SENSE ORGANS

The Human Eye

The human eye is a sensory organ. This means it is an organ of tissues working together to detect and respond to a specific stimulus,
which is light. An eye resembles a camera in three ways;
Firstly, the cameras and eyes both have a mechanism that focuses light- In the eye this consists of transparent CORNEA and LENS,
these act like the glass lens of a camera in forming clear, upside – down, full – colour image.
Secondly in the eye the image falls on a layer of receptors called the RETINA, which like the film in a camera, is sensitive to light.
Lastly, eyes and some cameras have an apparatus called an IRIS DIAPHRAGM, which is an OPAQUE disc with a hole at its
centre. Size of the hole can be increased or decreased to control the amount of light reaching the light-sensitive surface.

External Features of the Human Eye.

INTERNAL VERTICAL SECTION (STRUCTURE) OF THE HUMAN EYE

Parts of the Eye:
Upper and lower eyelids: moveable curtain pulling tear fluid across the eye when blinking. They also protect against physical
damage and bright light.
Conjunctiva: thin transparent layer to protect the cornea.
Cornea: transparent front portion of sclera.
Sclera: white outer layer of eyeball.
Iris: Coloured part of the eye, and has round hole at its centre called the PUPIL. Iris consists of radial muscles which contract to
enlarge the size of the pupil, and circular muscles which make it smaller in size. Iris regulates amount of light which reaches
RETINA.
Lens: refracts light rays; is covered with an elastic membrane; its shape alters to adjust focus.
Ciliary body: thickened edge of choroid; it contains ciliary muscles. It secretes the aqueous humour.
Ciliary muscles: initiate changes in lens shape.
Suspensory ligament: holds lens in position.
Retina: contains light receptor cells (rods and cones)
Fovea: composed mainly of cones, the point of accurate vision
Blind spot: exit of nerve fibres from the eye. No rods and cones here.
Optic nerve: conveys impulses to the brain.
Choroid: thin, black layer to reduce reflection of light in the eye. It contains a network of blood vessels for oxygen and food supply
for the eye.
Aqueous humour: plasma-like fluid housing the iris and lens. It maintains the shape of the front part of the eye. It refracts light
rays.
Vitreous humour: plasma-like fluid containing protein, albumin, therefore it is jelly-like. It maintains the shape of the eyeball.
Tear ducts: drain away tear fluid.
Lachrymal glands/Tear glands: under upper eyelid. Produce tear fluid containing salt and Sodium bicarbonate to lubricate the
eye surface and to wash away debris. It contains enzymes to destroy bacteria.

PROTECTION OF THE EYES: The skull has two deep cavities called ORBITS that encloses and protect the front of the
eyes. The exposed part of the eye is covered by a transparent, self – repairing skin called CONJUCTIVA. The conjunctiva is kept
moist and clean by a slow continuous stream of liquid from the TEAR GLANDS, and every few seconds it is wiped by the eyelids
during automatic (Reflex) blink movements. When dust or chemicals reach the conjunctiva the rate of tear flow and blinking is
automatically increased until the eye is clean. The blink reflex also protects the eye by closing them whenever an object moves
quickly towards the face. Finally, the eyelashes form a net in front of the eyes, which traps large airborne particles.

NOURISHMENT AND SUPPORT OF EYE TISSUES: Eyes are nourished and supplied with oxygen by blood vessels
which enter through the optic nerve. These vessels spread out through the CHOROID layer, and over the surface of the retina. The
cornea and lens have no direct blood supply, since a network of capillaries would impair their ability to focus light. Cornea and
lens obtain oxygen and food by diffusion from blood vessels through a liquid called the AQUEOUS HUMOUR. Liquid is secreted
into, and absorbed from, the front cavity of the eye. It is renewed about every four hours. The aqueous humour, together with a
jelly called VITREOUS HUMOUR in the rear cavity of the eye, exert an outward pressure on the eyeball, and this maintains its
round shape.
The retina is the layer inside the eye on which an image will be formed. It contains cells sensitive to light. According to their shape,
they are called cones and rods.

Rods and Cones:

The retina is full of light sensitive cells called photoreceptors. There are two types of photoreceptors, they are rods and cones. Rods
and cones are specialised types of neurons. They look alike but they are a little different in function. Rods are sensitive to dim light.
At night or in dark places, most light detection electrical impulses transmission is done by rods. Vitamin A is essential for proper
functioning of rods, if Vitamin A lacks it can lead to night blindness. Rods are spread all over the retina. Cones are sensitive to
bright and coloured light. All cones are packed in one area, the fovea.
Formation of Images
The part of the eye where images form is the retina. The images formed have the following characteristics:
i. They are inverted (upside down)
ii. They are diminished (smaller than the object)
 iii. They are real (can be produced on screens)
Though the images on the retina are inverted, they are seen the right way up because the brain gives the correct interpretation of
the images. Information about the image is carried from the retina to the brain by the optic nerve.

