower rates of hydrogen synthesis as a result of lower energy storage levels.
The comparison of PStorage (energy storage) and PElectrolyzer (energy consumption
by the electrolyzer) demonstrates the relationship between energy storage and electrolyzer
operation. PElectrolyzer, which indicates the energy used by the electrolyzer to produce
hydrogen, ranges from 179 to 195, while PStorage, which shows fluctuations in the energy
storage levels within the system, runs from −10 to −2. Larger negative values of PStorage
and higher PElectrolyzer values, which indicate periods of excess energy storage, are indica-
tive of a higher rate of hydrogen synthesis, according to the analysis. PStorage indicates a
higher level of energy storage and more energy available for producing hydrogen when it
shows more negative values. As a result, the electrolyzer may function more effectively,
which raises PElectrolyzer values and increases energy consumption. This association im-
plies that higher rates of hydrogen synthesis through electrolysis are a result of the system’s
energy surplus being stored. PElectrolyzer readings frequently decrease when PStorage
becomes less positive or negative, indicating reduced quantities of energy storage. Lower
rates of hydrogen synthesis come from this dip in PElectrolyzer values, which indicates a
decrease in the energy available for electrolysis. There is less excess energy available for the
electrolyzer to use in the synthesis of hydrogen when energy storage levels are lowered. As
a result, PElectrolyzer values drop, which indicates that the electrolyzer is using less energy
and that hydrogen synthesis rates are also declining. The analysis highlights how energy
storage and electrolyzer operation in hydrogen generation systems interact dynamically.
When there is excess energy storage, higher rates of hydrogen synthesis take place, which
causes the electrolyzer to need more energy. On the other hand, lower levels of energy
storage lead to lower rates of hydrogen synthesis, which is reflected in the electrolyzer’s
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 17 of 32

declining. The analysis highlights how energy storage and electrolyzer operation in hy-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 16 of 31
drogen generation systems interact dynamically. When there is excess energy storage,
higher rates of hydrogen synthesis take place, which causes the electrolyzer to need more
energy. On the other hand, lower levels of energy storage lead to lower rates of hydrogen
lower energy
synthesis, consumption.
which Thisinknowledge
is reflected emphasizes
the electrolyzer’s howenergy
lower crucial energy storage This
consumption. is to
enabling effective electrolyzer operation and maximizing hydrogen production
knowledge emphasizes how crucial energy storage is to enabling effective electrolyzerrates in
renewable energy systems.
operation and maximizing hydrogen production rates in renewable energy systems.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Performance
Performance results
results of
of PStorage
PStorage and
and PElectrolyzer.
PElectrolyzer.

