ROCK MECHANICS

Dr. A. Salama
[email protected]
Contents

 Introduction

 Rock properties

 Rock mass structure

 Rock mass classification

 Stress and strain

 Stresses in rocks

 Rock strength and failure

 Behaviour of rocks under different loads

 Rock mechanics considerations in design of rock structures

 Introduction to Rock Support and Reinforcement

Introduction

 Geomechanics(mechanics of geological materials)

– Rock Mechanics
 Is a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the behaviour of rocks.
– Soil Mechanics
 Rock Engineering- aspect of Rock Mechanics
 Design, construction and performance of engineering structures built on or in a rock.
 What is so special in rock mechanics?
CHILE DIANE
CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS
HOMOGENEOUS INHOMOGENOUS
ISOTROPIC ANISOTROPIC
LINEAR ELASTIC NON ELASTIC
(Man-made materials) (Rocks)
Rock Mechanics Applications

 Mineral Extraction (mining)

 Stability of excavations

 Rock breaking techniques (drilling, cutting, blasting)

 Subsidence and induced seismicity

 Energy Extraction (petroleum)

 Reservoir stimulation (Hydraulic fracturing)

 Borehole breakouts

 Subsidence and induced seismicity

 Civil Engineering
 Stability of tunnels

 Stability of rock foundations and dams

 Safe waste disposal

Definitions

 Rock is the geological term which means that is any natural occurring aggregate of
minerals or mass of mineral matters, whether or not coherent which form an essential
part of the earth crust.
 Rock mass is the total insitu medium containing bedding planes, faults, joints, folds,
and other structural features. Rock masses are discontinuous and often have
heterogeneous and anisotropic engineering properties.
 Rock structure is the nature and distribution of structural features within the rock
mass
 Intact rock defined as the rock containing no significant fractures.
 Rock substance is the solid part of the rockmass typically obtained as a drill rock
core.
 Competent rock is the one which is sufficiently strong to transmit compressive force
under given conditions
 Ductility is the extent to which a rock can sustain plastic deformation without
breaking or rapture
Definitions cont’d

 Homogeneous rock is one in which the physical properties of all of

its parts or elements are the same.
 Heterogeneous rock is a characteristic of the rock signifying that the
rock has properties which vary with position within it.
 Isotropic rock Is the one that has the same physical properties in
every direction at any point.
 An anisotropic rock is one with certain of its properties varying with
direction at any point.
 The nature of Geotechnical Engineering

 What makes geotechnical engineering unique is the complexity and

uncertainty involved when interacting with the natural geological
environment.

 Often, field data (e.g. geology, geological structure, rock mass

properties, groundwater, etc.) is limited to surface observations
and/or limited by inaccessibility, and can never be known
completely. This makes Rock masses are complex systems
 Rock as an Engineering Materials

 A common assumption when dealing with mechanical behavior of

solids is that they are:
Homogeneous
Continuous
Isotropic
 However rocks are much more complex than this and there physical
and mechanical properties vary according to the scale. As a solid
material rock is often
Heterogeneous
Discontinuous
Anisotropic
Definitions cont’d
Rock Mass
 Topic 2
Selected Rock Properties
I. Physical rock properties
II. Mechanical rock properties
III. Other rock properties
Physical Rock Properties

 Density
 Unit Weight, γ
 Specific gravity
 Porosity, n
 Permeability
 Hardness
 Abrasivity
Density

 Density is a measure of mass per unit of volume ; ρ=M/V, gm/cm3

 It is sometimes defined by unit weight and specific gravity.
 Most rocks have density between 2,500 and 2,800 kg/m3.
 The density of igneous rocks is much higher than that of sedimentary rocks

Unit Weight , γ
 Is the weight per unit volume of the material, γ=W/V , N/m3.
γ=ρg
 Where
γ is the unit weight of the material (N/m3 units)
ρ is the density of the material (kg/m3)
g is acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Specific gravity, G

 The ratio of the density/weight of a material to the density/weight of an

equal volume of water,
G=ρsample/ρH2O
 If a rock mass may comprise several different minerals of varying specific
gravities, its true specific gravity is given as;
n
GiVi
G=∑
1 V
 G1, G2,…., Gn = specific gravity of individual mineral
 V1, V2, … Vn = volume of each mineral
 V = total volume of rock specimen, cm3
 n = number of minerals which compose the rock
Porosity, n

 Is the spaces (pores) between the mineral particles in a rock

 Porosity describes how densely the material is packed.
 It is the ratio of the non-solid volume to the total volume of material
V pores
n= x100%
Vrock
 Porosity therefore is a fraction between 0 and 1.
 The value is typically ranging from less than 0.01 for solid granite to
up to 0.5 for porous sandstone.
 Density and porosity often related to the strength of rock material.
A low density and high porosity rock usually has low strength.
 Porosity is one of the governing factors for the permeability.
Permeability

 The ability of a rock to allow fluids (oil, water, and gas) to pass
through it by nature of the interconnections of its internal porosity.
 Most rocks, including igneous, metamorphic and chemical sedimentary
rocks, generally have very low permeability.
Permeability

 The SI unit for permeability is m2 and traditional unit is the

Darcy (D).
 Darcy’s law

κ – permeability (m2~1011darcy)
Q – discharge (m3/sec)
Pa, Pb - pressures (Pa)
A – area (m2)
μ – dynamic viscosity (Pa. s)
Hardness

 Is the property to offer resistance to the penetration of another body

into it
 A hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement
procedure.
 Hardness of a rock materials depends on several factors, including
mineral composition and density.
 Hardness tests methods are
• Rockwell hardness test.
• Vickers hardness test
• The Brinell hardness test
• Moh’s hardness scale mostly be used.
 MHS was created in 1812 by the German geologist and mineralogist
Friedrich Mohs.
 Characterizes the scratch resistance of various minerals through the
ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material
Moh’s hardness scale
Abrasion
 Is the ability of rock to wear away other materials (steel) by rubbing or
friction.
 It is an important measure for estimate wear of rock drilling and boring
equipments.
 Abrasivity is highly influenced by the amount of quartz mineral in the
rock material. The higher quartz content gives higher abrasivity.
 It is estimated by abrasive hardness test

