CHAPTER 11: MEMORY AND THE BRAIN

1. Types of Memory and the Specific Brain Regions Involved

Memory is categorized into different types, each associated with specific parts of the brain.

A. Declarative (Explicit) Memory

●​ Definition: Memory of facts and events, consciously recalled.​

●​ Types:​

○​ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences; associated with the hippocampus and

medial temporal lobe.​

○​ Semantic Memory: General knowledge; involves the temporal lobe and prefrontal
cortex.​

B. Non-Declarative (Implicit) Memory

●​ Definition: Unconscious memory, influences behavior without awareness.​

●​ Types:​

○​ Procedural Memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike); controlled by the basal
ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex.​

○​ Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another; associated

with the neocortex.​

○​ Classical Conditioning: Associative learning; dependent on the amygdala and

cerebellum.​

2. Types of Amnesia (H.M. Case)

●​ Amnesia: A condition affecting memory due to brain injury or disease.​

●​ Types:​

○​ Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories (e.g., H.M. case, where
damage to the hippocampus prevented him from forming new explicit memories).​

○​ Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories, often associated with damage to the
temporal and frontal lobes.​

3. Types of Memory Deficits (Dementia)

 ●​ Dementia: Progressive cognitive decline affecting memory, reasoning, and behavior.​

●​ Types:​

○​ Alzheimer’s Disease (AD): Affects acetylcholine production, causing memory loss

and confusion.​

○​ Vascular Dementia: Due to restricted blood flow (ACA/MCA blockages) leading to

brain damage.​

○​ Frontotemporal Dementia: Involves atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes,

affecting personality and language.​

4. Amnesia After Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

●​ Causes: Accidents, falls, or head trauma.​

●​ Types:​

○​ Post-Traumatic Amnesia (PTA): Temporary memory loss, confusion.​

○​ Persistent Amnesia: Long-term cognitive impairment due to hippocampal damage.​

5. Types of Interference in Memory

●​ Proactive Interference: Older information disrupts the recall of new information.​

●​ Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the recall of older information.​

GENERAL POINTERS

1. Types of Brain Lesions and Affected Parts

●​ Frontal Lobe Lesion: Affects decision-making, problem-solving, personality changes.​

●​ Temporal Lobe Lesion: Causes memory deficits, speech impairments.​

●​ Parietal Lobe Lesion: Affects spatial awareness and motor skills.​

●​ Occipital Lobe Lesion: Leads to visual processing disorders.​

●​ Hippocampal Lesion: Causes severe amnesia (as seen in H.M. case).​

2. Neurotransmitters and Their Functions

 ●​ Acetylcholine (ACh): Important for learning, memory, and muscle movement. Reduced in
Alzheimer’s Disease.​

●​ Dopamine (DA): Regulates reward, motivation, and movement. Implicated in Parkinson’s

Disease.​

●​ Glutamate (Glu): Key excitatory neurotransmitter, essential for Long-Term Potentiation

(LTP), learning, and synaptic plasticity.​

3. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

●​ Definition: Strengthening of synapses based on recent activity.​

●​ Key Mechanism: NMDA receptor activation leads to increased synaptic transmission.​

●​ Role in Memory: Essential for learning and memory formation.​

4. Reconsolidation

●​ Definition: The process by which retrieved memories become unstable and are then
re-stored with modifications.​

●​ Example: Changing details of a memory after recalling it multiple times.​

5. Malignant vs. Benign Tumors

●​ Malignant Tumors: Cancerous, aggressive, can spread to other areas.​

●​ Benign Tumors: Non-cancerous, do not spread but can cause pressure on the brain.​

ACRONYMS TO REMEMBER
●​ ACA: Anterior Cerebral Artery – supplies blood to the frontal lobes.​

●​ MCA: Middle Cerebral Artery – supplies blood to lateral brain areas.​

●​ TPI: (Confirm the meaning from your notes, as it’s unclear here).​
 Physiological Psychology
Chapter 11 Reviewer

Types of Memory and Brain Regions Involved

Memory is categorized into different types based on duration and function. Each type involves
specific brain structures.

1. Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

●​ Explicit Memory: Conscious memory, including:​

○​ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences (e.g., remembering a birthday party).​

○​ Semantic Memory: General knowledge (e.g., knowing the capital of a country).​

●​ Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory, including:​

○​ Procedural Memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).​

○​ Priming: Exposure to a stimulus affects future responses.​

2. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Memory

●​ Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage (~20-30 seconds).​

●​ Long-Term Memory: More permanent storage through memory consolidation.​

Brain Structures Involved

●​ Hippocampus: Essential for forming new explicit memories.​

●​ Amygdala: Processes emotional memories.​

●​ Prefrontal Cortex: Organizes and retrieves memories.​

●​ Basal Ganglia & Cerebellum: Associated with procedural memory and motor learning.​

Types of Amnesia (Case of H.M.)