This investigation examines the link between between electrolyzer

electrolyzer power
power consumption
consumption and
hydrogen mass massflow flowrateratebybyexamining
examining PElectrolyzer
PElectrolyzer andand
mH2. PElectrolyzer
mH2. ranges
PElectrolyzer from
ranges
179 to179
from 195,towhereas
195, whereasmH2 mH2 decreases from from
decreases 0 to 99 (Figure
0 to 10). More
99 (Figure rates rates
10). More of hydrogen
of hydrogengen-
eration are are
generation reflected
reflectedin in
mH2,mH2, which
which tends
tendstotogrow
growasasPElectrolyzer
PElectrolyzerincreases,
increases, indicating
more energy input input forforelectrolysis.
electrolysis.On Onthe
the other
other hand,
hand, mH2mH2 drops
drops in proportion
in proportion to ato a
fall
fall in PElectrolyzer, indicating a direct relationship between the
in PElectrolyzer, indicating a direct relationship between the creation of hydrogen and creation of hydrogen
and electrolyzer
electrolyzer power power consumption.
consumption. All things
All things considered,
considered, the examination
the examination of theseoffactors
these
factors within
within the the framework
framework of a solar–hydrogen
of a solar–hydrogen storagestorage
system system emphasizes
emphasizes how energyhow energy
is gen-
is generated,
erated, stored, stored, and used
and used in a in a dynamic
dynamic manner,
manner, underscoring
underscoring the the system’s
system’s flexibility
flexibility in
in responding
responding to to changing
changing environmental
environmental circumstances
circumstances andand energy
energy requirements.
requirements.
PElectrolyzer, or the the electrolyzer’s
electrolyzer’s energy consumption, and mH2, or the hydrogen
mass
mass flow rate, are used toto
flow rate, are used analyze
analyze thethe relationship
relationship between
between the the electrolyzer’s
electrolyzer’s powerpower
con-
consumption and the rate at which hydrogen is produced.
sumption and the rate at which hydrogen is produced. While mH2 drops from 0 to 99, While mH2 drops from 0
to 99, indicating
indicating changes changes
in the in ratethe
of rate of hydrogen
hydrogen generationgeneration overPElectrolyzer
over time, time, PElectrolyzer
ranges
ranges
from 179 from 179 demonstrating
to 195, to 195, demonstrating fluctuations
fluctuations in the energy
in the energy spent byspent by the electrolyzer
the electrolyzer during
during
hydrogen hydrogen
production. production.
According According to the investigation,
to the investigation, mH2, whichmH2, which
tends tendsas
to climb toPElec-
climb
as PElectrolyzer values rise, reflects higher rates of hydrogen creation.
trolyzer values rise, reflects higher rates of hydrogen creation. This positive correlation This positive
correlation
means that means that more
more energy energy
is used for is used for electrolysis,
electrolysis, which raises which raisesatthe
the rates rateshydrogen
which at which
hydrogen is produced. PElectrolyzer values tend to rise with increased electrolyzer energy
consumption, and mH2 values tend to rise with increased rates of hydrogen synthesis. A
direct correlation between hydrogen generation and electrolyzer power consumption is
shown by the fact that mH2 values decrease in proportion to a decrease in PElectrolyzer. As
 is produced. PElectrolyzer values tend to rise with increased electrolyzer energy con-
sumption, and mH2 values tend to rise with increased rates of hydrogen synthesis. A di-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 rect correlation between hydrogen generation and electrolyzer power consumption 17 of is
31
shown by the fact that mH2 values decrease in proportion to a decrease in PElectrolyzer.
As PElectrolyzer falls, indicating a lower energy input for electrolysis, mH2 values fall as
PElectrolyzer
well, falls,
indicating indicating
a dip in the arates
lower
at energy
which input for electrolysis,
hydrogen is generated.mH2 Thevalues fall as well,
dependence of
indicating production
hydrogen a dip in the on
rates
theatenergy
which used
hydrogen is electrolyzer
by the generated. The dependenceby
is highlighted of this
hydrogen
nega-
production
tive on theThis
correlation. energy used
study by the electrolyzer
illustrates is highlighted
the interplay by thisproduction,
between energy negative correlation.
storage,
This study illustrates
and consumption in the interplay between energy production, storage, and
context of a solar–hydrogen storage system. The dynamic linkconsumption
in the context
between of a solar–hydrogen
PElectrolyzer, mH2, and storage
hydrogensystem. The dynamic
generation linkhow
highlights between PElectrolyzer,
adaptable the sys-
mH2, and hydrogen generation highlights how adaptable the system
tem is to shifting energy needs and environmental conditions. Through comprehensionis to shifting energy
needs
and and environmental
enhancement of theseconditions. Through
variables, the comprehension
solar–hydrogen andsystem
storage enhancement of these
may effectively
variables,store,
produce, the solar–hydrogen
and employ energy, storage system
hence may effectively
augmenting produce,
sustainability andstore, and employ
resilience within
energy, hence
energy systems. augmenting sustainability and resilience within energy systems.

Figure 10. Performance results of PElectrolyzer and mH2.

Figure 10. Performance results of PElectrolyzer and mH2.

