CHAPTER 17 E

Tourism and the Environment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
& Understand the fundamental nature of sustainable & Identify the new realities of tourism in an era of
development and sustainable tourism. global climate change.
& Identify guiding principles for achieving & Examine policies and measures to mitigate
sustainable tourism. tourism-induced climate change.
& Review the policy aims of an agenda for & Examine the concept of ecotourism and its role
sustainable tourism. in sustainable tourism.
& Examine the major challenges facing
achievement of sustainable tourism.

The cliffs that make up the Dorsey Heritage Coast are a popular natural attraction in England. Photo courtesy of the British Tourist Authority.
372 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

INTRODUCTION

A s tourism moves farther into the twenty-first century, both the destination and the enterprise
will have to make the environment a priority. Because tourism is now the world’s largest industry,
the environment is taking center stage in tourism development. Tourism is not only a powerful
economic force but a factor in the physical environment as well. Because more attention will be
paid to the environment in the future, projects that are economically feasible but not environmentally
desirable will remain unbuilt. The environment is the core of the tourism product. Profitability
in tourism depends on maintaining the attractiveness of the destination people want to see and
experience.
Tourism has the power to enhance the environment, to provide funds for conservation, to preserve
culture and history, to set sustainable use limits, and to protect natural attractions. It also has the
power to destroy. If tourism is not properly planned and implemented, it can destroy vegetation,
create overcrowding, litter trekking areas, pollute beaches, result in overbuilding, eliminate open
space, create sewage problems, cause housing problems, and ignore the needs and structure of the
host community.
It is being recognized that tourism must preserve and protect the environment and natural
attractions so that people will continue to travel, and must set use limits so that sites will be truly
sustainable. The problem is how to do this. Concepts such sustainable development, sustainable
tourism, carrying capacity, climate change, nature tourism, and ecotourism have been proposed and
are examined in this chapter. Throughout the discussion, we constantly keep in mind the industry’s
obligation to be environmentally responsible.

DOES TOURISM THREATEN THE ENVIRONMENT?

THE UNEP/UNWTO POSITION
Before addressing how tourism can best respond to the negative impacts on the environment, it is
useful to obtain a clear understanding of the fundamental goal in this regard; namely, the achievement
of a tourism system which is sustainable over the long term.

The Nature of Sustainable Development1

The most commonly used definition of sustainable development is still that given in the report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development (1987).2 That is, sustainable development is ‘‘a
process to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.’’
Sustainable development is, therefore, about creating a better life for all people in ways that will be
as viable in the future as they are at present. In other words, sustainable development is based on
principles of sound husbandry of the world’s resources, and on equity in the way those resources are
used and in the way in which the benefits obtained from them are distributed.
The concept has evolved since the 1987 definition, notably through Agenda 21, the plan of action
that emerged from the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio, 1992), and the plan of
implementation from the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002). Three
dimensions or pillars of sustainable development are now recognized and underlined. These are:

& Economic sustainability, which means generating prosperity at different levels of society and
addressing the cost effectiveness of all economic activity. Crucially, it is about the viability of
enterprises and activities and their ability to be maintained in the long term.
 Does Tourism Threaten the Environment? The UNEP/UNWTO Position E 373

& Social sustainability, which means respecting

human rights and equal opportunities for all
in society. It requires an equitable distribution of
benefits, with a focus on alleviating poverty.
There is an emphasis on local communities,
The beach at Coral Bay in maintaining and strengthening their life support
Cyprus has been awarded
systems, recognizing and respecting different
the Blue Flag, an exclusive
eco-label awarded to more cultures, and avoiding any form of exploitation.
than 3,450 beaches and & Environmental sustainability, which means
marinas across Europe, conserving and managing resources, espe-
Africa, New Zealand, Brazil,
cially those that are not renewable or are
Canada, and the
Caribbean. The Blue Flag precious in terms of life support. It requires
Campaign is owned and action to minimize pollution of air, land and
run by the independent, water, and to conserve biological diversity and
nonprofit organization natural heritage.
Foundation for
Environmental Education
(FEE). Courtesy of
It is important to appreciate that these three
International Blue Flag pillars are in many ways interdependent and can
Coordination. be both mutually reinforcing or in competition.
Delivering sustainable development means strik-
ing a balance between them.

Making All Tourism More Sustainable

Some commentators and institutions have implied that sustainable tourism is a particular kind of
tourism appealing to a market niche that is sensitive to environmental and social impacts, serviced by
particular types of products and operators, and usually—in contrast with high-volume tourism—
implying small in scale. This is a dangerous misapprehension. It must be clear that the term sustainable
tourism—meaning tourism that is based on the principles of sustainable development—refers to a
fundamental objective: to make all tourism more sustainable. The term should be used to refer to a
condition of tourism, not a type of tourism. Well-managed, high-volume tourism can, and ought to be,
just as sustainable as small-scale, dispersed special-interest tourism.

