POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Introduction
 Power system stability is an ability of an electric power system
for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of
operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical
disturbance with all system variables bounded so that
practically the entire system remain intact.
Introduction
 The disturbances can be loss of a large generator or load, faults on
transmission lines, incremental changes in load, incremental
changes in generation, voltage collapse or some combination of
these.

 Stability is a condition of equilibrium between opposing forces.

 Instability results when a disturbance leads to a sustained imbalance

between the opposing forces.
Introduction
 Power system stability is classified into

 Rotor angle stability

 Voltage stability

 Frequency stability
Power System Stability
Power System Stability
.

Rotor Angle Frequency Voltage

Stability Stability Stability

Small-Signal Transient Short term Long term

Stability Stability
Rotor Angle Stability
 Ability of interconnected synchronous machines of a power

system to remain in synchronism when subjected to a

disturbance.

 The rotor angle of a generator depends on the balance between

the electromagnetic torque due to the generator electrical power

output and mechanical torque due to the input mechanical
power through a prime mover
Rotor Angle Stability
 Remaining in synchronism means that all the generators
electromagnetic torque is exactly equal to the mechanical torque in
the opposite direction.

 If in a generator the balance between electromagnetic and

mechanical torque is disturbed, due to disturbances in the system,
then this will lead to oscillations in the rotor angle.

 Rotor angle stability is further classified into small disturbance angle

stability and large disturbance angle stability.
(a) Steady State Stability
 The ability of a power system to remain in synchronism when

subjected to small disturbances.

 Small disturbances can be small load changes like switching on or

off of small loads, line tripping, small generators tripping

 Analysis is by a set of linear equations, studied on the basis of

Swing.

 It is easy to solve
(b) Transient stability
 The ability of a power system to regain normal and stable operation

after being subjected to sudden and large disturbances.

 Large disturbances can be faults, switching on or off of large loads,

large generators tripping.

 Linearization of system equation is not permitted.

 A direct approach called Equal Area Criterion is used for analyzing

the stability of a single machine connected to an infinite bus.

Voltage Stability
 This is the ability of the power system to maintain steady state
voltages at all the system buses when subjected to a
disturbance.

 If the disturbance is large then it is called as large-disturbance

voltage stability

 If the disturbance is small it is called as small-disturbance

voltage stability
Voltage Stability
 In case voltage fluctuations occur due to fast acting devices like
induction motors, power electronic drive, HVDC etc. then the time
frame for understanding the stability is in the range of 10-20 s and
hence can be treated as short term phenomenon.

 On the other hand if voltage variations are due to slow change in

load, over loading of lines, generators hitting reactive power limits,
tap changing transformers etc., then time frame for voltage stability
can stretch from 1 minute to several minutes.
Voltage Stability
 Voltage stability depends on the balance of reactive power
demand and generation in the system where as

 Angle stability mainly depends on the balance between real

power generation and demand.
Frequency Stability
 It refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady
frequency following a severe disturbance between generation
and load.

 Frequency instability may lead to sustained frequency swings

leading to tripping of generating units or loads.
Stability in Synchronous Machine
 In the normal equilibrium condition, all the synchronous
generators run at a constant speed and the difference between
the rotor angles of any two generators is constant.

 Under any disturbance, the speed of the machines will deviate

from the steady state values due to mismatch between
mechanical and electrical powers (torque) and therefore, the
difference of the rotor angles would also change.
Stability in Synchronous Machine
 If these rotor angle differences (between any pair of
generators) attain steady state values (not necessarily the same
as in the pre-disturbance condition) after some finite time,
then the synchronous generators are said to be in
‘synchronism’

 On the other hand, if the rotor angle differences keep on

increasing indefinitely, then the machines are considered to
have ‘lost synchronism’
Stability in Synchronous Machine
 Under this ‘out of step’ condition, the output power, voltage etc. of
the generator continuously drift away from the corresponding pre-
disturbance values until the protection system trips the machine.

 The above phenomenon of instability is essentially related with the

instability of the rotor angles and hence, this form of instability is
termed as ‘rotor angle instability’.
Stability in Synchronous Machine
 Now, for analyzing rotor angle stability, we have to first
understand the basic equation of motion of a synchronous
machine, called the Swing Equation
Rotor Dynamics - Swing Equation
 Consider a synchronous generator developing an
electromagnetic torque 𝑇𝑒 and running at synchronous speed
𝜔𝑠𝑚 .
The Swing Equation
 If 𝑇𝑚 is the driving mechanical torque, then, under steady
state operation with losses neglected,

𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇𝑒

 When a disturbance occurs, the rotor accelerates or

decelerates.