The dynamic behavior of a solar–hydrogen storage system can be understood by an

examination of the State of of Charge
Charge (SOC)
(SOC) and
and hydrogen
hydrogen mass mass flow
flow rate
rate(mH2)
(mH2)(Figure
(Figure11).
11).
The SOC drops from 100 to 75 over time, suggesting a progressive loss of energy storage
capacity. The
Theuse useofofstored
storedenergy
energy to to
meet
meetenergy
energydemand
demand or offset variations
or offset in theinpro-
variations the
duction
productionof renewable
of renewable energy is reflected
energy in this
is reflected in fall
thisinfall
SOC. The system’s
in SOC. capacity
The system’s to store
capacity to
energy declines
store energy with SOC,
declines with which may call
SOC, which mayforcall
modifications to energy
for modifications management
to energy tactics
management
in order
tactics into preserve
order systemsystem
to preserve performance and dependability.
performance and dependability.
The rate of hydrogen synthesis increases in tandem with the increase in mH2, which
Higher amounts
rises from 0 to 99. Higher amounts of of hydrogen
hydrogen synthesis
synthesis by electrolysis are shown by the
growing mH2 readings, which are a result of the energy input and operating parameters
of the system. The The system
system maymay prioritize
prioritize hydrogen
hydrogen synthesis
synthesis to to store
store excess energy for
to fulfill
later use or to fulfill current
current energy
energy demand
demand as as renewable
renewable energy
energy supply
supply varies and
and energy
energy
decreasing SOC).
storage is depleted (reflected in decreasing SOC). TheThe analysis
analysis emphasizes
emphasizes how
how thethesolar–
solar–
system’s energy
hydrogen storage system’s energy storage
storage and
andhydrogen
hydrogengeneration
generationinteract
interactdynamically.
dynamically.
SOC values that are declining indicate that stored energy is being used, whereas mH2
values that are rising indicate increased hydrogen production to meet fluctuating energy
needs. The system may efficiently balance energy supply and demand, maximize energy
usage, and improve overall system resilience and performance by comprehending and
optimizing these dynamics.
 SOC values that are declining indicate that stored energy is being used, whereas mH2
values that are rising indicate increased hydrogen production to meet fluctuating energy
needs. The system may efficiently balance energy supply and demand, maximize energy
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 18 of 31
usage, and improve overall system resilience and performance by comprehending and
optimizing these dynamics.

Figure 11. Performance results of SOC and mH2.

Figure 11. Performance results of SOC and mH2.

Several
Several important
important conclusions
conclusions maymay be be made
made fromfrom thethe analysis
analysis ofof the
the solar–hydrogen
solar–hydrogen
storage system variables:
storage system variables:
•• Energy
Energy Management
Management Flexibility:
Flexibility: As
As seen
seen byby the
the changes
changes in inSOC,
SOC,PStorage,
PStorage,andandPElec-
PElec-
trolyzer
trolyzer in response to variations in PSolar, the system demonstrates flexibility in
in response to variations in PSolar, the system demonstrates flexibility in
controlling
controlling energy
energy inputs
inputsandandoutputs.
outputs.This Thisadaptability
adaptability enables
enableseffective useuse
effective of re-
of
newable
renewable energy
energysources
sources and
andconditions
conditions forfor
energy
energy generation
generation totochange.
change.
•• Optimal
Optimal Energy
Energy Utilization:
Utilization: TheThe link
link between
between PElectrolyzer,
PElectrolyzer, PStorage,
PStorage, andand PSolar
PSolar
shows
shows how
how best
best to
touse
useenergy
energyininthe
thesystem.
system.InIntimestimes ofof
plentiful
plentiful solar power
solar powergener-
gen-
ation, higher
eration, higherPSolar
PSolarvalues
valuesensure
ensureefficient
efficientstorage
storageofofexcess
excessenergy
energy and
and hydrogen
production through improved energy storage and electrolyzer electrolyzer operation.
operation.
•• Balanced
Balanced Energy Storage and Production: Energy storage and hydrogen generation
have a balanced
balancedrelationship,
relationship,asasshown
shown byby thethe analysis
analysis of PStorage,
of PStorage, PElectrolyzer,
PElectrolyzer, and
and
mH2. mH2. PElectrolyzer
PElectrolyzer and mH2
and mH2 rise inrise in tandem
tandem with higher
with higher PStorage
PStorage values,values, sug-
suggesting
gesting
effectiveeffective
conversionconversion
of storedof energy
stored energy into hydrogen.
into hydrogen. This equilibrium
This equilibrium pre-
preserves
sufficient
serves energyenergy
sufficient reserves while guaranteeing
reserves while guaranteeing steady steady
hydrogen generation.
hydrogen generation.
•• Dynamic Response
Dynamic Response to to Demand:
Demand: The The system
system has has the
the ability
ability to adapt dynamically
dynamically to
changes in energy consumption.
changes consumption. Variations
Variations in in SOC,
SOC, PStorage,
PStorage, andand mH2
mH2 show
show how
how
the system can adapt energy storage capacities capacities and hydrogen production production rates
rates to
changing energy needs, guaranteeing a consistent and sustainable energy supply. supply.
•• Efficiency Optimization Opportunities: The analysis’s findings
Efficiency findings offer
offer perceptions
perceptions into
possible avenues
avenues for enhancing
enhancing system
system effectiveness.
effectiveness. The The energy
energy storage
storage capacity,
capacity,
electrolyzer efficiency, control techniques, and other factors can be adjusted to optimize
the system’s performance and make the most use of renewable energy sources.
The robustness, adaptability, and efficiency of the solar–hydrogen storage system in
controlling the generation, storage, and use of renewable energy are highlighted by the
analysis of the system’s variables. These realizations can direct additional improvements in
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 19 of 31