The World Tourism Organization’s Definition of Sustainable Tourism

‘‘Sustainable tourism development guidelines and management practices are applicable to all forms of
tourism in all types of destinations, including mass tourism and the various niche tourism segments.
Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic and sociocultural aspects of tourism
development, and a suitable balance must be established among these three dimensions to guarantee
its long-term sustainability.’’3
Thus, sustainable tourism should:
1. Make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a key element in tourism development,
maintaining essential ecological processes and helping to conserve natural resources and
biodiversity.
2. Respect the sociocultural authenticity of host communities, conserve their built and living cultural
heritage and traditional values, and contribute to intercultural understanding and tolerance.
3. Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socioeconomic benefits to all stakeholders
that are fairly distributed, including stable employment and income-earning opportunities and social
services to host communities, and contributing to poverty alleviation.
374 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

4. Sustainable tourism development requires the informed participation of all relevant stakeholders, as
well as strong political leadership to ensure wide participation and consensus building. Achieving
sustainable tourism is acontinuous process and itrequires constant monitoring ofimpacts, introducing
the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever necessary.
5. Sustainable tourism should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful
experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting
sustainable tourism practices amongst them.

Tourism and Sustainable Development:

A Special Relationship
Tourism is in a special position in the contribution it can make to sustainable development and the
challenges it presents. First, this is because of the dynamism and growth of the sector, and the
major contribution that it makes to the economies of many countries and local destinations. Second,
it is because tourism is an activity that
involves a special relationship between
consumers (visitors), the industry, the
environment, and local communities.
This special relationship arises because,
unlike most other sectors, the consumer of
tourism (the tourist) travels to the pro-
ducer and the product. This leads to three
important and unique aspects of the rela-
tionship between tourism and sustainable
development:
An auto-free Yosemite?
Yosemite National park has
& Interaction: The nature of tourism, as
recently proposed a bold a service industry that is based
new plan: Eliminate the on delivering an experience of new
cars! The plan seeks to places, means that it involves a con-
restore habitat, dismantle siderable amount of interaction, both
facilities, remove roads,
direct and indirect, between visitors,
and eliminate private
vehicles from the crowded host communities, and their local
Yosemite Valley. If the plan environments.
is implemented, we may & Awareness: Tourism makes people (vis-
see the day when the
itors and hosts) become far more con-
couple shown above—
walking in relative scious of environmental issues and
tranquility—will be much differences between nations and cul-
more common. Courtesy of tures. This can affect attitudes and
Tuolumne County Visitors concerns for sustainability issues not
Bureau. Photo by Terri Meltz. only while traveling but throughout
people’s lives.
& Dependency: Much of tourism is based on visitors seeking to experience intact and clean environ-
ments, attractive natural areas, authentic historic and cultural traditions, and welcoming hosts with
whom they have a good relationship. The industry depends on these attributes being in place.

This close and direct relationship creates a sensitive situation, whereby tourism can be both very
damaging but also very positive for sustainable development.
 Does Tourism Threaten the Environment? The UNEP/UNWTO Position E 375

Some Guiding Principles and Approaches

for Achieving Sustainability
The development and implementation of policies for sustainable tourism should be based on a number
of overarching principles and approaches. Some of these are inherent to the principles of sustainability
while others have been identified over time by those working in the field of tourism. These guiding
concepts and principles are presented here.

Setting the Course for Sustainable Tourism

Take a Holistic View
Planning and development of tourism should not take place in isolation. Tourism should be
considered as part of the sustainable development of communities, and the destination as a whole,
alongside other activities. Its impact on other sectors, in terms of competing resource use and
mutual support, should be considered. A holistic approach also takes account of all impacts and
relationships within the tourism sector itself, and considers how all public policies might affect or be
affected by tourism.

Pursue Multi-Stakeholder Engagement

Sustainable tourism is about local control, but also about working together. All those implicated by
tourism should have an opportunity to influence its development and management.

Plan for the Long Term

Short-term approaches should be avoided and the long-term view encouraged, with resources
committed accordingly. Where possible, actions should be self-sustaining.

Address Both Global and Local Impacts

Impacts on the local environment and communities are often apparent, and therefore it will be easier
to gain support for policies that address them. However, the sustainable development of tourism
should pay equal attention to global impacts, especially with respect to pollution from tourism (such
as greenhouse gas emissions) and the use of nonrenewable resources. Such global impacts also have a
direct effect on tourism itself (e.g., climate change).

Promote Sustainable Consumption

Sustainability is not just about the supply side. Equal consideration should be given to influencing the
pattern and impact of consumption. This means influencing the volume and nature of tourism
demand—that is, the choices made by tourists.

Equate Sustainability and Quality

It should be increasingly accepted that a quality tourism destination or product is one that addresses
the full range of sustainability issues rather than simply concentrating on visitor satisfaction. Indeed,
tourists should themselves be encouraged to think in these terms—a place that cares for the
environment and its workforce is more likely also to care for them.
376 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

Formulating a Development Plan

Reflect All Impacts in Costs—Polluter Pays Principle
Under the polluter pays principle it is the perpetrator of environmental impacts who bears the
responsibility for all costs incurred in delivering the tourism experience.

Minimize Risk Taking—Precautionary Principle

Careful risk assessment is an important component of sustainable tourism development. Where there
is limited evidence about the possible impact of a development or action, a cautious approach should
be adopted. The precautionary principle means putting in place measures to avoid damage before it
occurs rather than trying to repair it afterward.

Take a Life-Cycle Perspective

Life-cycle assessment means taking full account of impacts over the entire life of a product or service,
including initial resources used, siting and design, development and construction, all inputs to its
operation, and disposal and after-use implications.

Consider Functional Alternatives

Consideration should be given to whether the same function can be performed and the same result
achieved by doing things in a way that has more positive and less negative impacts on resources.

