GLASS INDUSTRY • Color Adaptive - Additives allow color
changes without compromising
WHAT IS GLASS? transparency.
Ø It is a hard, brittle substance, • No Di>erence in Properties with Aging -
typically transparent or translucent, Retains properties over time if
made by fusing sand with soda and then undamaged.
cooling it down. It is used to make
windows, drinking containers, and other Thermal Properties:
articles. • No Definite Boiling Point - Softens over
Ø Glass is an amorphous solid, which a range of temperatures rather than
means it has properties of both melting at a fixed point.
solids and liquids. While it appears • Softens on Heating - Becomes
solid, its atomic structure is moldable when heated.
disordered, similar to a liquid. This • Low Thermal Expansion - Minimal size
lack of a crystalline structure makes it change with temperature variations.
di>erent from typical solids. • High Refractive Index - Bends light
Ø So, while glass is technically a solid, it e>ectively, used in optics.
is sometimes described as being in a • Fire Resistant - Certain specialized
"nonequilibrium" or "supercooled glass types resist fire
liquid" state due to its molecular
arrangement. However, it does not flow WHY GLASS CAN EASILY BREAK
like a liquid under normal conditions, so UNLIKE OTHER SOLIDS?
calling it a liquid is misleading. > Glass can easily break unlike any other
solids because it lacks a crystalline
A. PROPERTIES OF GLASS structure, which means it does not have a
regular arrangement of atoms that can
Physical Properties: distribute stress evenly. Its structure is due
• Amorphous Solid - Random atomic to its rapidly cooling, preventing atoms
arrangement without a crystalline from forming rigid structure. If glass cools
structure. slowly, it can crystallize instead of
• Very Brittle - Breaks easily under stress remaining amorphous, forming a material
or impact. called devitrified glass or a type of
• Can Be Lightweight - Specially ceramic, which is typically stronger but
engineered glass materials can achieve less transparent. Depending on its use,
a lower weight. standard glass production involves rapid
• High Density - Higher density cooling to maintain its smooth, transparent
compared to plastics and gases. properties.
• Resistant to Compression - Withstands
compression forces but is weak in B. TYPES OF GLASS
tension. 1. Soda Lime Glass
• Transparency and Reduced Luminous Ø This is the most common commercial
Density - Allows light transmission with glass and less expensive. It is composed
controlled brightness. of 60-75% silica,
• Little Light Scattering - Minimal 12-18% soda, and 5-12% lime. A low
imperfections result in clear light percentage of other materials can be
passage. added for specific properties such as
• Adoptability into Sheets, Bulbs, and coloring.
Bottles - Moldable into various forms. Ø It has a smooth and nonporous
• Weather Resistance - Withstands surface that allows glass bottles and
environmental factors without packaging glass to be easily cleaned.
degradation. Ø The disadvantages of soda-lime glass
• Recycled Properties - Fully recyclable are that it is not resistant to high
without losing properties. temperatures and sudden thermal
changes.
Chemical Properties: Ø Some of the uses of soda-lime glass are
• Soluble in HF - Reacts with hydrofluoric primarily for bottles, jars, everyday
acid. drinking glasses, and window glass.
• Greater Chemical Resistance -
Resistant to most chemicals, 2. Lead Glass
preventing corrosion. Ø In 1664, an Englishman named
• Does Not Impart Taste, Smell, or Color - Ravenscroft found that adding lead
Chemically inert, ideal for food and oxide to a glass melt produced a
beverage storage. brilliant glass that was much easier to
melt and to shape. It has been used to
make fine crystal bowls and goblets and Ø Commonly used in fabrics, electrical
many kinds of art glass. insulation, and composite materials for
Ø Contains up to 65% lead oxide. construction and industrial applications.
Ø Excellent at absorbing gamma rays 3. Foam Glass
and harmful radiation, making it ideal Ø Lightweight, spongy material made
for use in the nuclear industry and by trapping gas bubbles in glass,
radiation shielding. o>ering excellent thermal insulation
Ø Cannot withstand high and resistance to moisture.
temperatures or sudden Ø Ideal for building insulation, cryogenic
temperature changes, similar to systems, and moisture-resistant
soda-lime glass. industrial applications.
3. Borosilicate Glass C. HISTORY
Ø Contains about 12% boron oxide . Ø • 3500 BCE: First evidence of manmade
Can withstand temperature variations of glass in Egypt and Mesopotamia; likely
up to 200°C. used for decoration.