Focusing and Accommodation

Focusing is the formation of a clear image on the retina. Accommodation is the process by which the eye forms a focused image
on the retina by adjusting the thickness and length of the lens using suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles in response to the
distance of the object away from the eye.

Accommodation of a Close (Nearby) Object

Rays from close objects are divergent. To focus the images on the retina the following events take place:
i. Ciliary muscles contract
ii. Suspensory ligaments become slacken
iii. The lens becomes short and thick
iv. The light rays are more refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina
Accommodation of a Distant (Far) Object
Rays from distant objects are more or less parallel to each other and do not require much refraction to be focused on the retina.
The following events occur to focus the image on the retina:
i. Ciliary muscles relax
ii. Suspensory ligaments become taut, making the lens long and thin
iii. Light rays are less refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina

Pupil/Iris Reflex
This is the adjustment of the diameter of the pupil by circular and radial muscles of the iris in response to changes in light intensity.
In Bright Light (High Light Intensity)
Excess light may damage the retina by bleaching it. To prevent this, the following events take place:
i. Circular muscles contract
ii. Radial relax
iii. Pupil constricts (becomes smaller) to prevent bleaching of the retina by excess light.

In Dim Light (Low Light Intensity)

The light reaching the retina is not enough for image formation. To correct this situation, the following events take place:
• Radial muscles contract
• Circular muscles relax
• Pupil dilates (becomes wider) to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye for image formation
SUMMARY OF ACTIONS DURING THE PROCESS OF ACCOMODATION

Suspensory
Distance Ciliary muscles Lens
ligaments
Near Contract Loosen Widens
Far Relaxes tighten narrows

Antagonistic Muscles: in order for the pupil to get narrower or wider, two muscles work simultaneously, when one contracts the
other relaxes. Pairs of muscles like that are called antagonistic muscles.
DEFECTS OF THE HUMAN EYE
SHORT – SIGHTEDNESS OR MYOPIA: Occurs when the eyeball is longer than normal along the horizontal axis from the lens
to the Retina. Parallel rays from distant objects are brought to focus in front of the Retina forming a blurred image. Correction for
this defect is to wear suitable concave lenses to diverge the rays from distant objects before they reach the eye. These rays can then
be focused onto the retina and a clear image is formed. Without glasses, short – sighted people can focus objects clearly only when
they are very close to the eye.

LONG-SIGHTEDNESS OR HYPERMETROPIA: A person suffering from long-sightedness can see objects

that are a distant away from him clearly but cannot see objects near him clearly. The near point of the eye may
be more than a metre away so that ordinary reading is not possible. This defect arises from a shortening of the
eyeball along the horizontal axis from the lens to the retina. Rays from a near object are brought to focus behind
the retina. Wearing suitable convex lenses can correct this defect so that rays from a near object are made to
converge on the retina.
OLD-SIGHTEDNESS OR PRESBYOPIA: Old-sightedness is not caused by the shape of the eyeball. In old age the
ciliary muscles weaken and the lens loses its elasticity. Distant objects can be seen clearly, but full accommodation for
near vision cannot be brought about. For close work, the person has to wear suitable convex lenses to increase the
converging power.
Blindness
This is defined as lack or loss of visual perception. There are different forms of blindness, some of which are discussed below.
(i) Blindness due to Injury
(ii) Night Blindness
This is a condition where vision becomes diminished in dim light. It is caused by deficiency of vitamin A. Vitamin A is required
by the eye to form a visual pigment called rhodopsin that is required for vision at low light intensities. Hence vitamin A
deficiency initially leads to night blindness which may later develop xerophthalmia (a condition where there is abnormal
dryness of the conjunctiva, leading to blindness).
(iii) River Blindness
This is a type of blindness caused by a filarial worm known as Onchocerca volvulus. Adult worms of this kind produce tiny
larvae known as microfilariae that attack the eyes, causing glaucoma, cataracts and conjunctivitis, thereby causing
blindness.
River blindness is common in tropical regions that have rivers and lakes. This is because the vectors of this worm are flies of
the genus Simulium that require aerated fresh water to breed. The flies transmit the larvae of the worms from one person to
another through bites. These reach their maturity under the skin of the human body. Then they begin mating and produce large
numbers of microfilariae which migrate to the eyes and cause harm.
Methods of preventing and/or treating river blindness are:
i. Spraying rivers with insecticides to kill the larval stages of the Simulium flies.
ii. Application of dimethylphthalane to clothing or the skin in order to repel the flies for several hours.
iii. Dosage of diethylcarbamazine to kill the microfilariae
iv. Injections of suramin to kill adult worms in the body.
v. Long clothing to prevent bites by Simulium flies
EXERCISE (Answer just after these notes on Human Eye in your Note Books)
1. A person walking outside in bright sunlight enters a dark room. At first the room seems very dark but after some
time the furniture in the room can be seen. Explain what in this person’s eye which eventually enables them to
see in dim light.
2. State the function (s) of: The Cornea, the Choroid, the Irish, the ciliary muscles and the Fovea.
3. a. What is accommodation?
4. a. What are myopia, hypermetropia and presbyopia?
b. How can these defects be corrected?
c. Draw diagrams to show how short-sightedness and long-sightedness can be corrected.
5. List that make up the eye externally and internally.
The Ear
This is a sense organ that is responsible for detection of sound. The ear is divided into three regions:
1. Outer Ear or External Ear (an air-filled cavity made of the pinna/ear lobe and external auditory meatus)
2. Middle Ear (an air-filled cavity made of the tympanum/ear drum, ossicles and eustachian tube)
3. Inner Ear or Internal Ear (a fluid-filled cavity made of the cochlea, semicircular canals and vestibules or vestibular
apparatus)