Respect Limits
The readiness and ability to limit the amount of tourism development or the volume of tourist flows in a
destination or site are central to the concept of sustainable tourism. Limiting factors may be ecological
resilience, resource capacity, community concerns, visitor satisfaction, and so on. Sound research can
determine the carrying capacity of a destination or site. Carrying capacity is defined as the maximum
amount of development, use, growth, or change that a site or destination can endure without an
unacceptable alteration in the physical environment, the community’s social fabric, and/or the local
economy, and without an unacceptable decline in the quality of experience gained by the visitor.

Managing the Destination on an Ongoing Basis

Adapt to Changing Conditions
Adaptive response and management is an important aspect of sustainable development. Tourism is
sensitive to external conditions in terms of its performance and the level of its impact.

Undertake Continuous Monitoring Using Indicators

Sound management of tourism requires continuous monitoring to measure changes in impact over
time, so that adjustments to policies and actions can be made. Monitoring should be carried out using
specific measures on the core indicators of sustainable tourism (see Table 17.1).
These indicators focus on what managers need to know most to reduce their risk of inadvertently
making decisions that damage the natural and cultural environments on which the tourism industry
depends. These include measures of:

& The general relationship between tourism and the environment

& The effects of environmental factors on tourism
& The impacts of the tourism industry on the environment
 Does Tourism Threaten the Environment? The UNEP/UNWTO Position E 377

In effect, indicators seek to identify specific cause–effect relationships between tourism and the
environment. Through their measurement and use, managers can more effectively do the following:

& Identify emerging issues, allowing prevention or mitigation

& Identify impacts, allowing action before they cause problems
& Support sustainable tourism development, identifying limits and opportunities
& Promote management accountability, developing responsible decision making built on knowledge

Two types of indicators are of value to tourism managers:

1. Core indicators of sustainable tourism have been developed for general application to all
destinations.
2. Destination-specific indicators are applicable to particular ecosystems or types of tourism.

Destination-specific indicators fall into two categories: ecosystem specific- and site-specific.
Supplementary ecosystem-specific indicators apply to particular ecosystems (e.g., coastal areas, parks
and protected areas, or mountainous regions). Site-specific indicators are developed uniquely for the
particular site. These indicators reflect important factors of the site that might not be adequately
covered by the core and supplementary ecosystem-specific indicator sets but are nonetheless needed
for management of the particular site.
Examples of such indices that were developed by an expert task force for the United Nations World
Tourism Organization are given in Table 17.1. By identifying desirable levels of each indicator for a

TABLE 17.1 Core Indicators of Sustainable Tourism

Indicator Specific Measures
Site protection Category of site protection according to IUCNa index
Stress Tourist numbers visiting site (per annum/peak month)
Use intensity Intensity of use in peak period (persons/hectare)
Social impact Ratio of tourists to locals (peak period and over time)
Development control Existence of environmental review procedure or formal controls over development of site and use densities
Waste management Percentage of sewage from site receiving treatment (additional indicators may include structural limits of other
infrastructural capacity on-site, such as water supply)
Planning process Existence of organized regional plan for tourist destination region (including tourism component)
Critical ecosystems Number of rare/endangered species
Consumer satisfaction Level of satisfaction by visitors (questionnaire-based)
Local satisfaction Level of satisfaction by locals (questionnaire-based)
Tourism contribution to local economy Proportion of total economic activity generated by tourism only
b
Composite Indices Specific Measures
Carrying capacity Composite early-warning measure of key factors affecting the ability of the site to support different levels of tourism
Site stress Composite measure of levels of impact on the site (its natural and cultural attributes due to tourism and other
sector cumulative stresses)
Attractivity Qualitative measure of those site attributes that make it attractive to tourism and can change over time
a
IUCN, International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
b
The composite indices are largely composed of site-specific variables. Consequently, the identification and evaluation of the indicators composing these indices require on-site direction
from an appropriately trained and experienced observer. In the future, based on the experiences in designing composite indicators for specific sites, it may be possible to derive these indices
in a more systematic fashion. See the case studies for Villa Gesell and Peninsula Valdes for application of these indices.
Source: United Nations World Tourism Organization.
378 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

particular destination or site and then working toward meeting these ideals, managers can put in place
a process that will ensure sustainability to the greatest extent possible.
It should be noted in reviewing these sets of indicators that they do not address environments or
ecological goals alone. There are also indicators that seek to ensure desirable levels of visitor
satisfaction and local resident satisfaction, as well as satisfactory levels of contributions to the local
economy. The use of the indicators helps ensure the economic means to support sustainable
ecotourism as well as public (and thus political) support for tourism with a destination.

Ensure Necessary Changes Are Implemented

Failure to make changes that have been identified by the monitoring process as necessary to maintain
a sustainable tourism destination can undo years of effort and investment.