Ø Offers greater chemical durability than • 250 BCE: Babylonian glassmakers
sodalime glass. discover blowpipe technology, making
Ø Commonly used in laboratory and glass production faster and more
kitchen glassware due to its heat and versatile.
chemical resistance. • 50 BCE: Phoenicians begin using glass
Ø More expensive to produce compared to for intricate art and functional purposes.
sodalime glass. • 100 AD: Rapid development of
glassblowing spreads through the Roman
4. Alumino-silicate Glass Empire, leading to widespread use.
Ø Contains alumina (Al₂O₃) • 1226: Broad sheet glass is first
for enhanced properties. produced in Sussex, England, marking
Ø Superior chemical and temperature advancements in flat glass production.
resistance compared to borosilicate • 1688: Polished plate glass is produced
glass. in France, enabling clear and smooth
Ø Used in pharmaceutical bottles and for surfaces for windows.
producing glass threads in fiberglass • 1773: English glassmakers introduce
fabric. lead glass, widely used for decorative
Ø Higher production costs due to its and utility purposes.
specialized composition. • 1903: Edward Benedictus invents
laminated glass, pioneering safety glass
5. High Silica Glass (fused used in vehicles and buildings.
quartz) Ø Contains 96.5–100% • 1959: Sir Alastair Pilkington develops
silica. the float glass process, revolutionizing
Ø Exceptional durability and flat glass manufacturing.
resistance to thermal shock and • Present Day: Glass research focuses on
chemical attack. enhancing strength, durability, and
Ø Can transmit ultraviolet light. Ø energy e>iciency for modern
Withstands extremely high applications.
temperatures (up to 1,200°C).
Ø Used in spacecraft windows and D. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
other highperformance applications. 1. Formers
Ø Expensive to manufacture due to its • They refer to the primary component
high purity and specialized production that forms the glass structure. It is
process. typically a substance that can create a
stable, amorphous solid when melted
RECENTLY DEVELOPED FORM OF and cooled.
GLASS • The most common glass former is
1. Safety Glass SILICA
Ø Made of two glass layers with a (SiO₂), but other materials like boron
plastic interlayer, preventing shard oxide (B₂O₃) and phosphorus
scattering upon breakage. pentoxide (P₂O₅) can also act as glass
Ø Provides safety, sound insulation, and formers in different types of glass.
UV protection, commonly used in car 2. Fluxes
windshields and buildings. • Pure silica is difficult to melt (1,723 °C)
2. Fiber Glass so fluxes can be added to lower the
Ø Made from molten glass spun into melting temperature like including soda
continuous filaments, offering (Na₂O), potash (K₂O), and lithia
strength, flexibility, and heat resistance. (Li₂O).
• Frequently used fluxes are carbonate Step 4: Cleaning/ Finishing/
substances (Na₂CO₃). Polishing
3. Stabilizers
• To make glasses stronger, stabilizers are Step 1: Melting & Batching
added. The most common stabilizer is Preparation
lime (CaO), but others are magnesia Ø Raw material depends upon a
(MgO), baria (BaO), and litharge variety of Glass.
(PbO). Ø Like for Soda Lime Glass, Sand
Mixture, Sodium Carbonate, and
E. RAW MATERIALS FOR GLASSMAKING Calcium
1. Silica Sand (SiO2) Carbonate in a ratio to raw
Ø Made of small quartz crystals. material as required for the
Ø Main ingredient, comprising 60-75% of formula a mass is produced called
glass. a “Batch” mixed with a “Cullet”
Ø When heated, it melts and forms the and put into a Pot or Tank furnace
glass structure. (1800℃).
2. Soda Ash (Na2CO3) Ø Refining process: removes bubbles
Ø Chemically known as sodium and impurities.
carbonate
Ø Acts as a fluc, lowering the melting Regenerative Tank Furnace
point of silica. • Batch is melted by Burning Natural
Ø Makes the melting process more Gases.
e>icient and cost-e>ective. • Burning Gases enter in the tank
3. Limestone (CaCO3) from one side
Ø Chemically known as calcium • As regenerative means its process
carbonate is reversed
Ø Improves glass durability and
chemical resistance Understanding By Reactions
Ø Prevents glass from dissolving in water Na2CO3 + xSiO2 → Na2O.SiO2 + CO2
Ø Enhances overall stability Na2SO4 + C → Na2O + CO + SO2
Na2O + ySiO2 → Na2O. YSiO2
CaCO3 + zSiO2 → CaO.zSiO2 + CO2
Additional Ingredients Over all Reaction on simultaneous
• Lead Oxide (PbO) – Increases fusion may be represented as
refractive index (used in optical & Na2CO3 + CaCO3 + 6SiO2 → Na2O.CaO. 6SiO2
decorative glass). + CO2
• Boric Oxide (B₂O₃) – Enhances heat
resistance (used in lab glass & cookware). Step 2: Shaping of Articles
• Metal Oxides – Provide colors (e.g., • Molten Glass is allowed to cool down a
Cobalt = Blue, Chromium = Green). bit.
• Alumina (Al₂O₃) – Increases chemical • Added to molds and shaped articles
resistance. • Articles are formed by
air-blowing techniques.