operational tactics, control algorithms, and system architecture to produce energy solutions
that are both affordable and sustainable.

5. Future Prospects
5.1. The Development of AIoT (Artificial Intelligence of Things)
Particularly in the context of hydrogen systems, the growing solar–hydrogen storage
system offers a substantial opportunity for integration with AIoT (Artificial Intelligence of
Things). As a flexible and sustainable energy source, hydrogen has enormous potential to
decarbonize a number of industries and sectors, including power generation, transportation,
and industry. However, sophisticated monitoring, control, and optimization mechanisms—
which can be made possible by AIoT technologies—are needed for the effective production,
storage, and use of hydrogen.
Using AIoT to monitor and regulate hydrogen production processes in real-time within
solar–hydrogen storage systems is one of the main prospects. AIoT makes it possible to
continuously monitor important parameters, including solar irradiance, electrolyzer per-
formance, and hydrogen production rates, by combining sensors, actuators, and cognitive
algorithms. In response to changing solar conditions and energy demands, machine learn-
ing algorithms may analyze streaming data from these sensors to identify abnormalities,
increase hydrogen production efficiency, and optimize electrolyzer operation.
AIoT also makes it easier to detect faults and perform predictive maintenance on
the infrastructure used in the generation of hydrogen, which improves system uptime
and dependability. Artificial intelligence (AI)-driven algorithms can forecast equipment
failures, detect maintenance needs, and schedule preemptive interventions to avoid ex-
pensive downtime and production disruptions by evaluating previous data and sensor
inputs. Predictive maintenance reduces operating risks, increases equipment longevity,
and guarantees continuous hydrogen supply—all of which are essential for facilitating the
broad use of hydrogen technologies.
Moreover, AIoT integrates hydrogen production, storage, and use with other energy
assets like solar PV arrays, batteries, and grid connections to provide intelligent energy
management and optimization techniques for solar–hydrogen storage systems. AI algo-
rithms can maximize system efficiency and financial gains by optimizing energy flow,
storage, and conversion processes depending on user choices, grid limits, and real-time
energy pricing. AIoT-driven energy management provides optimal resource utilization and
cost savings while supporting grid stability and renewable energy integration. It does this
by dynamically altering energy storage levels, hydrogen production rates, and demand
response actions.
AIoT also makes data-driven insights and decision-making easier, which promotes
innovation and ongoing improvement in the design and operation of hydrogen systems.
Large records produced by solar–hydrogen storage systems can be analyzed by sophis-
ticated analytics tools to find trends, patterns, and optimization opportunities. These
insights expedite the development of more effective and scalable hydrogen solutions,
promote performance gains, and inform strategic decision-making. AI-driven modeling
and simulations also make it possible to virtually evaluate operational scenarios, control
algorithms, and system configurations, which lowers development costs and speeds up the
time it takes for new hydrogen solutions to reach the market. In order to produce, store,
and use hydrogen at new levels of efficiency, sustainability, and dependability, the growing
solar–hydrogen storage system offers a strong opportunity for AIoT integration. Hydrogen
systems may overcome technological obstacles, improve operational resilience, and hasten
the shift to clean energy by utilizing AI-driven monitoring, control, and optimization.
Furthermore, breakthrough developments in hydrogen technology are made possible by
AIoT-driven insights and innovation, establishing hydrogen as a crucial component of the
global energy transition to a low-carbon economy.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 20 of 31

Table 3 presents various intriguing prospects based on the examination of the solar–
hydrogen storage system and the future development of AIoT (Artificial Intelligence
of Things).