Setting an Agenda for Sustainable Tourism

An agenda for sustainable tourism sets out the major aims that destination managers seek
to achieve. This agenda needs to embrace two, interrelated, elements of the sustainability of
tourism:

1. The ability of tourism to continue as an activity in the future, ensuring that the conditions are
right for this
2. The ability of society and the environment to absorb and benefit from the impacts of tourism in a
sustainable way

Based on these two elements, an agenda for sustainable tourism can be articulated as a set of 12
aims that address economic, social, and environmental impacts. The agenda formulated in this way
can then be used as a framework to develop policies for more sustainable tourism that recognize the
directions in which tourism policy can exert an influence:

& Minimizing the negative impacts of tourism on society and the environment
& Maximizing tourism’s positive and creative contribution to local economies, the conservation of
natural and cultural heritage, and the quality of life of hosts and visitors

The 12 aims for an agenda for sustainable tourism are (see Figure 17.1):

1. Economic viability: Ensure the viability and competitiveness of tourism destinations

and enterprises, so that they are able to continue to prosper and deliver benefits in the
long term.
2. Local prosperity: Maximize the contribution of tourism to the economic prosperity of the host
destination, including the proportion of visitor spending that is retained locally.
3. Employment quality: Strengthen the number and quality of local jobs created and supported by
tourism, including the level of pay, conditions of service and availability to all without
discrimination by gender, race, disability or in other ways.
4. Social equity: Seek a widespread and fair distribution of economic and social benefits from
tourism throughout the recipient community, including improving opportunities, income and
services available to the poor.
5. Visitor fulfillment: Provide a safe, satisfying, and fulfilling experience for visitors, available to all
without discrimination by gender, race, or disability or in other ways.
 Does Tourism Threaten the Environment? The UNEP/UNWTO Position E 379

6. Local control: Engage and empower local communities in planning and decision making about
the management and future development of tourism in their area, in consultation with other
stakeholders.
7. Community well-being: Maintain and strengthen the quality of life in local communities,
including social structures and access to resources, amenities and life support systems, avoiding
any form of social degradation or exploitation.
8. Cultural richness: Respect and enhance the historic heritage, authentic culture, traditions and
distinctiveness of host communities.
9. Physical integrity: Maintain and enhance the quality of landscapes, both urban and rural, and
avoid the physical and visual degradation of the environment.
10. Biological diversity: Support the conservation of natural areas, habitats and wildlife, and
minimize damage to them.
11. Resource efficiency: Minimize the use of scarce and nonrenewable resources in the development
and operation of tourism facilities and services.
12. Environmental purity: Minimize the pollution of air, water, and land and the generation of waste
by tourism enterprises and visitors.

The reader should note that the order in which these 12 aims are listed does not imply any order of
priority. Each one is equally important. Many of the aims relate to a combination of environmental,
economic, and social issues and impacts, as illustrated by Figure 17.1.

Figure 17.1 Relationship

between the 12 aims and the
3 pillars of sustainability.
380 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

Sustainable Development and Tourism: Some Critical

Implementation Issues
We have examined the steps involved in implementing a sustainable tourism program as well as
certain related implementation issues. Five such stages are presented for discussion.

Defining the Relevant Population/Community

We now focus on the question of ‘‘sustainable development for whom?’’ As professionals in the field,
we need to know if we are to take a global, macroperspective in our discussions of tourism and
sustainable development, or whether we should restrict our thinking to a more local focus. While
recognizing that there is a need for global thinking, we also need to recognize that we might need to
restrict the allocation of our energies to those jurisdictions where we have the power to act and to
make a difference.
In any event, the principle being enunciated here is that, as professionals, we need to define our
sphere of interest and action. The impacts and populations of relevance might be quite different for
each sphere, and, consequently, so might be our likely actions.

Defining the Values That Underlie Sustainable Development

Regardless of the way in which the values of a society are determined, they will ultimately determine
the policies that emerge with regard to sustainable development. Whether these policies are the result
of compromise or consensus is the concern of the political entity involved. In the end, however, the
political process and the power of different political units will determine the level and form that
sustainability will take. Those of us in the tourism sector have traditionally ignored this reality, and we
are weaker for it. Thus, once the members of the relevant population/community have been defined, it
is important to identify the values that underlie the kind of tourism they wish to develop for the
destination.

Defining the Dimensions of Sustainability

The concept of sustainability is relevant in practical terms only when we define what is to be
sustained. From a tourism perspective, discussions on sustainability may pertain to the environment,
cultural identity, economic well-being, or social stability. Individuals responsible for, or interested in,
each of these areas taken separately may very legitimately focus on their area of concern and
attempt to achieve sustainability in relation to some acceptable ongoing carrying capacity of
the destination.
However, from an overall destination management perspective, the task becomes much more
complex. Here, the challenge becomes one of attempting to balance the sustainability of economic,
cultural, social, and environmental systems. Although one hopes for compatibility in the pursuit
of sustainability within and across these systems, this is not always possible. Often, the reason
for such incompatibility is a divergence of the values from which the goal of sustainability is
being pursued.

Defining the Time Horizon

Sustainable development as a concept implies forever; this may be impractical to deal with and can
even lead to a feeling of helplessness. There is some merit in seeking to develop programs that are
sustainable in perpetuity, but such programs may require huge amounts of resources and considerable
time for their implementation. It may be wiser and more effective to undertake a less demanding
series of phased programs that initiate movement in desired directions rather than delaying action
until longer-term programs can be put in place.
 Major Challenges Facing the Achievement of Sustainable Tourism E 381

TABLE 17.2 Sustainable Development (SD) in Tourism: A Possible Allocation of Responsibility

Level/Organization Responsibilities
Host community/region Defining the tourism philosophy and vision for the community/region
Establishing social, physical, and cultural carrying capacity for the host community/region
Destination management/community organization Coordination of implementation of community SD plan for tourism
Monitoring of levels and impact of tourism in the community/region
Individual tourism firms and operators Fair contribution to implementation of SD plan for tourism
Observance of regulations, guidelines, and practices for SD
Host community/region Encouragement/acceptance of tourism within parameters of SD plan
Visitors/tourists Acceptance of responsibility for minimal self-education with respect to values of host region
Acceptance and observance of terms and conditions of host community SD plan for tourism