 When accelerating, 𝑇𝑚 > 𝑇𝑒 while decelerating, 𝑇𝑚 < 𝑇𝑒

The Swing Equation
 If J is the combined moment of inertia of the prime mover and
the generator(rotor masses), then from the laws of motion

𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚
𝐽 2
= 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 (1)
𝑑𝑡
 𝑇𝑚 = mechanical torque [N-m]

 𝑇𝑒 = electromagnetic torque [N-m]

 𝜃𝑚 = angular displacement of the rotor w.r.t stationary axis in

mechanical radians (rad)
The Swing Equation
 𝜃𝑚 is often represented as the sum of two components:
𝜃𝑚 = 𝜔𝑠𝑚 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑚 (2)
 𝝎𝒔𝒎 is the synchronous speed of the machine in mechanical

radian/sec.

 𝜹𝒎 is the angular displacement (deviation of the rotor angle) of

the rotor from the synchronously rotating reference axis (in

mechanical radian).
The Swing Equation
 Taking the derivative of the rotor angle, equation (2)

𝑑𝜃𝑚 𝑑 𝛿𝑚
= 𝜔𝑠𝑚 + = 𝜔𝑚 (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝜔𝑚 is the rotor angular velocity

 Taking the derivative of equation (3), rotor acceleration:

𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚 𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚
2
= (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
The Swing Equation
 Substituting equation (4) into equation (1) we get,

𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚
𝐽 2
= 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 (5)
𝑑𝑡
 Multiplying equation (5) with 𝜔𝑚

𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚
𝜔𝑚 . 𝐽 2
= 𝜔𝑚 𝑇𝑚 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑇𝑒 (6)
𝑑𝑡
 Since angular velocity multiplied by torque is equal to power

𝑑2 𝛿𝑚
𝜔𝑚 . 𝐽 2
= 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 (7)
𝑑𝑡
The Swing Equation
 The quantity 𝝎𝒎 . 𝑱 is the angular momentum of the rotor and
at synchronous speed, it is known as the inertia constant and
is denoted by M.
The Swing Equation
 Strictly, the quantity 𝝎𝒎 . 𝑱 is not constant at all operating conditions
since 𝝎𝒎 keeps on varying. However, when the machine is stable,
𝝎𝒎 does not differ significantly from 𝝎𝒔𝒎 and hence, 𝝎𝒎 . 𝑱 can be
taken approximately equal to M

 Hence, from (7), the Swing Equation in terms of inertia constant

becomes

𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚
𝑀 2
= 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 (8)
𝑑𝑡
The Swing Equation
 M is related to kinetic energy of the rotating masses, 𝛚𝐤

2ωk
M= (9)
ωsm

 It is more convenient to write the Swing Equation in terms of the

electrical power angle 𝛿.

 If p is the number of poles of a synchronous generator, the

electrical power angle 𝛿 is related to the mechanical power angle
𝑝
δm by 𝛿 = 𝛿𝑚
2
The Swing Equation
 Swing Equation (8) in terms of electrical power angle

2 d2 δ
M 2 = Pm − Pe (10)
p dt

 Since power system analysis is usually done in per unit system, the
Swing Equation is usually expressed in per unit. Dividing (10) by
the base power SB, and substituting for M from (9) results in

2 2ωk d2 δ Pm Pe
2
= − (11)
p ωsm SB dt SB SB
The Swing Equation
Now, defining the important quantity known as H constant or per unit inertia
constant.

Kinetic energy in MJ at rated speed ωk

H= =
Machine rating in MVA SB

Substituting 𝐇 in (11)

2 2H d2 δ
= Pm(pu) − Pe pu (12)
p ωsm dt 2

Where Pm(pu) and Pe(pu) are the per unit mechanical power and electrical power
respectively.
The Swing Equation
 The electrical angular velocity is related to the mechanical angular velocity by

2
𝜔𝑠𝑚 = 𝜔𝑠
𝑝

 Substituting in (12)

2𝐻 𝑑 2 𝛿
2
= 𝑃𝑚(𝑝𝑢) − 𝑃𝑒 𝑝𝑢 (13)
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡
 The above equation is often expressed in terms of frequency 𝑓0 , and to simplify
the notation, the subscript pu is omitted and the powers are understood to be in
per unit
The Swing Equation
 and the Swing Equation becomes.

𝐻 𝑑2 𝛿
2
= 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 (14)
𝜋𝑓0 𝑑𝑡

 where 𝛿 is in electrical radian.

Power Angle Equation
 The simplest model for stability analysis is the classical model,
where the machine is represented by a constant voltage E
behind the direct axis transient reactance Xd .
 Consider a generator connected to a major substation of a
very large system through a transmission line as shown
Power Angle Equation
 The substation bus voltage and frequency is assumed constant; this
is commonly referred to as infinite bus, since its characteristics do
not change regardless of the power supplied or consumed by any
device connected to it.

