1.

Distinction Between Research Methods and Research Techniques

 Research Methods: These are broader strategies or approaches used to conduct
research, encompassing the overall framework and logic behind the study. They guide
the researcher in selecting appropriate techniques and data collection methods.

 Research Techniques: These are specific procedures or tools employed within the
research methods to gather data, such as surveys, interviews, or observational
methods. Techniques are more focused and practical, often interchangeable within
various research methods.

2.

 The conceptual framework outlines the research idea, including the statement of the
problem and the focus of the study, providing a foundational understanding of what the
research aims to achieve.
 The methodological framework is developed from this foundation, as it specifies how
the research will be conducted, including the selection of methodologies and data
collection methods that align with the established focus and objectives.

 This relationship ensures that the methodology is logically structured and directly
supports the research goals defined in the conceptual framework, facilitating a coherent
research process.

3.

An established conceptual framework provides clarity on the research focus,

objectives, and the statement of the problem, ensuring that the research is
directed and purposeful.

It guides the selection of an appropriate research methodology, as the

methodology must align with the defined goals and context of the study,
preventing misalignment and inefficiencies.

Having a clear framework helps avoid reworks and wasted time, allowing
researchers to make informed decisions about methodologies that best support
their research objectives.

4.

Survey Research: Involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews

to gather information on beliefs, opinions, or behaviors from a specific population.
It can be conducted via various formats, including online, phone, or in-person.

Case Study: A comprehensive analysis of a specific individual, group, or event,

providing in-depth insights and understanding of complex issues within real-life
contexts.
 Phenomenology: Focuses on exploring and understanding individuals' lived
experiences and perceptions regarding a particular phenomenon, aiming to
capture the essence of those experiences.

Experimental Design: Involves manipulating one or more independent variables

to observe their effect on a dependent variable, allowing researchers to establish
cause-and-effect relationships.

Ethnography: A qualitative research methodology that involves immersive

observation and participation in a cultural or social group to understand their
behaviors, beliefs, and practices from an insider's perspective.

Grounded Theory: A systematic methodology that generates theory from data

collected through qualitative research, focusing on developing a theory that is
grounded in the actual data rather than testing existing theories.

Content Analysis: A research technique used to systematically analyze the

content of communication, such as texts, images, or media, to identify patterns,
themes, or biases.

Discourse Analysis: Examines written or spoken language in its social context,

focusing on how language constructs meaning and reflects power dynamics,
ideologies, and social practices.

5.

Difference Between Research Methods and Research Methodology

 Research Methods: Refers to the specific techniques and procedures used to collect
and analyze data in a research study. These methods include tools like surveys,
interviews, and experiments, focusing on the practical aspects of data gathering.
 Research Methodology: Encompasses the overarching framework and rationale
behind the selection of research methods. It includes the theoretical underpinnings,
philosophical approaches, and the logic guiding the choice of methods, ensuring that
they align with the research objectives and questions.
 In summary, research methods are the "how" of data collection, while research
methodology is the "why" and "what" that informs the choice of those methods.

6.

Methodology: Survey Research

Reasons for Suitability:

Data Collection Efficiency: Survey research allows for the efficient collection of
data from a large population, enabling the researcher to gather diverse opinions and
experiences quickly.
 Quantifiable Insights: This methodology provides quantifiable data that can be
statistically analyzed, making it easier to identify trends, correlations, and patterns within
the responses.

Flexibility: Surveys can be conducted in various formats (online, telephone, in-person),

allowing for adaptability based on the target audience and research context, which
enhances accessibility and response rates.

7.

Parts of the Methodological Framework

Research Design: This outlines the overall strategy for the research, including the type
of study (e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods) and the specific approach
(e.g., experimental, descriptive, or correlational) that will guide the research process.

Data Collection Methods: This section details the specific techniques used to gather
data, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or document analysis, and explains
how these methods align with the research objectives.

Sampling Strategy: This part describes the process for selecting participants or data
sources, including the target population, sampling techniques (e.g., random, stratified),
and sample size, ensuring that the sample is representative of the larger population.