∆V
K AB =
P
Where KAB = abrasion index, cm3/kg.m
V = wearing away of the specimen per unit length of abrasion,
cm3/m;
P = pressure force of the specimen of the abrasive wheel, kg.
Cerchar Abrasiveness Test

∆V
K AB =
P

 Abrasiveness Investigations
Physical Properties of Rock Materials
Relationship between ρ, G, γ

ρw = 1 tonne/m3 = 1000kg/m3 = 1g/cm3

γw = 9.8 kN/m3
 We can use Gs to calculate the density or unit weight of the solid particles
ρs = Gs ρw and γs = Gsγw
 Hence the volume of the solid particles if the mass or weight is known

Ms Ws
Vs = =
Gs ρ w Gs γ w
Voids Ratio and Porosity

 Void ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids,Vv to the volume of
solids, Vs, that is
where Vv = Vw +Va
Vv
e=
Vs
 Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids,Vv to the total volume,
that is
Vv
n= V = Va + Vw + Vs
V
 The relation between e and n can be determined by noting that
Vs = V - Vv = (1 - n) V

 V Vv n hence e
e= v = = n=
Vs (1 − n )V 1 − n 1+ e
Degree of Saturation

 The degree of saturation, S, has an important influence on the rock

behaviour. It is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
voids
Vw Vw
s= =
Vv Va + Vw
 The distribution of the volume phases may be expressed in terms of e and
S. By knowing the unit weight of water and the specific gravity of the
particles the distributions by weight may also be determined as indicated in
Table below where solid volume assumed to be one (Vs = 1m3)
 Moisture content

 The moisture content, m, is a very useful quantity because it is simple to

measure. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
solid material
 If we express the weights in terms of e, S, Gs and γw as before we obtain
Ww
m=
Ws
Ww = γ wVw = γ weSVs
Ws = γ sVs = γ wGsVs
eS
 Hence m=
Gs
 Note that if the soil is fully saturated (S=1) the voids ratio can be simply
determined from the moisture content.
Unit Weights

 Several unit weights are used in rock mechanics. These are the bulk,
saturated, dry, and submerged unit weights.
 The bulk unit weight is simply defined as the weight per unit volume
W
γ bulk =
V
 When all the voids are filled with water the bulk unit weight is identical to
the saturated unit weight,γsat, and when all the voids are filled with air the
bulk unit weight is identical with the dry unit weight, γdry

 Submerged unit weight, which is defined as the difference between the

saturated unit weight and the unit weight of water
Mechanical rock properties

 Compressive strength
 Young modulus
 Poisson’s ratio
 Tensile strength
 Shear strength
Compressive strength
 Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed
compressive forces.
 The most common measure of compressive strength is the uniaxial compressive
test or unconfined compressive test.
 It is one of the most important mechanical properties of rock material, used in
design, analysis and modelling
Young modulus
 Is modulus of elasticity measuring of the stiffness of a rock material
 It is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of stress with strain
 Similar to strength, Young’s Modulus of rock materials varies widely with rock
type. For extremely hard and strong rocks, Young’s Modulus can be as high as
100 GPa.
Poisson’s ratio
 It measures the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain, at linearly-elastic region
 For most rocks, the Poisson’s ratio is between 0.15 and 0.4
Tensile strength
 Is normally defined by the ultimate strength in tension, i.e., maximum tensile stress
the rock material can withstand.
 Rock material generally has a low tensile strength. The low tensile strength is due
to the existence of microcracks in the rock.
 Tensile strength of rock materials can be obtained from several types of tensile
tests: direct tensile test, Brazilian test and flexure test.
Shear Strength
 Shear strength is used to describe the strength of rock materials, to resist
deformation due to shear stress.
 Rock resists shear stress by two internal mechanisms, cohesion and internal
friction.
 Shear strength of rock material can be determined by direct shear test and by
triaxial compression tests.
 Tensile and shear strengths are important as rock fails mostly in tension and in
shearing, even the loading may appears to be compression. Rocks generally
have high compressive strength so failure in pure compression is not common.
Other rock properties

 Fracture Toughness
 Brittleness
 Loosening
 Elasticity
 Plasticity

Fracture Toughness
 Fracture toughness of rock materials is a property which describes the ability
of the rock containing a crack to resist fracture.

Brittleness
 That characteristic of a material that is manifested by sudden or abrupt failure
without appreciable prior ductile or plastic deformation.
Loosening
 Is the property to increase in volume as compared to that insitu as a result of
breaking it.
 Is estimated by coefficient of loosening which is determined by the formula:
VL
KL =
V
Where KL = coefficient of loosening
VL = volume of loosened rock, cm3
V = volume of rock in situ cm3

Elasticity
 Is the property or quality of rocks which tend to recover their original volume or
shape after a displacing force is removed. Linear relationship between stress and
strain.
Plasticity
 Is the property of rock to undergo permanent deformation after the removal of
the externally applied load. Non linear relationship between stress and strain.
 Topic 3
Rock Mass Structure
3.1 Introduction
Introduction

 The nature and distribution of structural features within the

rock mass is known as the rock structure
 The rock structure has a great influence on the response of the
rock mass to mining operations.
 Rock structures controls
a) Stable excavation spans;
Introduction

b) Support requirements;
Unstable
Wedge

Weight of Wedge = 30 tons

Split sets (1.8m) hold 4 tons each. Nine
bolts are installed, is it OK?

DO YOU SEE ANY PROBLEM

Capacity of swellex bolts is 10 tons each.