Allocating Responsibility for

Action
It should be apparent from the nature of
the foregoing discussion that the alloca-
tion of responsibility for tourism-related
sustainability issues and decisions will
not be a neat and tidy exercise. The
highly interdependent, multidisciplinary,
multisector, and political nature of the
decisions does not allow for simplistic
answers. However, as long as this caveat
is taken seriously, it may be possible to
provide some guidelines as to how the
Although perhaps not the process might be conducted and how the
traditional image that most
prime agents might be assigned to dif-
people might have of
ecotourism, these kayakers ferent areas of responsibility.
in Lake Powell, Utah, are All this said, it then becomes neces-
pursuing a low-impact sary to propose an operational alloca-
activity that respects the tion of responsibility that remains true
well-being of the region to the democratic model and the con-
they are visiting—the
essence of the ecotourism
cept of resident-responsive tourism. See
concept. Photo courtesy of Table 17.2 for a proposed allocation of
Lake Powell Resorts responsibilities.
and Marinas.

MAJOR CHALLENGES FACING THE ACHIEVEMENT

OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
While the previous sections have provided an understanding of the nature of sustainable tourism and
the kinds of policies necessary to support its achievement, there nevertheless remain a number of
major challenges that stand in the way of establishing and maintaining a sustainable tourism system.
Five of these are identified here. Although they do not encompass all of the challenges facing
tourism—and although they are not all of equal importance—they serve to illustrate the nature and
382 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

range of issues facing tourism, as well as certain of the related opportunities that derive from
sustainable tourism. These challenges include:

1. Managing the dynamic growth of tourism while maintaining sustainability

2. Poverty alleviation: meeting tourism’s commitment to contribute to the UN’s foremost
millennium goal of halving world poverty by 20154
3. Maintaining support for conservation
4. Ensuring the health, safety, and security of tourists
5. Addressing the effects of climate change

Each and every one of the five challenges will require great insight and effort to address them, but it
is the final one on our list, namely climate change, that appears to currently be most pressing. As
such, we shall now examine it in some detail and in depth.

The New Realities Facing Tourism in an Era of Global

Climate Change5
Compelling evidence indicates that global climate has changed compared to the pre-industrial era—
and that it is anticipated to continue to change over the 21st century and beyond. The Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) declared that ‘‘[ . . . ] warming of the climate system is
unequivocal.’’ The global mean temperature increased approximately 0.76̊F from 2001 to 2005 just
as it did between 1850 and 1899—the same increase in temperature, but in a much shorter number of
years, and the IPCC concluded that most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since
the mid-twentieth century is very likely (>90% probability) the result of human activities that are
increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Discernible human influences now also
extend to other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continental-average temperatures,
temperature extremes, and wind patterns. Widespread decreases in glaciers and ice caps and warming
ocean surface temperature have contributed to sea level rise of 1.8 mm (.071 inches) per year from
1961 to 2003, and approximately 3.1 mm (.122 inches) per year from 1993 to 2003. Thus, there has
been a significant increase in sea level rise the last 10 years of the 42-year study period. The biological
response of ecosystems and individual species has been recorded on every continent.
With its close connections to the environment and climate itself, tourism is considered to be a
highly climate-sensitive economic sector similar to agriculture, insurance, energy, and transportation.
The regional manifestations of climate change will be highly relevant for tourism destinations and
tourists alike, requiring adaptation by all major tourism stakeholders. Indeed, climate change is not a
remote future event for tourism, as the varied impacts of a changing climate are becoming evident at
destinations around the world and climate change is already influencing decision making in the
tourism sector—whether it would be ski resorts or beach destinations.
At the same time, the tourism sector is a nonnegligible contributor to climate change through
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions derived especially from the transport and accommodation of tourists.
Tourism must seek to significantly reduce these emissions in accordance with the international
community, which at the ‘‘Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007’’ recognized that global emissions of
GHG need to peak in the next 10 to15 years and then be reduced to very low levels, well below half of
levels in 2000 by mid-century.6 The tourism sector cannot address the challenge of climate change in
isolation, but must do so within the context of the broader international sustainable development
agenda. The critical challenge before the global tourism sector is to develop a coherent policy strategy
that decouples the projected massive growth in tourism in the decades ahead from increased energy use
and GHG emissions, so as to allow tourism growth to simultaneously contribute to poverty alleviation
and play a major role in achieving the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG).
 Major Challenges Facing the Achievement of Sustainable Tourism E 383

The Nature of Climate Change Impacts

on the Tourism Industry and Destinations
There are four broad categories of climate change impacts that will affect tourism destinations, their
competitiveness and sustainability.