 The generator is represented by a constant voltage E behind the

direct axis transient reactance 𝑋𝑑 . The node representing the

generator terminal voltage 𝑉𝑔 can be eliminated by converting the Y-

connected impedances to an equivalent Δ.
Power Angle Equation

 The bus admittance matrix for the above circuit is formed as

𝑌11 𝑌12
𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆 = (15)
𝑌21 𝑌22
Power Angle Equation
 The diagonal elements of the bus admittance matrix are

Y11 =y10 +𝑦12 and Y22 =y20 +𝑦12

 The off diagonal elements are

Y12 =Y21 =−𝑦12

 Expressing the voltages and admittances in polar form, the

real power at node 1 is given by
2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐸 𝑌11 cos 𝜃11 + 𝐸 𝑉 𝑌12 cos 𝛿 − 𝜃12
Power Angle Equation
 If all resistances are neglected,
𝜃11 = 𝜃12 = 90𝑜

 A simplified expression for power becomes

𝑃𝑒 = 𝐸 𝑉 𝑌12 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 − 90𝑂

𝐸 𝑉
𝑃𝑒 = sin 𝛿 (16)
𝑋12
Power Angle Curve
 From (16)
 The relation shows that the power transmitted depends upon
the transfer reactance 𝑋𝑒𝑞 and the angle between the two
voltages 𝛿. The curve 𝑃𝑒 verses 𝛿 is known as the power angle
curve.
Power Angle Curve
 The gradual increase of the generator power output is
possible until the maximum electrical power is transferred.
This maximum power is referred to as the steady state stability
limit, and occurs at an angular displacement of 90𝑜

𝐸 𝑉
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (17)
𝑋𝑒𝑞
Power Angle Curve
 The electric power equation in terms of 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 is
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 (18)
Question 1
 A single line diagram of a power system is shown in the
figure. All the values are in per unit on a common base. The
power delivered into bus 2 (an infinite bus having a voltage of
1.0 pu) is 1.0 pu at 0.8 power factor lagging. Obtain the
Power Angle Equation and the Swing Equation for the system.
Question 1-Solution
 Equivalent impedance of the network

𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 0.25 + 0.15 + 0.1 = 0.5

cos ∅ = 0.8, ∅ = 36.87𝑜 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
Question 1-Solution
 Current into bus 2
1.0
𝐼= ∠ − 36.87𝑜 = 1.25∠ − 36.87𝑜 𝑝𝑢
1 × 0.8
𝐸𝑔 ∠𝛿 = 𝑉 ∠0𝑜 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝐼

𝐸𝑔 ∠𝛿 = 1∠0𝑜 + 0.5∠90𝑜 × 1.25∠ − 36.87𝑜

𝐸𝑔 ∠𝛿 = 1.463∠20𝑜
Question 1-Solution
 The Power Angle Equation becomes

𝐸 𝑉
𝑃𝑒 = sin 𝛿
𝑋𝑒𝑞

1.463 × 1
𝑃𝑒 = sin 𝛿 = 2.926 sin 𝛿
0.5

 The Swing Equation (equation 14) becomes

𝐻 𝑑2 𝛿
2
= 1 − 2.926 sin 𝛿
𝜋𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
Question 2
 A 60 Hz synchronous generator having inertia constant H =
9.94 MJ/MVA and a transient reactance 𝑋𝑑 = 0.3 𝑝𝑢 is
connected to an infinite bus through a purely reactive circuit
as shown. Reactances are marked on the diagram on a
common system base. The generator is delivering real power
of 0.6 pu, 0.8 power factor lagging to the infinite bus at a
voltage of V = 1 pu. Obtain the power angle equation and the
natural frequency of oscillation of the rotor.
1.2  0.8  2.0 pu

Question 2
1.2  0.8  2.0 pu

Question 2-Solution
 The transfer reactance between the generator and the infinite
bus voltage is
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.15 = 0.65 𝑝𝑢

 The per unit apparent power is

0.6
𝑆= ∠ cos −1 0.8 = 0.75∠ −36. . 87°
0.8
1.2  0.8  2.0 pu

Question 2-Solution
 The current is

0.75∠−36..87°
I= = 0.75∠ − 36. . 87°
1.0∠0°

 The excitation voltage is

E = 𝑉 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝐼 = 1.0∠0° + 0.65∠90° × 0.75∠ −36. . 87°

E = 1.35∠16.79°
1.2  0.8  2.0 pu

Question 2-Solution
 The power angle equation becomes

𝐸 𝑉
𝑃𝑒 = sin 𝛿
𝑋𝑒𝑞

1.35 × 1
𝑃𝑒 = sin 𝛿 = 2.0769 sin 𝛿
0.65
 The synchronizing coefficient is given by
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝛿
1.2  0.8  2.0 pu

Question 2-Solution

1.35 × 1
𝑃𝑠 = cos 16.79° = 1.9884
0.65

 Natural frequency of oscillation given by

𝜋𝑓0 𝜋×60
𝜔𝑛 = 𝑃 = × 1.9884 = 6.1405 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐻 𝑠 9.94