Introduction

c) Subsidence and Cavability,

Introduction

d) Fragmentation characteristics.
Introduction

 At shallow depths and de-stressed areas, structurally

controlled failures may be the prime concern in
excavation design.
 At depth and in areas of high stress concentration, the
influence of the rock structure is less compared to
induced boundary stresses or energy release rates.
3.2 Major Types of Structural
Features
Major Types of Structural Features

 Bedding planes
 Folds

 Faults/shear zones

 Dykes

 Joints
Bedding planes

 Divide sedimentary rocks into beds or strata

 They represent interruptions in the course of deposition of the rock mass.
 They are generally highly persistent features.
 Bedding planes may contain parting material of different grain size from
the sediments forming the rock mass, or may have been partially healed by
low-order metamorphism.
Bedding planes

Grand Canyon Beds in United States.

Bedding planes

Lower Mississippian Sunbury beds of shale formation in USA

Folds

 Are structures in which the attitudes of the beds are changed by flexure
resulting from the application of post-depositional tectonic forces
 The major effects of folds are that they alter the orientations of beds
locally, and that certain other structural features are associated with them.
 In particular, well defined sets of joints may be formed in the crest or trough
and in the limbs of a fold.
 Folds

limbs
syncline

anticline
Folds

Folded Rock on Belle-Ile Brittany France

Folds

Folds in Lulworth Cove, Dorset, England

Faults

 Are fractures on which identifiable shear displacement has taken place

 They may be recognized by the relative displacement of the rock on
opposite sides of the fault plane
 Fault thickness may vary from metres in the case of major, regional
structures to millimetres in the case of local faults.
 The fault thickness may contain weak materials such as fault gouge (clay),
fault breccia (recemented) rock flour or angular fragments
Fault

Small fault in San Mateo County, CA, USA

Faults

Faulted sedimentary rock layers exposed in a roadcut in Guatemala

 Structural features

Folds

Bedding planes

A Reverse Fault
Dykes

 Are long, narrow intrusions of generally fine-grained igneous rock with

steep or vertical and approximately parallel sides.
 They may vary in width from a few centimetres to several kilometres e.g.
the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe measures around 500 kilometers long.
 Most dyke rocks are more resistant to weathering than the country rock,.
 Because of their high stiffness, unweathered dyke rocks can develop high
stresses and so be susceptible to stress induced failure or be associated
with rock burst conditions, e.g., in the deep South African gold mines.
Dyke
Dyke in schist near to Salen, Highland, Great Britain
Great dyke of Zimbabwe
Joints

 Are breaks of geological origin along which there has been no visible
displacement
 Are the most common and generally the most geotechnically significant
structural features in rocks.
 A group of parallel joints is called a joint set, and joint sets intersect to
form a joint system.
 Joints may be open, filled or healed
 They frequently form parallel to bedding planes, foliations or slaty
cleavage, when they may be termed bedding joints, foliation joints or
cleavage joints.
 It is common in rock mechanics to use the term discontinuity as a collective
term for all fractures or features in a rock mass such as joints, faults, shears,
weak bedding planes and contacts that have zero or relatively low tensile
strengths.
Joints
3.3 Important geomechanical properties of
discontinuities
Important geomechanical properties of discontinuities

 Orientation
 Spacing
 Persistence
 Roughness
 Aperture
 Filling
Orientation

 Strike and dip are measurements that are needed to define the orientation
of rock layers or any other planar geological feature (e.g., metamorphic
foliation, fractures, faults, and tops of tabular units like formations)
Strike-
 A compass direction relative to North
 Showing the direction of an imaginary
line formed by the intersection of a
rock layer with a horizontal plane.
 (i.e. as 000 or NS),
Orientation
Dip-
 Dip is the acute angle between
an inclined plane/rock layer
and an imaginary horizontal plane,
 Dip varies from 0o to 90o .
 Vertical plane has a dip of 90o
 Horizontal plane has a dip of 0o
Orientation
Dip direction
 The dip direction is necessarily perpendicular to the strike line, and is
usually approximated by one of the 8 directions N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W,
NW
 (i.e. as West),
 In rock mechanics, the orientation data
is recorded as dip direction/strike (three digits)
/dip (two digits)
 For example the orientation is NS/30 E or 000/30E
 Note: Dip direction = strike+90
Orientation
Spacing

 The degree of fracturing of a rock mass is controlled by the number

of joint in a given dimension.
 This is the perpendicular distance between a particular pair of
adjacent discontinuities and is usually expressed as the mean spacing
of that joint set.
 The spacing of discontinuities determines the size of the blocks
making up the rock mass.
 A close spacing gives low mass cohesion and circular or even flow
failure. It also influences the mass permeability.
 Joint frequency (λ), is defined as number of joint per metre length. It
is therefore simply the inverse of joint spacing ( X )
λ=1/ X
Spacing
 ISRM recommends the use of the terms in Table below to
describe joint spacing. The description ranges from extremely
close spacing to extremely wide spacing.
Spacing

 Another measure of fracturing degree is the Rock Quality Designation

(RQD).
What is RQD?
 RQD is a widely accepted index used in most empirical design methods
used to describe rock quality.
 Developed based on NQ diameter core.
 The larger the diameter, the less influence of drilling on core fractures.
 It is defined as the percentage of rock cores that have length equal or
greater than 100 mm over the total drill length,
 Thus
RQD = ΣLength of cores ≥100 mm × 100%
Total length of drilling
RQD (from Core)
RQD from Line Mapping
RQD (from Core)
Spacing cont’d

 Although RQD was initially proposed as an attempt to describe rock

quality, in reality, it only describes fracturing degree, by in fact considering
the spacing of joints.
 Therefore, statistically, RQD can be correlated to joint spacing or joint
frequency the following equation given by Priest and Hudson (1976)
 RQD = 100e -0.1λ(0.1λ + 1)
 For values of λ in the range 6 to 16/m
RQD = 110.4 - 3.68λ
Persistence

 This is a term used to describe the areal extent or size of a discontinuity

within a plane
 Quantified by observing the trace lengths of discontinuities on exposed
surfaces.
 Persistence of a discontinuity has a major influence on the shear strength
developed in the plane of the discontinuity. E.g. controls large scale sliding
or 'down-stepping' failure of slope.