Table 3. Promising prospects for emerging the AIoT for hydrogen systems.

No Prospects Description
The energy management capabilities of solar–hydrogen storage systems can be greatly improved
by integrating AIoT technologies. In order to optimize energy generation, storage, and
Enhanced Energy distribution depending on dynamic environmental conditions, energy demand, and user
1 Management with preferences, artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms can assess real-time data from a variety of
AIoT Integration sensors and devices. Predictive maintenance, defect detection, and adaptive control strategies are
made possible by this integration, which raises the overall effectiveness and dependability of the
system.
Advanced forecasting models can be used by AIoT-enabled solar–hydrogen storage systems to
more accurately estimate solar power generation patterns, energy demand trends, and hydrogen
Intelligent Energy
production requirements. Through the continual learning of past data and environmental
2 Forecasting and
parameters, machine learning algorithms can optimize storage and energy consumption
Optimization
strategies, guaranteeing optimal resource allocation and system performance under a variety of
operating scenarios.
AIoT gives solar–hydrogen storage systems the ability to operate autonomously and make
decisions. Energy storage levels, hydrogen production rates, and electrolyzer operation are just a
Autonomous
few examples of the factors that smart algorithms can dynamically modify in real time to
3 Operation and
maximize energy efficiency, save expenses, and lessen environmental effects. This self-sufficient
Decision-Making
feature minimizes the need for human involvement, improves the resilience of the system, and
facilitates a smooth integration into smart grid networks.
Predictive maintenance and asset management in solar–hydrogen storage systems are made
easier by AIoT integration. Through the analysis of sensor data, machine learning algorithms are
Predictive
able to foresee possible problems or breakdowns, schedule maintenance tasks in advance, and
4 Maintenance and
spot early indicators of equipment degradation. AIoT improves system reliability, decreases
Asset Management
downtime, and saves maintenance costs over the course of the system’s lifecycle by anticipating
maintenance needs and maximizing asset longevity.
Analytics powered by AIoT offer insightful data about how solar–hydrogen storage systems
operate and behave. Large datasets can contain hidden patterns, correlations, and optimization
Data-Driven Insight
opportunities that can be found with advanced analytics tools. This allows for constant
5 and Continuous
innovation and improvement in system design, operation, and energy management techniques.
Improvement
These revelations speed up the shift to sustainable energy systems, promote efficiency gains, and
help decision-makers make well-informed choices.

The development and implementation of solar–hydrogen storage systems could be

completely transformed by the integration of AIoT technologies, opening the door to
intelligent, self-sufficient, and sustainable energy solutions for a more environmentally
friendly future. These systems can enhance energy efficiency, optimize resource use, and
pave the road for a more robust and decentralized energy ecosystem by utilizing AI-driven
analytics, predictive algorithms, and autonomous control.

5.2. Smart Energy Generation for a Smart Campus

A great chance to create smart energy generation solutions specifically for smart
campuses is presented by the growing solar–hydrogen storage system. Solar–hydrogen
storage systems can be a valuable addition to any smart campus’s energy infrastructure,
as they are known for their emphasis on efficiency, sustainability, and innovation. These
systems complement smart campus goals of lowering carbon emissions, boosting energy
resilience, and optimizing resource usage by providing a comprehensive approach to
energy generation, storage, and management. Leveraging solar–hydrogen storage systems
to improve renewable energy integration on smart campuses is one of the main prospects.
Campuses can lessen their dependency on fossil fuels and cut down on greenhouse gas
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 21 of 31

emissions by installing solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays for on-site energy generation, which
can be augmented by electrolysis to produce hydrogen. With the use of demand response
and peak shaving capabilities, campuses can maximize self-consumption, balance energy
supply and demand, and promote grid stability, thanks to the stored hydrogen’s flexible
energy storage medium. The examination of the creation of smart energy generation for a
smart campus indicates bright future possibilities that correspond with the increasing focus
on efficiency, innovation, and sustainability in campus settings. Some important future
prospects based on the analysis are shown here (Table 4).

Table 4. Future prospects that align with smart energy generation for a smart campus.

