Kerbala University 2nd Class

Engineering College Concrete Technology

Test of Fineness
Fineness is a vital property of cement, and Iraqi Standard Specification (No. 5) at
1984 requires the determination of the specific surface in (m2/kg).
A direct approach is to measure the particle size distribution by sedimentation;
these methods are based on Stoke's law, giving the terminal velocity of fall
under gravity of a spherical particle in a fluid medium. A development is the
Wagner turbidimeter, as specified by ASTM C l15. Here, the concentration of
particles in suspension at a given level in kerosene is determined using a
beam of light, the percentage of light transmitted (and hence the area of
particles) being measured by a photocell. The specific surface of cement can be
determined by the air permeability (Lea and Nurse) method (BS EN 196-6:
1992) which measures the pressure drop when dry air flows at a constant
velocity through a bed of cement of known porosity and thickness. From this,
the surface area per unit mass of the bed can be related to the permeability of
the bed.
A modification of this method is that of Blaine (ASTM C 204), in which
the air does not pass through the bed at a constant rate, but a known volume
of air passes at a prescribed average pressure, the rate of flow diminishing
steadily; the time taken for the flow to take place is measured, and for a given
apparatus and standard porosity, the specific surface can be calculated.
Both of the above air permeability methods give similar values of specific
surface but very much higher than the Wagner turbidimeter method. This is due
to Wagner's assumption about the size distribution which effectively

1-4
 Kerbala University 2nd Class
Engineering College Concrete Technology
Civil Engineering Department Asst. Lect. Laith M-Ridha

underestimates the surface area of particles below 7.5 µm. However, in practice,
all methods are adequate for assessing the relative variation in fineness of cement.

Test of Soundness
Le Chatelier's accelerated test is used for detecting unsoundness of cement due to free lime
only. Essentially, the test is as follows. Cement paste of standard consistence is stored in water
for 24 hours. The expansion is determined after increasing the temperature and boiling for 1
hour, followed by cooling to the original temperature. If the expansion exceeds a specified
value, a further test is made after the cement has been spread and aerated for 7 days. At the end
of this period, lime may have hydrated or carbonated, so that a second expansion test should
fall within 50 per cent of the original specified value. Cement which fails to satisfy at least one
of these tests should not be used. In practice, unsoundness due to free lime is very rare.
ASTM C 151 specifies the autoclave test which is sensitive to both free magnesia and free
lime. Here, a neat cement paste specimen of known length is cured in humid air for 24 hours
and then heated by high-pressure steam for about 1 hour so that a temperature of 216 °C is
attained. After maintaining that temperature and pressure for a further 3 hours, the autoclave is
cooled so that the pressure falls within 1.5 hours and the specimen is cooled in water to 23 °C
in 15 min. After a further 15 min, the length of the specimen is measured: the expansion due to
autoclaving must not exceed 0.8 per cent of the original length. This accelerated test gives no
more than a broad indication of the risk of long-term expansion in practice.
No test is available for the detection of unsoundness due to an excess of calcium sulfate, but
its content can be easily determined by chemical analysis.

2-4
 Kerbala University 2nd Class
Engineering College Concrete Technology
Civil Engineering Department Asst. Lect. Laith M-Ridha

Heat of Hydration
Heat of hydration is the heat generated when cement and water react. The amount of heat
generated is dependent chiefly upon the chemical composition of the cement, with C3A and
C3S being the compounds primarily responsible for high heat evolution, and also depend on:
The water-cement ratio (W\C).
Fineness of cement.
Temperature of curing.
In increasing of:
Fineness of cement.
Cement content. Increase heat of hydration
Temperature of curing.

Although Portland cement can evolve heat for many years, the rate of heat
generation is greatest at early ages. A large amount of heat evolves within the first
three days with the greatest rate of heat liberation usually occurring within the first
(24) hours.

Fig. 1. Heat Evaluation as a Function of Time for Cement Paste

3-4
 Kerbala University 2nd Class
Engineering College Concrete Technology
Civil Engineering Department Asst. Lect. Laith M-Ridha

Cements do not generate heat at a constant rate. The heat output during hydration of
typical Type I Portland cement is illustrated in Fig. (1), the first peak shown in the
heat profile is due to heat given off by the initial hydration reactions of cement
compounds such as tricalcium aluminate. Sometimes called the heat of wetting, this
first heat peak is followed by a period of slow activity known as the induction
period. After several hours, a broad second heat peak attributed to tricalcium
silicate hydration emerges, signaling the onset of the paste hardening process.
Finally, there is the third peak due to the renewed activity of tricalcium aluminate;
its intensity and location normally dependent on the amount of tricalcium aluminate
and sulfate in the cement.
For most concrete elements, such as slabs, heat generation is not a concern because
the heat is quickly dissipated into the environment. However, in structures of
considerable mass, greater than a (meter) thick, the rate and amount of heat
generated are important. If this heat is not rapidly dissipated, a significant rise in
concrete temperature can occur. This may be undesirable since, after hardening at
an elevated temperature, non uniform cooling of the concrete mass to ambient
temperature may create undesirable tensile stresses. On the other hand, a rise in
concrete temperature caused by heat of hydration is often beneficial in cold weather
since it helps maintain favorable curing temperatures.

4-4