Description Surface trace length (m)

Very low persistence <1

Low persistence 1-3
Medium persistence 3-10
High persistence 10-20
Very high persistence >20
Roughness

 A joint is an interface face of two contacting surfaces. The surfaces can be

smooth or rough; they can be in good contact and matched, or they can be
poorly contacted and mismatched. The interface can also be filled with
intrusive or weathered materials.
 Joint surface roughness is a measure of the inherent surface unevenness and
waviness of the discontinuity relative to its mean plane
 The wall roughness of a discontinuity has a potentially important influence
on the direction of shear displacement and shear strength, and in turn, the
stability of potentially sliding blocks.
 The importance of roughness declines with increasing aperture, filling
thickness or previous shear displacement.
Joints Roughness Coefficient
Aperture

 This is the perpendicular distance separating the adjacent rock walls of an

open discontinuity.
 Joint opening is either filled with air and water (open joint) or with infill
materials (filled joint)
 Open or filled joints with large apertures have low shear strength

Classification of discontinuity aperture

Filling
 Filling is material in the rock discontinuities.
 Filling materials have a major influence on the shear strength of
discontinuities.
 With the exception of those filled with strong vein materials, (e.g., calcite,
quartz, pyrite), filled discontinuities usually have low shear strengths than
comparable clean, closed discontinuities.
3.4 Stereographic Projection
Stereographic Projection

 A stereograph is used by geologists/rock mechanics engineers

to plot the strike and dip of folds, faults bed layers etc. which
are uncovered in the field.
 Therefore Stereographic Projection is the projection of those
features on a piece of paper to know the structurally
instability they will cause to our excavations.
 It can be done manually or by use of computer (DIPS software)
 After plotting those features then UNWEDGE software is used
for the analysis.
Dips
UNWEDGE Software
 Unwedge is used to analyse wedge failure around excavations
where discontinuities are persistent, and where stress induced
failure does not occur.
 Unwedge also provides support to the models using rockbolts
and shotcrete.
 The wedges are tetrahedral in nature, and defined by three
intersecting discontinuities.
 A maximum of three structural planes can be analyzed at one
time
 All of the discontinuity surfaces are assumed to be perfectly
planar and the underground excavation is assumed to have a
constant cross section along its axis.
UNWEDGE – Input Data
Stereo-nets
Stereographic Projection using stereo-nets

 All longitudinal lines and the equatorial line are considered Great Circles.
 All latitude lines (except the equatorial line) are Small Circles.
 You can plot two types of features on a stereonet, a line (e.g. trend and
plunge) and a plane (e.g. a strike and dip). A line plots as a point and a
plane plots as a great circle
 Stereo-nets can be used to
 Plot a plane given its strike and dip

 Plot a line given its trend and plunge

 Find the angle between two lines/Planes

 Find line of intersection of two planes etc.

 To be able to carry out the exercises, a transparent paper, a drawing pin

and an Equal angle net (Stereo-net) is needed
 In a stereo-net the strike is counted outwards from the periphery of the net
from 0° (north). Every unit on the periphery of the net is equal to 2°.
 Dip is counted from the net’s periphery (= 0°) to the net’s center (= 90°).
Plot a plane given strike and dip

 Example
 Plot a plane striking 072 degrees and dipping 24 SE
 Topic 4
Rock Mass Classification
4.1 Engineering Rock Mass Classification Schemes
Rock Mass Classification Schemes

 Originally developed for estimation of tunnel support.

 Used at project feasibility and preliminary design stages.
 Simple check lists or detailed schemes.
 Used to develop a picture of the rock mass and its variability
 Used to provide initial empirical estimates of stable tunnel spans and
support requirements
 Are practical engineering tools which allow user to relatively rate the key
properties that control stability in a rock mass
 Most of the multi-parameter classification schemes (Wickham et al (1972)
Bieniawski (1973, 1989) and Barton et al (1974)) were developed from
civil engineering case histories in which all of the components of the
engineering geological character of the rock mass were included.
Early ERMC Schemes

1. Terzaghi's rock mass classification- byTerzaghi (1946) for the design of tunnel
support. He describe the rockmass as an Intact, Stratified, Moderately
jointed, Blocky and seamy, Crushed, Squeezing and Swelling.

2. Classifications involving stand-up time- Lauffer (1958) proposed that the

stand-up time for an unsupported span is related to the quality of the rock
mass in which the span is excavated.
3. Rock quality designation index (RQD)- (Deere et al 1967) to provide a
quantitative estimate of rock mass quality from drill core logs.

4. Rock Structure Rating (RSR)- Wickham et al (1972). It is a quantitative

method for describing the quality of a rock mass and for selecting
appropriate support on the basis of their Rock Structure Rating.
4.2 Geomechanics Classification-RMR
Introduction

 Bieniawski (1976) published the details of a rock mass classification called

the Geomechanics Classification or the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system.
 RMR scheme
 Divide the rockmass into groups of similar behaviour
 Provide a good basis for understanding the characteristics of the
rockmass
 Facilitate the planning and the design of structures in rock by yielding
quantitative data required for the solution of real engineering
problems
 Provide a common basis for effective communication among all persons
concerned with a geomechanics problem.
 Over the years, (1976-1989) this system has been successively refined as
more case records have been examined therefore Bieniawski has made
significant changes in the ratings assigned to different parameters.
Geomechanics Classification or Rock Mass Rating System (RMR)

 Provides RMR of 0-100

 Based on the following six parameters :
1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.
2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
3. Spacing of discontinuities.
4. Condition of discontinuities.
5. Groundwater conditions.
6. Orientation of discontinuities.