Data Analysis Plan: This outlines the methods and tools that will be used to analyze
the collected data, including statistical techniques for quantitative data or coding
procedures for qualitative data, ensuring that the analysis aligns with the research
questions.

Ethical Considerations: This section addresses the ethical issues related to the
research, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and the treatment of participants,
ensuring that the research adheres to ethical standards and guidelines.

8.

Similarities and Differences Between Discourse Analysis and Document

Analysis

Similarities:
 Both discourse analysis and document analysis involve the examination of texts to
extract meaning and insights, focusing on how language and communication shape
understanding.
 Each method aims to interpret the context and significance of the material being
analyzed, considering the social, cultural, and historical factors influencing the content.

Differences:
 Discourse Analysis: Primarily focuses on the use of language in communication,
examining interactions between speakers and listeners or writers and readers, and how
these interactions construct meaning and reflect power dynamics.
 Document Analysis: Concentrates on the systematic examination of existing
documents (e.g., reports, articles, records) to extract relevant data and information,
often without a primary focus on the language used or the interaction context.

9.

Feminist Method in Social Research

The feminist method in social research emphasizes understanding and addressing
gender inequalities and biases within research processes and outcomes. It seeks to
develop hypotheses and conduct studies from a female perspective, aiming to highlight
women's experiences and voices that are often marginalized in traditional research.

Feminist methodologies are diverse but commonly focus on promoting social change,
recognizing the researcher's standpoint, and demonstrating biological diversity. By
increasing awareness of systemic issues, feminist research aims to influence societal
attitudes and policies, ultimately contributing to a more equitable understanding of social
phenomena.

10.

Triangulation
Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods, perspectives, or data sources in
research to enhance the credibility and validity of findings. By integrating different
approaches, such as qualitative and quantitative methods, researchers can gather more
comprehensive data, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of the research
question.

This process helps to establish consistency in results and provides a richer context for
analysis, ultimately strengthening the overall research project while also considering the
available resources, time, and funding required for such an approach.

CHAPTER 8

1.

Research Method vs. Research Methodology:

 Research Method refers to the specific techniques and procedures used to collect and
analyze data, such as surveys, experiments, or interviews.
 Research Methodology encompasses the overall framework and rationale behind the
choice of research methods, including the theoretical underpinnings and strategies
guiding the research process.

2.

Characterization of Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Research

 Quantitative Methods: Focus on quantification and measurement of data, answering
questions like "how much," "how many," or "how long." They aim to summarize
outcomes from a sample and often utilize statistical analysis.
 Qualitative Methods: Emphasize understanding the quality of information, exploring
fundamental factors and motivations behind behaviors. They provide insights into
perspectives and problem-setting, often involving open-ended questions and thematic
analysis.

3.

Advantages of Primary Sources over Secondary Sources

 Direct Evidence: Primary sources provide firsthand accounts or direct evidence of a
phenomenon, ensuring authenticity and reliability in the data collected.
 Rich Detail: They often contain rich, detailed information that reflects the original
context, allowing for deeper insights into the subject matter.
 Research Control: Researchers have control over the data collection process, enabling
them to tailor methods to their specific research questions and objectives.

4.

Factors to Consider in Selecting a Research Method

 Research Objectives: The researcher must align the method with the specific aims and
questions of the study to ensure it effectively addresses the research problem.
 Nature of the Data: Consider whether the data needed is quantitative (numerical) or
qualitative (descriptive), as this will influence the choice of method.
 Resources and Constraints: Availability of time, budget, and access to participants or
data sources can limit or dictate the choice of research methods.

5.

Relationship Between Population, Sampling Frame, and Sample

 Population: This refers to the entire group of individuals or units that the researcher is
interested in studying. It encompasses all possible subjects that meet the criteria for
inclusion in the research.
 Sampling Frame: The sampling frame is a specific list or representation of the
population from which the sample will be drawn. It should ideally include all members of
the population to ensure that the sample accurately reflects the population.
 Sample: A sample is a subset of the population selected for the actual study. The
sample is drawn from the sampling frame and is used to make inferences about the
entire population, allowing researchers to gather data without needing to study every
individual in the population.

6.