No Prospects Description
More integrated and networked energy systems will probably be the focus of future smart
campuses with smart energy generation technologies. Energy management systems, smart grid
Integrated Energy infrastructure, energy storage technologies, and a variety of renewable energy sources are all
1
Systems included in this integration. Smart campuses can optimize resource use, minimize environmental
impacts, and achieve better energy resilience, efficiency, and sustainability by smoothly merging
these components.
Decentralized energy production and distribution will be given more importance in the future
development of smart energy generation for smart campuses. Micro-hydro systems, wind
Decentralized Energy turbines, and solar PV arrays are examples of distributed energy resources that will be crucial in
2
Generation supplying campus buildings with localized energy. In times of emergency or grid failure,
decentralization promotes energy resilience, reduces transmission losses, and permits
self-sufficiency.
Incorporating hydrogen technologies, including fuel cells and solar–hydrogen storage systems,
has enormous promise for smart campuses with smart energy generation in the future. Because
Hydrogen Integration of its versatility as an energy carrier, hydrogen can be used for zero-emission transportation,
3
and Fuel Cells long-term energy storage, and backup power supplies. By producing electricity, heating, and
cooling efficiently and sustainably, fuel cell technologies further improve energy resilience and
sustainability in campus operations.
Artificial intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) technology will be used to power
sophisticated energy management systems in future smart energy generation solutions for smart
campuses. Energy generation, storage, and consumption across campus facilities can be
Advanced Energy
4 monitored, optimized, and controlled in real-time, thanks to AI-driven analytics, machine
Management Systems
learning algorithms, and predictive modeling. Costs are decreased, efficiency is increased, and
proactive reaction to shifting energy dynamics and user preferences is made possible by smart
energy management.
On smart campuses, future smart energy generation projects will emphasize community
involvement, environmental education, and awareness. Technology innovation, cooperative
Sustainability research projects, and experiential learning are encouraged when energy systems are
5 Education incorporated into interdisciplinary curricula, research projects, and campus sustainability efforts.
and Engagement Building a culture of environmental stewardship and empowering future leaders in clean energy
can be achieved by involving students, teachers, staff, and community members in energy
conservation, renewable energy adoption, and sustainability practices.
Upcoming smart energy generation projects on smart campuses will function as initiatives to
showcase and demonstrate cutting edge energy practices and technologies. These initiatives
Demonstration and demonstrate the viability, efficiency, and advantages of sustainable energy solutions, encouraging
6
Showcase Projects their acceptance and replication in other educational settings, local communities, and commercial
sectors. Smart campuses encourage greater societal change in the direction of a sustainable
energy future by setting an example.

Future advancements in smart campus smart energy generation have enormous

potential to improve sustainability, innovate, and educate while revolutionizing energy
systems. Smart campuses may lead the way in implementing integrated energy solutions,
decentralized generation, advanced energy management systems, hydrogen technologies,
sustainability education, and demonstration projects. These strategies will help pave the
way for a future where energy is more efficient, sustainable, and resilient. In addition to
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 22 of 31

improving campus operations, these future prospects support larger initiatives to combat
climate change, advance energy security, and create resilient communities.
Smart campuses can also optimize the use of renewable energy resources while low-
ering energy costs and environmental effects, thanks to solar–hydrogen storage systems.
Campuses can leverage real-time data, weather forecasts, and user preferences to improve
energy generation, storage, and distribution through the integration of smart grid technol-
ogy, energy management systems, and predictive analytics. In order to maximize energy
efficiency and cost savings, intelligent algorithms can prioritize renewable energy sources,
dynamically modify energy flows, and optimize energy use across campus buildings, facili-
ties, and transportation fleets. Furthermore, solar–hydrogen storage systems enable smart
campuses to improve their energy dependability and resilience in the event of catastrophes
and disruptions. When there are grid failures or low solar irradiation times, the stored
hydrogen acts as a backup energy source to keep vital facilities like research labs, hospitals,
and emergency response units powered continuously. Furthermore, off-grid operations
can be supported by hydrogen-powered fuel cell systems, allowing for remote and decen-
tralized energy generation in campus buildings situated in isolated or sparsely connected
areas. In addition, solar–hydrogen storage systems provide smart campuses with research
and instructional opportunities to include researchers, faculty, and students in sustainable
energy innovation and experimentation. Universities can encourage experiential learning,
teamwork in research projects, and technological innovation in the areas of renewable
energy, hydrogen technologies, and smart grid integration by integrating these systems
into interdisciplinary curricula, research projects, and campus sustainability initiatives.
These educational initiatives support the development of clean energy solutions, foster a
culture of sustainability, and equip upcoming generations of energy leaders.
Smart campuses have a compelling opportunity to create smart energy generation so-
lutions that complement their technical ambitions and sustainability aims with the growing
solar–hydrogen storage system. Campuses can improve energy resilience, optimize energy
management, integrate renewable energy sources more effectively, and promote research
and education in sustainable energy technologies by incorporating solar–hydrogen storage
systems into their energy infrastructure. In addition to improving campus operations, this
all-encompassing strategy supports larger societal initiatives to combat climate change and
create a sustainable energy future.