Amnesia is a loss of memory function due to brain damage.

1. Anterograde Amnesia
 ●​ Inability to form new memories (e.g., H.M. could not remember new experiences
post-surgery).​

●​ Linked to damage in the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe.​

2. Retrograde Amnesia

●​ Loss of memories before the injury (e.g., H.M. lost memories from ~2 years before his
surgery).​

Case of H.M. (Henry Molaison)

●​ Underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to treat epilepsy.​

●​ Could not form new long-term explicit memories but retained procedural memory (e.g.,
improved in mirror-drawing tasks).​

●​ Demonstrated the distinction between explicit and implicit memory.​

Types of Memory Deficits (Dementia & Alzheimer's Disease)

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

●​ Caused by chronic alcoholism and thiamine deficiency.​

●​ Leads to severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia.​

●​ Associated with damage to the mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus.​

Alzheimer’s Disease

●​ Progressive memory loss, beginning with mild cognitive impairment and leading to dementia.​

●​ Memory loss is due to acetylcholine depletion from the basal forebrain.​

●​ Involves widespread brain damage, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.​

Amnesia After Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

●​ Closed-Head TBIs cause posttraumatic amnesia (PTA), affecting both anterograde and
retrograde memory.​

●​ Concussions often result in temporary memory deficits.​

 ●​ Islands of Memory: Some memories persist despite amnesia.​

Types of Interference in Memory

Memory can be disrupted by competing information.

●​ Proactive Interference: Old memories interfere with new learning.​

●​ Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts retrieval of old memories.​

Types of Brain Lesions and Affected Brain Regions

●​ Hippocampal Lesions: Anterograde amnesia, difficulty in spatial navigation.​

●​ Medial Temporal Cortex Lesions: Deficits in explicit memory.​

●​ Prefrontal Cortex Lesions: Impairment in working memory and memory organization.​

●​ Basal Forebrain Lesions: Reduced acetylcholine, linked to Alzheimer’s.​

Neurotransmitters in Memory (Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Glutamate)

●​ Acetylcholine: Crucial for attention and memory (low levels in Alzheimer’s).​

●​ Dopamine: Involved in motivation and reinforcement learning.​

●​ Glutamate: Key for synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation (LTP).​

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and Memory Consolidation

●​ LTP is the strengthening of synapses based on frequent activity.​

●​ Critical for learning and memory.​

●​ Hippocampus plays a significant role in LTP.​

Memory Reconsolidation
 ●​ Memories are retrieved and modified before being stored again.​

●​ Important in therapeutic approaches for trauma-related disorders.​

Malignant vs. Benign Brain Conditions

●​ Malignant tumors: Cancerous, fast-growing, and invasive.​

●​ Benign tumors: Non-cancerous, slow-growing, but can still cause damage by compressing
brain tissue.​

Important Acronyms

●​ ACA (Anterior Cerebral Artery): Supplies blood to the medial frontal lobes.​

●​ MCA (Middle Cerebral Artery): Supplies blood to lateral aspects of frontal, temporal, and
parietal lobes.​

●​ TPI (Traumatic Penetrating Injury): Severe brain injury caused by objects penetrating the
skull.​

Additional Topics from Chapter 11

Hippocampal Place Cells and Entorhinal Grid Cells

●​ Place cells fire when an organism is in a specific location.

●​ Grid cells form a coordinate system for spatial navigation.

Concept Cells (Jennifer Aniston Neurons)

●​ Highly selective neurons that respond to specific concepts.

Engram Cells and Memory Storage

●​ Groups of neurons activated during encoding and recall.

Infantile Amnesia

●​ Inability to recall early childhood memories, but implicit memories may persist.

Smart Drugs (Nootropics)

●​ Evidence for their effectiveness is limited.

Role of the Amygdala in Memory

 ●​ Strengthens emotional memories but does not store them.

Role of the Prefrontal Cortex in Memory

●​ Involved in attention, task organization, and decision-making.

Final Notes

●​ Focus on how different brain areas contribute to memory.​

●​ Understand distinctions between different types of amnesia.​

●​ Pay attention to neurotransmitter roles and brain lesions.​

●​ Be familiar with LTP, interference, and reconsolidation processes.​

●​ Learn key acronyms (ACA, MCA, TPI) for exams and quizzes.​