RMR = R1+R2+R3+R4+R5+R6

 In applying this classification system, the rock mass is divided into a number of
structural regions and each region is classified separately.
RMR System

Rating Class Description

81-100 I Very Good Rock
61-80 II Good Rock
41-60 III Fair Rock
12-40 IV Poor Rock
Less than 20 V Very Poor Rock
Example 1

A tunnel is to be driven through a slightly weathered granite with a dominant

joint set dipping at 60o against the direction of the drive. Index testing and
logging of diamond drilled core give typical Point-load strength index values
of 8 MPa and average RQD values of 70%. The slightly rough and slightly
weathered joints with a separation of < 1 mm, are spaced at 300 mm.
Tunnelling conditions are anticipated to be wet. Determine the RMR and give
the description of the rock mass.
Solution;
 Summarize the problem into six parameters for classification then use the
provide standard table to read the rating and obtaining the RMR
 After that you can select and estimate the quantity of supports required*.
The RMR value is determined as follows :

Table Item Value Rating

4.4: A.1 Point load index 8 MPa 12
4.4: A.2 RQD 70% 13
4.4: A.3 Spacing of discontinuities 300 mm 10
4.4: E.4 Condition of discontinuities Note 1 25
4.4: A.5 Groundwater Wet 7
4.4: B Adjustment for joint orientation Note 2 -5
Total 62

 Note: When more detailed information is available, Table 4.4.E can be

used to obtain a more refined rating.
Stability of Excavations- RMR
Example 2

 Pre-investigations in an area where a tunnel will be driven have given with

the Uniaxial Compressive Strength, UCS of 253 MPa. The granite is not
weathered. The rock mass is quite massive with few joints and RQD = 91%.
The joints are very rough and tight. No joint filling. Average joint spacing is
0.33m. No water is presented in the joints. Determine RMR and give the
description of the rock mass.
Solution;
 Summarize the problem into six parameters for classification then use the
provide standard table to read the rating and obtaining the RMR
Modifications to RMR for mining-MRMR

 Bieniawski's Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system was originally based

upon case histories drawn from civil engineering.
 Several modifications have been proposed in order to make the
classification more relevant to mining applications. A comprehensive
summary of these modifications was compiled by Bieniawski (1989).
 Laubscher et al (1976, 1984 and 1990 ) developed a Modified
Rock Mass Rating system for mining.
 The last update was released in 2000 [Laubscher and Jakubec]
 This MRMR system takes the basic RMR value, as defined by
Bieniawski, and adjusts it to account for in situ and induced stresses,
stress changes and the effects of blasting and weathering.
 MRMR = RMR * adjustment factors
Rock Tunnelling Quality Index, Q

 Based on evaluation of a large number of case histories of underground

excavations for the determination of rock mass characteristics and tunnel
support requirements.
 Barton et al (1974) of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute proposed a
Tunnelling Quality Index (Q system)
 The numerical value of the index Q varies on a logarithmic scale from
0.001 to a maximum of 1,000 and is defined by

 Where: RQD is the Rock Quality Designation

Jn is the Joint set number
Jr is the Joint roughness number
Ja is the Joint alteration number
Jw is the Joint Water reduction factor
SRF is the Stress reduction factor
‘Q’ Classification System

 (RQD/Jn), representing the structure of the rock mass related to the intact block size
measured in cm
 (Jr/Ja) represents the roughness and frictional characteristics of the joint walls or
filling materials. It is to be expected that such surfaces will be close to peak
strength, that they will dilate strongly when sheared, and they will therefore be
especially favourable to tunnel stability. The joint friction should be approximately
Tan-1(Jr/Ja).
 (Jw/SRF) consists of two stress parameters.
 SRF can be regarded as a total stress parameter
 measure of
– loosening load as excavated through shear zones
– rock stress in competent rock
– squeezing loads in plastic incompetent rock

• Jw is a measure of water pressure which has an adverse effect on the shear

strength of joints due to a reduction in effective normal stress.
Q Classification

 (Jw/SRF) is a complicated empirical factor describing the 'active stress'.

 It appears that the rock tunnelling quality Q can now be considered to be a function
of only three parameters which are crude measures of:
1. Block size (RQD/Jn)
2. Inter-block shear strength (Jr/ Ja)
3. Active stress (Jw/SRF)
 For mining, Jw is rarely an issue and we have more sophisticated tools to consider
the effect of stress(SRF) on rock mass stability effectively, Therefore the active stress
parameter is ignored.
Q System – General Assessment

Quality Index Q Rock Mass Description

0.01 – 0.001 Exceptionally poor
0.01 – 0.1 Extremely poor
0.1 – 1.0 Very poor
1–4 Poor
4 – 10 Fair
10 – 40 Good
40 – 100 Very good
100 – 400 Extremely good
400 – 1000 Exceptionally good
Example 1

 A 15 m span crusher chamber for an underground mine is to be excavated in a

norite at a depth of 2,100 m below surface. The rock mass contains two sets of
joints controlling stability. These joints are undulating, rough and unweathered with
very minor surface staining. RQD values range from 85% to 95% and laboratory
tests on core samples of intact rock give an average uniaxial compressive strength
of 170 MPa. The principal stress directions are approximately vertical and
horizontal and the magnitude of the horizontal principal stress is approximately 1.5
times that of the vertical principal stress. The rock mass is locally damp but there is
no evidence of flowing water. Find the value of Q and use it to describe the rock
mass.
Solution

 The numerical value of RQD is used directly in the calculation.

 For two joint sets, the joint set number, Jn = 4.
 For rough or irregular joints which are undulating, gives a joint roughness number Jr = 3
 Joint alteration number, Ja = 1.0, for unaltered joint walls with surface staining only.
 For an excavation with minor inflow, the joint water reduction factor, Jw = 1.0.
 For a depth below surface of 2,100 m the overburden stress will be approximately 57
MPa and, in this case, the major principal stress σ1 = 85 MPa. Since the uniaxial
compressive strength of the norite is approximately 170 MPa, this gives a ratio of σc /
σ1= 2.
 For competent rock with rock stress problems, this value of σc / σ1 can be expected to
produce heavy rock burst conditions and that the value of SRF should lie between 10
and 20. A value of SRF = 15 will be assumed for this calculation.
 Therefore ((Fair rock)
Q System – 2 example