6. Conclusions
This review concludes by highlighting the importance and promise of solar–hydrogen
storage systems in transforming the production, storage, and use of energy. It is clear
from a thorough analysis of many parameters, including SOC, PSolar, PStorage, PElec-
trolyzer, mH2, and their interactions, that solar–hydrogen storage systems provide an
adaptable and sustainable way to deal with the problems of energy storage, grid stability,
and the integration of renewable energy sources. The analysis emphasizes how dynamic
solar–hydrogen storage systems are, demonstrating how they may adjust to changing
solar power inputs, maximize energy efficiency, and maintain grid stability. Engineers
may simulate and optimize the performance of these systems by integrating MATLAB
Simulink modeling, which facilitates well-informed decision-making and effective system
design. Additionally, the analysis suggests that AIoT technologies may be integrated,
which might improve the solar–hydrogen storage systems’ intelligence, dependability, and
efficiency even more. Predictive maintenance, AIoT-powered analytics, and autonomous
operation capabilities can improve system resilience, optimize energy management, and
speed up decision-making in real time in response to shifting energy demands and en-
vironmental circumstances. Systems that use solar–hydrogen storage have bright future
potential. Smarter, more robust energy systems are made possible by integration with AIoT
technology, which presents prospects for autonomous control, predictive analytics, and
enhanced energy management. Additionally, the utilization of solar–hydrogen storage
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 23 of 31

systems in applications like smart campuses creates new opportunities for community
involvement, sustainability, and creativity.
The analysis emphasizes how solar–hydrogen storage technologies have the potential
to revolutionize energy generation and storage in the future. Solar–hydrogen storage sys-
tems can help create a more resilient, decentralized, and sustainable energy ecosystem by
utilizing cutting-edge technologies, utilizing renewable energy sources, and encouraging in-
terdisciplinary collaboration. This will accelerate the shift towards a more environmentally
friendly and sustainable future.
A number of directions can be pursued in future studies to improve knowledge and
the application of solar–hydrogen storage systems. First, research into the creation of
cutting-edge materials and parts for electrolyzers and hydrogen storage tanks may result
in increases in efficacy, robustness, and affordability, which would hasten the adoption of
hydrogen technologies. Furthermore, researching the integration of non-solar renewable
energy sources, like wind and hydropower, may shed light on how to best optimize hybrid
renewable energy systems for improved energy production and storage. Furthermore,
investigating cutting-edge AIoT-driven optimization algorithms and control methodolo-
gies designed especially for solar–hydrogen storage systems may present new avenues
for enhancing system resilience, grid integration, and energy efficiency. Comprehensive
techno-economic assessments and feasibility studies may also shed light on the scalability
and economic viability of solar–hydrogen storage systems across a range of applications
and geographical areas. In conclusion, exploring regulatory incentives, market mecha-
nisms, and policy frameworks to facilitate the extensive implementation and acceptance
of solar–hydrogen storage systems may aid in removing obstacles and hastening the shift
to a sustainable energy future. In order to fully exploit the promise of solar–hydrogen
storage systems in tackling the difficulties of renewable energy integration, energy storage,
and climate change mitigation, these recommendations for future studies aim to develop
knowledge, technology, and policy solutions.
The shift to sustainable energy alternatives, which lessen dependency on fossil fuels
and mitigate their environmental effects, is fueled by research on solar–hydrogen systems.
Research on hydrogen generation and storage methods powered by renewable energy
sources, such as solar power, promotes cleaner energy systems that reduce air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions. Integration plays a critical role in tackling environmental con-
cerns and fostering positive change by promoting environmental awareness and education
in university settings, which in turn inspires future generations to embrace renewable en-
ergy and support conservation initiatives. An essential component of this solar–hydrogen
system’s functioning is its energy efficiency, which demonstrates its capacity to generate
hydrogen with low energy losses and make efficient use of renewable energy sources. The
system maximizes energy conversion efficiency by using solar electricity for electrolysis,
utilizing clean and sustainable energy to produce hydrogen gas. Furthermore, throughout
the hydrogen production process, optimal performance and minimal energy waste are
guaranteed by the integration of cutting-edge technologies and optimization methodolo-
gies. The plant works to improve energy efficiency, reduce resource consumption, and
maximize production through ongoing monitoring, analysis, and improvement programs.
This helps to create a more sustainable and ecologically friendly energy landscape.
When implementing a solar–hydrogen system in a non-academic setting, such as
for industry or commercial applications, the main priorities are economy, efficiency, and
practical concerns. Prioritizing elements like cost-effectiveness, scalability, and depend-
ability helps businesses and organizations make sure the system efficiently satisfies energy
demands while staying financially viable. In non-academic settings, competition, legal
restrictions, and market demands frequently influence decision-making, placing a higher
focus on profitability and performance optimization. In order to maximize energy use and
minimize interruption, non-academic contexts may also prioritize the integration of solar–
hydrogen systems into existing infrastructure or grid networks. Solar–hydrogen system
research and development are motivated by scientific inquiry, innovation, and knowledge
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4376 24 of 31