Structure of the Ear

Functions of Ear Parts
Pinna
This collects sound waves and passes them on to the external auditory canal.
External Auditory Canal (Ear Canal)
i. Carries sound waves from the pinna to the tympanum.
ii. Produces wax to keep the ear drum supple and trap particles that enter the ear
iii. Contains hair to trap particles entering the ear
Ear Drum (Tympanum)
This is a membrane that vibrates when hit by sound waves in order to transmit sounds to the ossicles that are found in the middle
ear.
Ossicles
This are a set of three small bones found in the middle ear and are responsible for:
i. Transmitting sounds from the ear drum to the oval window.
ii. Amplifying sounds by about 20 times.
The names of the three bones are related to their shapes. The first one after the ear drum is the malleus (hammer); the next one is
the incus (anvil) and the last one is stapes (stirrup).

Eustachian Tube
This is a tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the pharynx. It opens during swallowing and yawning in order to equalize
pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere. This prevents the ear drum from bursting when atmospheric pressure changes
drastically e.g. during an aeroplane flight or deep-sea diving.

Oval Window (Fenestra ovalis)

This picks up vibrations from the stapes and transmits them to the perilymph in the inner ear.

Round Window
This relieves the pressure that builds up in the perilymph during vibrations of the oval window. It moves outwards as the oval
window moves inwards and moves inwards when the round window moves outwards.

Vestibules (Vestibular Apparatus).

This is made of the sacculus (saccule), utriculus (utricle), ampullae (singular=ampulla) and three semi-circular canals. The
sacculus links the rest of the vestibules to the cochlea. The utriculus contains receptors that are sensitive to gravity and body
posture.
The semicircular canals are responsible for balancing the body during rotational movements of the head. Each semicircular canal
is at right angles to the other two. The ampullae are the swollen ends of the semicircular canals. They contain hair cells that are
connected to nerves. When the head twists, the fluid inside the semicircular canal moves and causes movement of the cupula and
bending of the hair cells. This makes the hair cells generate impulses that are transmitted to the brain to control balance.

Cochlea
This is a coiled structure that detects sound intensity and frequency and transduces sounds to generate nerve impulses. Nerve
impulses from the ear are carried to the brain by the auditory nerve.

Deafness
This is an ear disorder where hearing is impaired or diminished. Causes of deafness include the following:
i. Over-production of wax which leads to blockage of the external auditory canal.
ii. Exposure to loud sounds which might damage the ear ossicles.
iii. Inserting hard and sharp objects into the ears, causing damage to the ear drum.
iv. Infections of the inner ear or the throat. Some throat infections are able to affect the middle ear by getting transmitted
through the eustachian tube.
Proper Care for Ears
i. Clean the ears regularly with soft materials to remove excess wax
ii. Avoid exposure to loud sounds. This can be done by covering the ears when exposed to loud sounds. Soldiers are advised
to keep their mouths open when firing guns; suggest a reason for this.
iii. Treat all infections of the inner ear and throat.