Introduction to Intelligence

Intelligence is broadly defined as the ability to learn from experience, adapt to new

situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and apply knowledge to manipulate one's

environment (Gottfredson, 1997). The American Psychological Association (APA) describes

intelligence as an individual’s ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills effectively

(APA, 2020). Wechsler (1944) defined intelligence as “the global capacity of an individual to

act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.”

​ Intelligence has been conceptualized in multiple ways, leading to various theories that

explain its structure and functioning. One of the earliest theories of intelligence was

Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory (1904), which proposed that intelligence consists of a

‘general factor (g)’, which represents overall cognitive ability, and ‘specific factors (s)’,

which account for performance in particular tasks (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2018). Spearman

suggested that g accounts for a person’s ability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly,

and learn efficiently. According to this theory, individuals with a high g tend to excel across

diverse cognitive tasks, such as verbal reasoning, mathematical ability, and spatial skills, and

thus, g-factor rather than s-factor affords the best prediction of overall intelligence.

S factor on the other hand, accounts for skills unique to particular tasks. These

abilities explain why some individuals excel in one area but may not perform as well in

another. For instance, a person may have strong mathematical reasoning skills (s-math) but

struggle with language-based tasks (s-verbal). Later, Spearman also acknowledged the

existence of an intermediate class of factors called ‘group factors’. Such broad groups of
factors such as linguistic or mechanical abilities, are common to a group of activities but not

to all (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2018).

​ Expanding upon Spearman’s work , Cattell and Horn proposed the Cattell-Horn

Theory in 1966, differentiating intelligence into fluid intelligence (Gf), the ability to solve

novel problems independent of acquired knowledge, and crystallized intelligence (Gc), which

consists of knowledge and skills gained through experience and education (Cohen &

Swerdlik, 2018). Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to think abstractly, solve novel

problems, and adapt to new situations without relying on prior knowledge or experience. It

encompasses logical reasoning, pattern recognition, and problem-solving skills, which are

essential for handling unfamiliar tasks. Unlike crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence is

considered independent of cultural and educational influences, such as memory for digits, for

example.

​ Crystallized intelligence, in contrast, represents accumulated knowledge, skills, and

experiences acquired through education and life experiences. It includes verbal

comprehension, vocabulary, general knowledge, and expertise in specific domains, making it

highly dependent on cultural and educational exposure. Unlike fluid intelligence, which

enables individuals to tackle novel problems, crystallized intelligence is used to apply learned

information to familiar situations. Research suggests that while fluid intelligence peaks in

early adulthood and gradually declines with age due to biological factors, crystallized

intelligence tends to improve with age, as individuals continue to acquire knowledge and

refine their skills throughout their lifetime.

three-stratum theory, with general intelligence (g) at the top, broad abilities (such as Gf and

Gc) in the middle, and narrow cognitive skills at the bottom. This model was later refined

into the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory (CHC theory), integrating both Cattell-Horn’s

Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence and Carroll’s Three-Stratum Model of

Intelligence, which in its current form, features ten “broad-stratum” abilities and over seventy

“narrow-stratum” abilities, with each broad-stratum ability subsuming two or more

narrow-stratum abilities.

The ten broad-stratum abilities in this theory are fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized

intelligence (Gc), quantitative knowledge (Gq), reading/ writing ability (Grw), short-term

memory (Gsm), visual processing (Gv), auditory processing (Ga), long-term storage and

retrieval (Glr), processing speed (Gs), and decision/reaction time or speed (Gt; Cohen &

Swerdlik, 2018). The CHC theory is widely accepted in psychological and educational

assessments and forms the basis for many modern intelligence tests, such as the

Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities and the Wechsler Intelligence Scales.

​ Deviating from the concept of a general factor of intelligence that predicts overall

intelligence, Thurstone suggested that intelligence comprises multiple distinct abilities rather

than a single overarching factor. He identified seven independent mental abilities namely -

verbal comprehension, word fluency, numerical ability, spatial visualization, associative

memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2018). Another important

theory which also conceptualised intelligence as consisting of multiple independent domains

is Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (1983). The theory proposed eight types of intelligence

namely - linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal,

associated with distinct neural structures, citing brain damage cases as evidence where

specific abilities are impaired while others remain intact.

​ Thorndike's Theory of Intelligence proposed a multifactor approach, emphasizing

that intelligence is not a singular ability but consists of multiple independent components. He

categorized intelligence into three primary types - abstract intelligence, mechanical

intelligence and social intelligence. Abstract Intelligence, which involves verbal and

symbolic reasoning, enabling individuals to think conceptually and solve problems using

logic. Mechanical Intelligence, which refers to an individual's ability to understand and

manipulate objects, tools, and machinery, often linked to spatial and technical skills. Social

Intelligence, which is the capacity to understand, interact with, and influence others

effectively.

Thorndike (1920) suggested that intelligence develops through experience and

learning, rather than being purely innate, and emphasized the role of stimulus-response

associations in intellectual development, a concept aligned with his Connectionism Theory.

He believed that intelligence is domain-specific, meaning that proficiency in one area does

not necessarily translate to other cognitive abilities. His work laid the foundation for later

research on social intelligence and influenced educational psychology by highlighting the

importance of practice, learning, and environmental factors in shaping intelligence.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory (1985), on the other hand, proposed that intelligence

consists of three components: analytical intelligence, focused on problem-solving and logical

intelligence, typically understood as street smarts and everyday problem-solving. It

emphasizes the context-dependence of intelligence (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2018).

Based on the various conceptualisations and theoretical frameworks, a number of

standardized psychological tests have been developed over the years to measure intelligence

and evaluate different cognitive abilities. The most commonly used intelligence tests include

the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS) which cover verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and

processing speed, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of

Cognitive Abilities. Another notable intelligence test is Raven’s Progressive Matrices, a

culture-fair test that specifically evaluates abstract reasoning and fluid intelligence.

References

●​ Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2018). Psychological testing and assessment: An

introduction to tests and measurement (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.