growth in an academic atmosphere. Academic establishments prioritize investigating basic

concepts, carrying out investigations, and creating novel technologies to enhance system
effectiveness, durability, and comprehension. Academic researchers can look into new
materials, design techniques, and control algorithms to improve system performance and
solve technical issues. In addition, academic environments place a strong emphasis on
teamwork, peer review, and sharing research results through conferences and publications
in order to expand the body of knowledge within the scientific community. Academic
contexts frequently place a higher priority on scientific rigor, theoretical research, and
long-term sustainability than on immediate commercial benefits, even though economic
factors are also important.
This analysis concludes by highlighting the revolutionary potential of solar–hydrogen
storage systems in transforming energy production and storage. These systems, by utilizing
cutting-edge technologies, utilizing renewable energy sources, and encouraging interdisci-
plinary collaboration, hold the key to establishing a robust, decentralized, and sustainable
energy ecosystem. These developments will hasten the shift to a future that is more sus-
tainable and friendly to the environment. Looking ahead, there are a lot of opportunities
for more research and development in the field of solar–hydrogen storage. Subsequent
research endeavors may explore the creation of cutting-edge materials and components
for electrolyzers and hydrogen storage tanks. The objective would be to augment their
efficiency, durability, and affordability, consequently expediting the extensive integration
of hydrogen technologies. Furthermore, studies on the integration of renewable energy
sources other than solar power, like wind and hydropower, may provide information on
how to best optimize hybrid renewable energy systems for increased energy storage and
output. Furthermore, examining state-of-the-art AIoT-driven optimization algorithms and
control approaches designed especially for solar–hydrogen storage systems may open up
new avenues for enhancing grid integration, energy efficiency, and system resilience.
Additionally, in order to evaluate the scalability and economic viability of solar–
hydrogen storage systems across a range of applications and geographic locations, thorough
techno-economic assessments and feasibility studies are essential. In order to remove
obstacles and hasten the broad adoption of solar–hydrogen storage systems, we must
investigate regulatory incentives, market mechanisms, and policy frameworks. Only
then will we be able to move closer to a sustainable energy future. To put it briefly,
the goal of these future research avenues is to improve our knowledge, technology, and
policy approaches to fully utilize solar–hydrogen storage systems’ potential in tackling the
problems of energy storage, climate change mitigation, and the integration of renewable
energy sources.

Author Contributions: S.R.J.: project evaluation, methodology, investigation, resources, supervision,

modeling, simulation. A.N.Y.: data analysis, investigation. S.P.: software development, functionality
evaluation. K.K.: conceptualization, funding acquisition, resources, supervision, writing—original
draft, writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by “Regional Innovation Strategy (RIS)” through the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), funded by the Ministry of Education (MOE) (2022RIS-005).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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