 RQD=50-75

 Joint sets 2
Jn=4

 Joint roughness is smooth

and planar
Jr=1.0

 Joint Alteration is none

Ja=1.0

 Therefore, Q=12-18
Q System – General Assessment

Quality Index Q Rock Mass Description

0.01 – 0.001 Exceptionally poor
0.01 – 0.1 Extremely poor
0.1 – 1.0 Very poor
1–4 Poor
4 – 10 Fair
10 – 40 Good
40 – 100 Very good
100 – 400 Extremely good
400 – 1000 Exceptionally good
RMR & Q Classifications

 The two most widely used rock mass classifications are Bieniawski's RMR ( 1989)
and Barton et al's Q (1974)
 To correlate between the RMR and the Q value, a total of 117 case histories were
analyzed involving 68 Scandinavian cases, 28 South Africa cases and 21 other
document case histories from the United State, Canada, Australia, and Europe. The
results show that the following relationship is applicable.
RMR = 9lnQ + 44
 RMR assesses rock strength directly while Q only consider strength as it relates to
insitu stress in competent rock.
 RMR assesses joint orientation, Q assesses number of joint sets, but not joint
orientation
 Both consider ground water.
 The greatest difference between the two systems is the lack of a stress parameter in
the RMR system.
 **Only use the equation for comparison, always estimate classification values from
the raw data.
 Topic 5

Stress and Strain

5.1 Force and Stress
Force

 A property or action that changes or tends to change the state of rest or

velocity or direction of an object in a straight line.
 In the absence of force a body moves at constant velocity, or it stays at rest
 Force is a vector quantity; i.e., has magnitude, direction

Units of Force
 Two of the more common units of force are the dyne (d) and newton (N)

Force =1N = kgm/s2

or Force = 1 d = gcm/s2
 A newton is the force required to impart an acceleration of one meter per
second squared to a body of one kilogram mass
 A dyne is the force required to accelerate one gram of mass at one
centimeter per second squared.
Stress is Great!

 Forces applied on a body do either or both of the following:

 Change the velocity/direction of the body
 Result in a shape change of the body

 A given force applied by a sharp object (e.g., needle) has a

different effect than a similar force applied by a dull object (e.g.,
peg). Why?
 We need another measure called stress which reflect these effects
and this is Stress!
 Stress is force per unit area
 It is the intensity of the force, i.e., how concentrated the force is
σ = lim δF/δA when δA → 0
 A force acting on a small area such as the tip of a sharp nail or base
of high heel shoe, has a greater intensity than a flat-headed nail or a
snow shoe!
σ = [MLT-2] / [L2]=[ML -1T-2]
Stress units

 If a force of 1N is acting over an area of 1 square metre, this stress is called

one Pascal (Pa)
stress units = kg m-1 s-2 Pascal (Pa) = Newton/m2
 1 bar (non-SI) = 105 Pa ~ 1 atmosphere
 1 kb = 1000 bar = 108 Pa = 100 MPa
 1GPa = 109 Pa = 1000 MPa = 10 kb

Why study stress??

 There are pre-existing state of stress in the ground from both gravity
loading and active tectonic forces. Since rock engineers design structures
in the earth, we have to know the stresses we are designing for.
 When we construct a structure in the ground, we are disturbing the
existing equilibrium of stresses. We can dramatically alter the state of
stress whether by unloading (excavation) or extra loading (foundation or
dam abutment), we have to know the stresses we have induced.
Normal and Shear Forces

 Many planes can pass through a point in a rock body

 Force (F) across any of these planes can be resolved into two components:
Shear force: Fs , & normal force: Fn, where:
Fs = F sin θ Fn = F cos θ
tan θ = Fs/Fn
 Smaller θ means smaller Fs
Normal and Shear Stress

 Stress is Force per unit area

 A given force produces a large stress when applied on a small
area!
 The same force produces a small stress when applied on a
larger area
 The state of stress at a point is anisotropic:
 Stress varies on different planes with different orientation
 stress (σ) acting on a plane can be also resolved into two
components:
 Normal stress (σn)
 Component of stress perpendicular to the plane, i.e.,
parallel to the normal to the plane
 Shear stress (σs) or τ
 Components of stress parallel to the plane
Stress Tensor

 However stress at a point of a given body is defined by nine stress components,

thus only six independent stress components are required to defined
completely the stress at a point.

 Nine components

 Thus
Means stress acting on same plane are similar

 Six independent components

Stress tensor

 In the z plane, the normal stress is σzz and the shear stresses are: τzy and τ zx
 In the y plane, the normal stress is σyy and the shear stresses are: τyx and τ yz
 In the x plane, the normal stress is σxx and the shear stresses are: τxy and τxz
 Thus, we have a total of 9 components for a stress acting on a extremely
small cube at a point
at equilibrium

τyz = τzy
τzx = τxz
τxy = τyx
Principal Stresses

 The stress tensor matrix:

| σ11 σ12 σ13 |
σij = | σ21 σ22 σ23 |
| σ31 σ32 σ33 |

 If we rotate the cube, it should be possible to find the directions in which the normal
stress components take on maximum and minimum values
 It is found that in this direction the shear components on all surfaces become zero.
The planes are called the principle planes and the normal stress acting on these
planes are called principle stresses and are denoted by σ1, σ2 and σ3
 Can be simplified by choosing the coordinates so that they are parallel to the principal
axes of stress:
| σ1 0 0 |
σij = |0 σ2 0 |
|0 0 σ3 |

 The σ 1 , σ2 , and σ 3 are the major, intermediate, and minor principal stress, respectively
 σ1> σ3 or σ1 <σ3 ; principal stresses may be compressive or tensile.
State of Stress

1. Mean stress (Pressure)

 The 3D stresses are equal in magnitude in all directions; like the

radii of a sphere
 The magnitude of pressure is equal to the mean of the principal
stresses
 The mean stress : hydrostatic/lithostatic pressure; e.g. weight of
overburden is same in every direction; isotropic

P = (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) / 3

• Pressure is positive when it is compressive and negative when it is

tensile (in rocks)
State of stress

2. Deviatoric Stress
 A total stress σΤ can be divided into its components:

a) Isotropic (Pressure) or mean stress (σm)