1. Direct climatic impacts: Climate is a principal resource for tourism, as it codetermines the
suitability of locations for a wide range of tourist activities, is a principal driver of global seasonality
in tourism demand, and has an important influence on operating costs, such as heating-cooling,
snow-making, irrigation, food and water supply, and insurance costs. Thus, changes in the length
and quality of climate-dependent tourism seasons (i.e., sun-and-sea or winter sports holidays)
could have considerable implications for competitive relationships between destinations and,
therefore, the profitability of tourism enterprises.
2. Indirect environmental change impacts: Because environmental conditions are such a critical
resource for tourism, a wide range of climate-induced environmental changes will have profound
effects on tourism at the destination and regional level. Changes in water availability, biodiversity
loss, reduced landscape aesthetic, altered agricultural production (e.g., wine tourism), increased
natural hazards, coastal erosion and inundation, damage to infrastructure, and the increasing
incidence of vector-borne diseases will all impact tourism to varying degrees. UNESCO has also
identified several world heritage sites that are critical tourist destinations as being vulnerable to
climate-induced environmental change (e.g., Venice, Italy—sea level rise; Great Barrier Reef,
Australia—coral bleaching and mortality; Glacier-Waterton International Peace Park, USA and
Canada—glacier retreat; and Chan Chan Archaeological Zone, Peru—El Ni~no-Southern Oscilla-
tion (ENSO) caused flooding and eroding).
3. Impacts of mitigation policies on tourist mobility: National or international mitigation
policies—that is, policies that seek to reduce GHG emissions—are likely to have an impact on
tourist flows. They will lead to an increase in transport costs and may foster environmental attitudes
that lead tourists to change their travel patterns (e.g., shift transport mode or destination choices).
4. Indirect societal change impacts: Climate change is thought to pose a risk to future economic
growth and to the political stability of some nations. The Stern report, Economics of Climate
Change, concluded that although a global warming of only 1! C might benefit global GDP, greater
climate change would eventually damage economic growth at the global scale, including the stark
conclusion that unmitigated climate change could cause a reduction in consumption per capita of
20 percent later in the twenty-first century or in the early twenty-second century.7 Any such
reduction of global GDP due to climate change would reduce the discretionary wealth available to
consumers for tourism and have negative implications for anticipated future growth in tourism;
however, there has been no in-depth interpretation of the Stern report for the tourism sector.

Destination Level Adaptation

It is essential to emphasize that regardless of the nature and magnitude of climate change impacts, all
tourism businesses and destinations will need to adapt to climate change in order to minimize
associated risks and capitalize on new opportunities, in an economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable manner.
Large tour operators who do not own the infrastructure are in a better position to adapt to
changes at destinations because they can respond to clients and demands, and provide information
to influence clients’ travel choices. Destination communities and tourism operators with large
investment in immobile capital assets (e.g., hotel, resort complex, marina or casino) have the least
adaptive capacity.
384 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

Tourists Adaptation to Climate Change

Tourists have the greatest adaptive capacity (depending on three key resources: money, knowledge,
and time) with relative freedom to avoid destinations impacted by climate change or shifting the
timing of travel to avoid unfavorable climate conditions. Suppliers of tourism services and tourism
operators at specific destinations have less adaptive capacity.

Industry Adaptation to Climate Change

The dynamic nature of the tourism industry and its ability to cope with a range of recent major
shocks—including SARS, terrorism attacks in a number of nations, or tsunamis—suggest a relatively
high adaptive capacity within the tourism industry overall. The capacity to adapt to climate change is
thought to vary substantially between subsectors, destinations, and individual businesses within the
tourism industry.
The tourism sector has been adapting its operations to climate zones worldwide, using a diverse
range of technological, managerial, educational, policy, and behavioral adaptations to deal with
climate variability. However, adaptation has figured less prominently in climate change research on
tourism than in some other economic sectors (e.g., agriculture).

Implications of Climate Change

for Tourism Demand Patterns
Climate, the natural environment, and personal safety are three primary factors in destination choice,
and global climate change is anticipated to have significant impacts on all three of these factors at the
regional level. The response of tourists to the complexity of destination impacts will reshape demand
patterns and play a pivotal role in the eventual impacts of climate change on the tourism industry.
Understanding and anticipating the potential geographic and seasonal shifts in tourist demand will
remain critical areas of research in the future.

The Way Forward to Adaptation

and Mitigation in Tourism
Concern about climate change is increasing worldwide, and the IPCC has made it clear that global
climate change is only just beginning. The impacts of climate change on the tourism sector will
steadily intensify, particularly under higher emission scenarios. Climate change would redistribute
climate resources for tourism geographically and seasonally and pose a risk to ecosystems worldwide.
The nature and intensity of climate change impacts will differ for tourism destinations around the
world. The most vulnerable regions are in developing countries, which generally also have less adaptive
capacity, and this will be a particular challenge for their tourist destinations and their host
communities. Climate change impacts on the tourism sector could influence other economic sectors,
such as agriculture and local business networks supplying tourism. Conversely, the tourism sector
must also be cognizant of the implications of climate change adaptation in other economic sectors,
which could have significant impacts on tourism. As the financial sector incorporates a company’s
climate change strategy, or lack of one, into its investment criteria, it will influence credit rating and
insurance rates.
 Major Challenges Facing the Achievement of Sustainable Tourism E 385

Climate change mitigation requires the transformation of energy and transportation systems
worldwide, with implications for the cost of travel and tourist mobility. Climate change also has the
potential to have an adverse effect on the global economy and poses a security risk in some regions.
Consequently, climate change is anticipated to have profound implications that could fundamentally
transform aspects of the global tourism sector.
The unmistakable conclusion of studies in the field have shown that the significance of climate
change to tourism is not in some distant and remote future. Climate change is already influencing
decision making within the tourism sector, including that of tourists, forward-looking tourism
businesses and investors, and international tourism organizations. The next generation of tourism
professionals will need to contend with virtually all of the broad range of impacts of climate change.
This is the time for the tourism community to collectively formulate a strategy to address what
must be considered the greatest challenge to the sustainability of tourism in the twenty-first century.