COLORED GLASS • Glass sheets can be prepared by
The color of glass was due to the presence pressing molten glass between rollers.
of significant amounts of metal
impurities. Window Glass Production:
1. Ferric Salt causes the glass to • Fourcault Process – Vertical drawing,
become yellow in color. annealed, and cut.
2. Selenium causes the glass to become • Colburn Process – Horizontal drawing,
red in color. flattened, and annealed.
3. Cobalt Salt causes the glass to
become blue in color. • Containers & Bottles:
4. Ferrous and Chromium causes the • Blow & Blow Method – Used for small
glass to become green in color. bottles.
5. Nickel causes the glass to become • Press & Blow Method – Used for wide-
black in color. mouth jars.
• IS Machine – High-speed automation for
F. MANUFACTURING PROCESS mass production.
Step 1: Melting & Batching
Preparation • Forming:
Step 2: Shaping & Forming Process > The molten glass is shaped into desired
Step 3: Annealing products using various methods:
• Blowing: Air is blown into molten glass bushings to create fine filaments (4–34
to form hollow objects like bottles. µm). These filaments are either
• Pressing: Molten glass is pressed into continuous (long fibers wound into
molds to create solid items like dishes. yarn) or staple (short fibers formed
• Drawing: Produces flat glass by pulling using compressed air). Finally, the fibers
molten glass onto a cooling table or undergo sizing and coating, where
through rollers. binders, lubricants, and coupling agents
• Floating: Used for making smooth are applied to enhance durability and
sheets of glass by floating molten glass adhesion.
on molten tin.
H. Common Defects in Glass • Bubbles:
Step 3: Annealing o Small air pockets trapped in the glass
Ø The process of slow and during the melting or forming process.
homogeneous cooling of articles o A>ects transparency and structural
made of glass is known as integrity.
annealing. • Striae (Streaks):
Ø Purpose: Prevents stress and o Uneven distribution of material or
cracking. impurities, creating visible streaks. •
Ø Annealing Lehr: Ensures slow Cracks and Fractures: o Can occur due
cooling for durability. to thermal shock or improper handling
during the manufacturing process.
Step 4: Finishing • Inclusions: o Foreign particles
Cutting & Polishing – Trimming and surface embedded within the glass, often caused
smoothing. Coatings & Treatments: by impurities in raw materials.
• Tempering – Strengthens glass (used • Devitrification:
in automotive screens). o Partial crystallization of glass, leading
• Laminating – Plastic-bonded layers to a loss of transparency and smoothness.
(used for safety glass). • Seams: o Visible lines at the joints
• Chemical Treatment – Increases of molded glass products, caused by
scratch resistance. improper alignment of molds. • Cord: o
Ribbon-like inhomogeneities due to
G. OTHER MANUFACTURING di>erences in composition or temperature
PROCESSES 1. Blown Glass during production.
Manufacturing Ø Heated plastic is • Surface Scratches: o May result
extruded into hollow tube (parison). from improper handling or contact with
Ø Mould closes-parison is gripped in abrasive surfaces during finishing.
placed. • Blisters:
Ø Compressed air is blown into parison o Larger gas pockets formed from
which inflates. trapped air or incomplete reactions during
Ø Parison fills mould melting.
Ø Product is trimmed and removed from
mould. I. Testing Methods for Glass Quality To
Ø Finished product ready for next ensure good quality, glass undergoes
production stage. various testing methods, including:
• Optical Clarity Test: Ensures
transparency and the absence of
distortions. Instruments measure light
2. Rolled Glass Manufacturing transmission and refraction.
Ø Rolled glass is manufactured by pouring • Strength Test: Determines the
glass from the furnace into a series of mechanical strength of the glass. This
rollers. It is hen shaped to the desired includes:
thickness, annealed and cut to size. > Four-Point Bending Test: Measures
Ø The two basic types of rolled glass are the flexural strength of glass.
patterned and wired. Patterned glass is > Impact Resistance Test: Simulates
also called figured glass, obscure glass, conditions like hail or debris impact.
and decorative glass. It is available in • Thermal Shock Test: Evaluates
thicknesses from 1/8’’ to 3/8’’. resistance to sudden temperature
changes by heating and cooling the
3. Fiber Glass Manufacturing glass rapidly.
• Surface Hardness Test: Assesses
Ø Fiberglass sheet manufacturing starts
scratch resistance using tools like Mohs
with batching, where raw materials like
hardness scale or indentation testing.
silica sand, soda ash, and limestone are
precisely mixed. The batch is then • Chemical Durability Test: Measures
melted in a furnace to form molten resistance to corrosion and chemical
glass, which is extruded through
reactions by exposing glass to acidic or
alkaline environments.
• Fragmentation Test (for Tempered
Glass): Ensures that tempered glass
shatters into small, safe pieces upon
breaking.
• Thickness Measurement: Verifies
uniformity in the glass thickness using
calipers or non-contact methods like
lasers.
• Annealing Test: Checks for residual
stresses in the glass using polarized
light to ensure proper annealing.