Five Research Methods

 Surveys:
o Surveys involve collecting data from a large group of respondents through
questionnaires or interviews. They can be conducted online, via phone, or
in person, and are useful for gathering quantitative data on opinions,
behaviors, or demographics.
 Interviews:
o One-on-one interviews allow for in-depth exploration of a participant's
thoughts, feelings, and experiences. They can be structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured, providing qualitative insights that are rich in
detail.
 Focus Groups:
o Focus groups bring together a small group of participants to discuss a
specific topic or issue. This method encourages interaction and can reveal
diverse perspectives, making it valuable for qualitative research.
 Observational Studies:
o In observational studies, researchers watch and record behaviors or
events in their natural settings without interference. This method is useful
for understanding real-world contexts and can provide qualitative or
quantitative data.
 Content Analysis:
o Content analysis involves systematically analyzing text, images, or media
to identify patterns, themes, or trends. This method can be applied to both
qualitative and quantitative data, making it versatile for various research
questions.

7.

Systematic Sampling: Incorporating Probability and Non-Probability

Sampling
 Probability Component: Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where
researchers create a list of all elements in the population and select samples at regular
intervals (e.g., every nth individual). This ensures that each member of the population
has a known and equal chance of being selected, which enhances the
representativeness of the sample.
 Non-Probability Component: While systematic sampling primarily relies on a
structured approach, it can incorporate non-probability elements if the initial list of the
population is not comprehensive or if the selection interval is based on convenience.
For example, if the researcher chooses to start sampling from a convenient point in the
list, it introduces a non-probability aspect to the method.
 Combination of Methods: By combining these elements, systematic sampling allows
researchers to maintain a level of randomness while also providing a structured
approach to sample selection, making it adaptable to various research contexts.

8.

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

 Bias in Sample Selection: Snowball sampling can lead to biased samples, as initial
participants may refer individuals with similar characteristics or backgrounds, limiting
diversity and potentially skewing results.
 Lack of Generalizability: The findings from snowball sampling may not be
generalizable to the broader population, as the sample may not accurately represent the
entire group being studied.
 Dependence on Initial Contacts: The success of snowball sampling heavily relies on
the initial participants' willingness to refer others, which can result in challenges if they
are not well-connected or if they are reluctant to participate.

9.

Characteristics of a Research Population

 Homogeneity:
o A research population may be homogeneous, meaning that all members
share similar characteristics or traits, such as age, gender, or educational
background. This can simplify analysis but may limit the generalizability of
findings.
 Heterogeneity:
o Conversely, a population can be heterogeneous, consisting of diverse
individuals with varying characteristics. This diversity can provide richer
data and insights but may complicate analysis and interpretation.
 Size:
o The size of the research population can vary significantly, from small
groups to large populations. A well-defined size helps researchers
determine the feasibility of the study and the appropriate sampling
methods.
 Accessibility:
o Accessibility refers to how easily researchers can reach and engage with
the population. Populations that are difficult to access may require specific
sampling techniques or methods to gather data effectively.
 Defined Criteria:
 o A research population is characterized by specific inclusion and exclusion
criteria that determine which individuals or units are eligible for the study.
Clearly defined criteria ensure that the population aligns with the research
objectives and questions.

10.

Factors Affecting Sample Selection in Qualitative Research

 Research Objectives:
o The goals of the study significantly influence sample selection.
Researchers must choose participants who can provide rich, relevant
information that aligns with the research questions and objectives.
 Access to Participants:
o Ease of access to potential participants can impact sample selection.
Researchers may prioritize individuals or groups that are readily available
or willing to participate, which can affect the diversity and
representativeness of the sample.
 Participant Characteristics:
o The specific traits or experiences of participants are crucial in qualitative
research. Researchers often seek individuals who have a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomenon being studied, ensuring that the data
collected is insightful and meaningful.
 Saturation Point:
o In qualitative research, the concept of saturation refers to the point at
which no new information or themes emerge from the data. Researchers
must consider when to stop sampling based on the saturation point to
avoid unnecessary data collection.
 Sampling Method:
o The chosen sampling method (e.g., purposive, snowball, or convenience
sampling) directly affects sample selection. Each method has its own
criteria and implications for how participants are identified and recruited,
influencing the overall quality and depth of the data collected.