The Concept of Ecotourism and Its Role

in Sustainable Tourism
Acknowledgment and acceptance of the importance of achieving sustainable tourism has given rise to
the concept of ecotourism. Indeed, in the tourism world, the terms sustainable tourism and ecotourism
tend to be used interchangeably. While they certainly are strongly related, each contains a particular
nuance that many regard as significant. In our view, the concept of ecotourism conveys a greater
concern for the fundamental obligation of all travelers to avoid harming, and indeed to protect, all
sites that they visit. As such, ecotourism is highly value-laden in an intrinsic sense; that is, individual
travelers must accept responsibility for their behavior and its impact. In contrast, the term sustainable
tourism conveys a more functional societal obligation to ensure the conditions necessary to maintain
the physical environment in a ‘‘preserved state’’ for future generations. These conditions are not
simply economic and political factors; they include a recognition that desirable values and good
intentions must be supported by hard cash and tough decisions.

View of Triplet Falls in Australia. It is this kind of pristine beauty that those responsible for tourism must
constantly seek to preserve for the enjoyment of future generations. Courtesy of Digital Vision.
386 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

ECOTOURISM: COMMON TERMS USED

Ecotourism, geotourism, nature tourism, green tourism, low-impact tourism, adventure travel,
alternative tourism, environmental preservation, symbiotic development, responsible tourism, soft
tourism, appropriate tourism, quality tourism, new tourism, sustainable development, and sustainable
tourism all are monikers for similar types of tourist activities and developments. Of all the terms,
ecotourism and sustainability are most frequently used. The principle of both is to sustain or even
enhance the quality and attractiveness of the natural environment.
Definitions of ecotourism abound. Conservation International states, ‘‘Ecotourism is responsible
travel that promotes conservation of nature and sustains the well-being of local people.’’8
Dianne Brouse defines ecotourism as responsible travel in which the visitor is aware of and takes
into account the effects of his or her actions on both the host culture and the environment.9
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) (www.ecotourism.org) defines ecotourism as ‘‘respon-
sible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local
people.’’ This means that those who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should adhere
to the following principles:

& Minimize impact.

& Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect.
& Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.
& Provide direct financial benefits for conservation.
& Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people.
& Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political, environmental, and social climate.
& Support international human rights and labor agreements.

The Travel Industry Association of Canada (TIAC) (www.tiac-aitc.ca) adapted a nationally accepted
definition of ecotourism to assist and protect the reputation of Canadian tourism. This led to its final
definition:

Ecotourism is a segment of sustainable tourism that offers experiences that enable visitors
to discover natural areas while preserving their integrity, and to understand, through
interpretation and education, the natural and cultural sense of place. It fosters respect
toward the environment, reflects sustainable business practices, creates socioeconomic
benefits for communities/regions, and recognizes and respects local and indigenous
cultures, traditions, and values.

This is a powerful definition and the authors’ favorite because it is succinct, yet covers the
environmental, the economic, and the social—the three pillars required for sustainability. We
encourage everyone to use it.
The definition of ecotourism adopted by Ecotourism Australia (www.ecotourism.org.au) is:
‘‘Ecotourism is ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas
that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation, and conservation.’’
Other definitions also reported in the Travel Industry Association of America’s study, Tourism and
the Environment, are as follows:

& Ecotourism is environmentally friendly travel that emphasizes seeing and saving natural habitat
and archaeological treasures.
& Ecotourism is a tool for conservation.
& Broadly defined, ecotourism involves more than conservation. It is a form of travel that responds to
a region’s ecological, social, and economic needs. It also provides an alternative to mass tourism.
 Ecotourism: Common Terms Used E 387

Adventure travel is a rapidly growing market, and one of the most popular activities is whitewater rafting.
All tourists and especially these rafters on the Stanislaus River in California have a responsibility to leave
only footprints and promote conservation. Photo by Robert Holmes; courtesy of the California Division of Tourism.

It encompasses all aspects of travel—from airlines to hotels to ground transportation to tour

operators. That is, each component of the ecotourism product is environmentally sensitive.
& As a form of travel, ecotourism nurtures understanding of the environment’s culture and natural
history, fosters the ecosystem’s integrity, and produces economic opportunities and conservation gains.

Go to www.travelgreen.org to see the U.S. Travel Association’s efforts on protecting the environ-
ment through sustainable travel.
National Geographic Traveler has created the term geotourism, which it defines as tourism that
sustains or enhances the geographical character of the place being visited—its environment, culture,
aesthetics, heritage, and the well-being of its residents. This definition tries to describe all aspects of
sustainability in travel.
If these definitions sound like a case of the best of all possible worlds for the traveler, the
destination, and the locals, to a degree it is. The problem is living up to the promises of the definitions
and making ecotourism a reality. Otherwise, ecotourism becomes a paradox, bringing visitors to fragile
environments and ruining them rather than preserving them. In fact, many people quarrel with the
word ecotourism. If you consider the two parts of the word ecotourism—ecology and tourism—the
inconsistencies are apparent. Ecology is defined as the science of the relationships between organisms
and environment. When tourism is connected to it, a foreign entity is introduced and nature’s
relationships are changed. Ecotourism does not work when ecotours are so popular that they destroy
the very environment they seek to protect.