Pressure is the mean of the principal stresses . Only causes
volume change.
b) Deviatoric (σd) that deviates from the mean
Deviator’s components are calculated by subtracting the
mean stress (pressure) from each of the normal stresses of
the general stress tensor (not the shear stresses!).
Causes shape change.
σT=σm+σd or σd=σT-σm
Decomposition of Matrix

• Decomposition of the total stress matrix into the mean and

deviatoric matrices

• The deviatoric part of total stress leads to change in shape

Isotropic Stress Anisotropic Stress

Special States of Stress - Uniaxial Stress

 Uniaxial Stress (compression or tension)

 One principal stress (σ1 or σ3) is non-zero, and the other two are equal
to zero

 Uniaxial compression
Compressive stress in one direction: σ1 > σ2=σ3 = 0
|a 0 0|
|0 0 0|
|0 0 0|
 The Mohr circle is tangent to the ordinate at the origin (i.e., σ2= σ3= 0) on
the + (compressive) side
Uniaxial Tension

Tension in one direction:

0 = σ1 = σ2 > σ3

|0 0 0|
|0 0 0|
|0 0-a|

 The Mohr circle is tangent to the ordinate at the origin on the - (i.e.,
tensile) side
Special States of Stress

 Biaxial Stress:
 Two of the principal stresses are non-zero and the other is zero

 Pure Shear:
σ1 = -σ3 and is non-zero (equal in magnitude but opposite in sign)
σ2 = 0 (i.e., it is a biaxial state)
 The normal stress on planes of maximum shear is zero (pure shear!)
|a 0 0 |
|0 0 0 |
|0 0 -a|
 The Mohr circle is symmetric w.r.t. the ordinate (center is at the origin)
Special States of Stress - Triaxial Stress

 Triaxial Stress:
 σ1, σ2, and σ3 have non-zero values
 σ1 > σ2 > σ3 and can be tensile or compressive

 Is the most general state in nature

|a 0 0 |
|0 b 0 |
|0 0 c |

 The Mohr circle has three distinct circles

5.2 Mohr Circle of stress
Mohr Circle
 Introduced by Otto Mohr in 1882. Mohr's Circle illustrates principal stresses
and stress transformations via a graphical format.

 In 2D space (e.g., on the σ1σ2 , σ1σ3, or σ2σ3 plane), the normal stress (σn)
and the shear stress (σs), could be given by equations below (in class we will
show how these equations were derived)

σn= (σ1+σ2)/2 + (σ1-σ2)/2 cos2θ

σs = 1/2 (σ1 - σ2) sin 2θ
Where
c = (σ1+σ2)/2 is the center which lies on the normal stress axis (x axis)
r = (σ1-σ2)/2 is the radius
ω= 2θ
Mohr Circle

NOTE:
θ is the angle from σ1 to the normal to the plane!

σn = σ1 at θ = 0ο (a maximum)
σn = σ2 at θ = 90ο (a minimum )

 There is no shear stress on the three principal planes.

σs = 0 at θ = 0ο or 90ο or 180ο (a min)
σs = (σ1−σ2)/2 at θ = + 45ο (maximum shear stress)
 The maximum σs is 1/2 the differential stress
(i.e., σs = (σ1-σ2)/2)
Mohr Circle for Stress
Mohr Circle in 3D
Special States of Stress
Special States of Stress

Triaxial Biaxial

Uniaxial Hydrostatic
Example:

 Draw Mohr’s circles of the following cases:

How to resolve stress in a rock

σ1 what are normal and

wooden plank shear stresses on an
arbitrarily oriented plane AB
A σs σn block of clay in the block of clay?
D
σ3
C θ B
wooden plank

Solution:
Assume plane has unit area, e.g. 1 unit2 thus AB has unit length, e.g. 1 unit
1. We find area of plane AB
along AC (parallel to σ1) : area of AC = 1 x sin θ = sin θ
along BC (parallel to σ3):area of BC = 1 x cos θ = cos θ
How to resolve stress in a rock

2. Next we consider forces acting on each plane represented by AB,

BC, and AC
force = stress x area
…force on side BC = σ1 x cos θ = σ1 cos θ
…force on side AC = σ3 x sin θ = σ3 sin θ
force on AB is a normal force, σn x 1 and a shear force, σs x 1
for equilibrium, forces must be in balance (block does not spin or
move) σ1
balance parallel to AB and
balance perpendicular to AB (direction CD) wooden
plank
Perpendicular to AB: A σs σn
force AB = force BC resolved on CD
D
+ force AC resolved on CD σ3
C θ B
1 x σn = σ1 cos θ cos θ + σ3 sin θ sin θ
wooden
σn = σ1 cos2 θ + σ3 sin2 θ ………(1)
plank
How to resolve stress in a rock

If we substitute the following trigonometric relationships in eq 1

cos2 θ = 1/2 (1 + cos 2θ)

sin2 θ = 1/2 (1 - cos 2θ)

σn = 1/2 (σ1 + σ3) + 1/2 (σ1 - σ3 ) cos 2θ

Parallel to AB

force parallel AB = force BC resolved on AB +

force AC resolved on AB

1 x σs = σ1 cos θ sin θ - σ3 sin θ cos θ

σs = (σ1 - σ3) sin θ cos θ

∴σs = 1/2 (σ1 - σ3) sin 2θ

 Determining The Stress Components on a Plane of Given
Orientation When the State of Stress is Known

Consider a triangular prism with unit thickness and lengths of sides ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’. Suppose
side “c” makes on angle θ with ‘b’

At equilibrium, horizontal and vertical components of the force must be the same

σz
τ

θ c
τ
b
a σx

σp
 Determining The Stress Components on a Plane of Given
Orientation When the State of Stress is Known

Consider a triangular prism with unit thickness and lengths of sides ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’. Suppose
side “c” makes on angle θ with ‘b’

Equating the horizontal forces

 Determining The Stress Components on a Plane of Given
Orientation When the State of Stress is Known

Equating the vertical forces:

If we multiply horizontal and vertical components and remembering that

Determining The Stress Components on a Plane of Given
Orientation When the State of Stress is Known

Is the Quadratic equation and the two roots of can be obtained

σ x +σ z
σ p1 = + 1 / 2 (σ x + σ z ) − 4 * (σ xσ z − τ 2 )
2

σ x +σ z
σ p2 = − 1 / 2 (σ x + σ z ) − 4 * (σ xσ z − τ 2 )
2

2
 Determining The Stress Components on a Plane of Given
Orientation When the State of Stress is Known

It is necessary to determine the two corresponding values of θ to obtain the required

relationship between θ and the stresses, subtract horizontal from vertical forces so that

From trigonometric ratios it is known that

Also
Therefore, the stress data give rise to two angles θ and θ-90 which define the orientation of
the principle stresses
5.3 Strain and Displacement
Strain or Distortion

 A component of deformation dealing with shape and volume

change
 Distance between some particles may changes
 Angle between particle lines may change

 The quantity or magnitude of the strain is given by several measure

based on change in:
 Length (longitudinal strain) - e
 Volume (volumetric strain) - ev
 Angle (angular or shear strain) - γ
Longitudinal Strain

 Extension or Elongation, e: change in length per length

e = (l´-lo) / lo = ∆l/ lo [dimensionless]

 Where l´ and lo are the final and original lengths of a linear object
 Note: Shortening is negative extension (i.e., e < 0)
 e.g., e = - 0.2 represents a shortening of 20%

Example:
 If a belemnite of an original length (lo) of 10 cm is now 12 cm (i.e.,
l´=12 cm), the longitudinal strain is positive, and
e = (12-10)/10 * 100% which gives an extension, e = 20%
Volumetric Strain (Dilation)

 Gives the change of volume compared with its original volume

 Given the original volume is vo, and the final volume is v´, then the
volumetric stain, ev is:
ev =(v´-vo)/vo = δv/vo [no dimension]
Shear Strain

 Shear strain (angular strain) γ = tan ψ

 Α measure of change in angle between two lines which were
originally perpendicular. γ Is also dimensionless!
 The small change in angle is angular shear or ψ
Displacement

 Other quantities that are associated with strain are displacements

 The change in loading conditions from the initial state to the final state
causes a displacement of each point relative to all other points.
 Is the shortest vector joining a point (x1,x2) in the undeformed
state to its corresponding point (x´1,x´2) in the deformed state
 In three components (3D): u,v, and w, in the x1,x2,and x3
directions, respectively
Displacement

 When a strain is present, the displacements must vary from point to point
given by .
5.4 Stress-Strain relations
Elastic materials - Hooke’s law

 Materials undergo strain when they are subject to stress. The

relationship between stress and strain is different for different
materials, and can be appreciated by plotting stress against strain
 A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded
dimensions when load is removed.
 This means that stresses and strains are assumed to be related by
Hooke’s Law.
 Hooke’s law, in its simplest form states that
stress (σ) α a strain (ε)
stress
= cons tan t = E Where E termed the modulus of elasticity or
strain Young’s modulus
 Young’s modulus E is generally assumed to be the same in tension or
compression and for most engineering materials has a high numerical
value.
Poison’s (v) ratio

Poisson’s ratio ( v ) = lateral strain

longitudinal strain
Poisson’s ratio simply as a ratio of strain magnitudes.
For most engineering materials the value of v lies between 0.25 and 0.33.
Application of Poisson’s ratio to a two-dimensional stress system

 A two-dimensional stress system is one in which all the stresses lie within one
plane such as the X-Y plane. Consider, therefore, an element of material
subjected to two stresses at right angles to each other and let both stresses,
σx and σy, be considered tensile
 The following strains will be produced
in the X direction resulting from σx = σx,/E,
in the Y direction resulting from σy = σy,/E.
in the X direction resulting from σy = - v(σy,/E),
in the Y direction resulting from σx = - v(σx,/E).
Stress-Strain relations

 For 3-D
σx  σ y + σz 
εx = − ν 
E  E 
 
σy  σ + σz 
εy = − ν x 
E  E 
σz  σx + σy 
εz = − ν 
E  E 
 

This is three-dimensional Hooke’s Law for normal stresses

Shear strains and stresses

 These relationships are less complex than those for normal strains
 Each strain component is proportional to the corresponding stress
component. 1
γ xy = τ xy
G
1
γ yz = τ yz
G
1
γ zx = τ zx
G
 The constant G is the shear modulus
Volumetric strain and hydrostatic stress:
1
These two quantities are linearly related given by: ev = σ
K
Where K the bulk modulus. Therefore the quantities E, v, G and K are elastic
constants and can be related as follows.
Relationship between the elastic constants E, G, K and v

 E, G and v
E = 2G(l + v)

 E, K and v
E = 3K(l - 2v)
 G, K and E

E = 9KG
(3K+G)
5.5 Plane stress and plane strain
Plane strain and plane stress

 Stress at a point in three-dimensional stress field can be represented

by 9 components, which are σx, σy, σz, τxy, τxz, τyx, τyz, τzx, τzy,
whereby in special cases this stress field can be limited to state of
plane stress and plane strain .
 Plane stress is defined to be a state of stress in which the normal
stress σz and the shear stress τxz, τyz directed perpendicular to the x-
y plane are assumed to be zero.
 The state of plane stress is usually considered in a body where one
dimension is very small compared to the other two, such as flat or thin
body
 In this case, the stresses are negligible with respect to the smaller
dimension as they are not able to develop within the material and
are small compared to the in-plane stresses.
Plane strain

 Plane strain is defined to be a state of strain in which the strain normal to

the x-y plane εz and shear strains γxz and γyz are assumed to be zero.
 The plane strain condition is usually considered in a body where by one
dimension is very long compared to the others e.g. long tunnel. For example
when the long dimension is in the z-direction the deformation in this direction
is constrained and can be assumed as zero.
 Also the force acting in this direction can be neglected in the calculations
Thank you!