Benefits and Importance of Ecotourism

Before we write off ecotourism as impossible, however, consider the benefits:

& Provides jobs and income for local people

& Makes possible funds for purchasing and improving protected or natural areas to attract more
ecotourists in the future
388 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

& Provides environmental education for visitors

& Encourages heritage preservation and environmental preservation and enhancement (the
creation of new or enlarged national and state parks, forest preserves, biosphere reserves,
recreation areas, beaches, marine and underwater trails, and attractions)

Developing countries host many ecotourists. In Brazil, nature travel has become the country’s
largest new source of revenue. In south-central Africa, Rwanda’s ecotourism is the third largest source
of foreign exchange earnings. Much of this is generated by visitors to the Mountain Gorilla Project
begun in the 1970s. The success of this project has convinced the national government to preserve and
protect the critical habitat of the gorilla. It has also brought about support for other parks and reserves
in that country.
In Costa Rica, 60 percent of visitors are interested in seeing the national park system, which is 11
percent of the country’s land area. If biological and private reserves are added, the protected areas
total 23 percent of the nation.

Dangers and Limitations of Ecotourism

A low-density rural population is typically found at ecotourism destinations. Most of these people
depend on the use of the natural environment for their livelihood. Introduce tourism and it has an
effect on local populations: There is the danger that tourism consumes resources and has the ability
to overconsume. If an ecotour operator does not hire local people to perform services needed by the
tour group and use local supplies, the financial benefits of ecotourism are not shared with the local
population. This results in the local population and the tourists competing for scarce natural resources,
which is unhealthy for the environment. To be successful as tour operators, it is imperative that the
local people be involved. If not, their pressing need for survival will doubtless prevail, and this is very
likely to damage the very natural attractions that first lured the visitors there.

Paos Volcano National Park in Costa Rica is a popular natural attraction. In addition to the giant volcano
crater, the park also possesses abundant wildlife and unusual vegetation. Photo by Richard Mills; courtesy
of International Expeditions, Inc.
 Travel Organizations’ Efforts E 389

Another problem is that scientific knowledge of visitor impacts on remote areas, nature areas,
wilderness areas, and other relatively undisturbed natural areas in most countries is rather poor or
nonexistent. Thus, tourism and land management decisions are made in the absence of good
science. Once tourism starts, there is great pressure to allow more visitors. Consequently, the
destinations face the danger of becoming overvisited. Carrying capacities need to be determined
and enforced.
Finally, tourism is a multifaceted industry and, thus, is almost impossible to control. What
starts out as well-planned ecotourism can turn into too popular an adventure and overwhelm
the destination. To prevent this from happening, the basics of sustainable tourism must be
practiced.

TRAVEL ORGANIZATIONS' EFFORTS

Although the UNEP and UNWTO have taken a lead role in encouraging sustainable tourism, there are
other organizations that are working with them or independently to achieve sustainable tourism. The
discussion of sustainable tourism deserves mention of some of these organizations and the resources
they provide to accomplish the task.

Global Sustainable Tourism Council

The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) is a global initiative dedicated to promoting
sustainable tourism practices around the world. They work to expand understanding of and access
to sustainable tourism practices, educate about practices, and advocate for a set of universal principles
that define sustainable tourism. Visit its Web site at www.gstcouncil.org.
GSTC is currently active in all UNWTO regions—Africa, the Americas, East Asia and the Pacific,
South Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. The membership represents a diverse global member-
ship that includes UN agencies, major travel companies, hotels, country tourism boards, and tour
operators.
The GSTC fosters sustainable tourism through the adoption of universal sustainable tourism
principles. At the core of its efforts are the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria, a set of voluntary
principles that provides a framework for the sustainability of tourism businesses across the globe. To
review the criteria, visit www.sustainabletourismcriteria.org.

Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable

Tourism Development
The Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development has the mission to advance the
sustainable development and management of tourism, and to encourage tour operators to make a
corporate commitment to sustainable development. In carrying out this mission, the initiative
addresses ways to minimize adverse impacts on, and to generate benefits for environment, culture,
and communities in tourism destinations through the design and operation of tours and of the conduct
of tour operators’ business activities.
The initiative has been developed by tour operators for tour operators with the support of the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO); and the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO),
which are also full members of the initiative. Visit their Web site at www.toinitiative.org and review
their publications, best practices, and, case studies.
390 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

Environmentally responsible tourism can be achieved through the combined efforts of private operators,
travel organizations, and individuals. Photo courtesy of The Inn By The Sea, Cape Elizabeth, Maine.

U.S. Travel Association

The U.S. Travel Association tries to protect the environment through sustainable travel by maintaining
the Web site www.TravelGreen.org that is a go-to source for information on sustainable travel. It is a
site to learn how environmental sustainability is good for business and how travel companies and
destinations are pursuing eco-friendly travel opportunities for their customers. The site lists sustainable
tourism organizations, case studies, best practices, certification programs, social responsibility pro-
grams, and news items for all sectors of the travel industry. The site was developed by U.S. Travel in
cooperation with American Express. Visit www.TravelGreen.org and discover a wealth of information.

BEST Education Network

BEST Education Network is an international consortium of educators committed to furthering the
development and dissemination of knowledge on sustainable tourism. The organization is dedicated
to developing innovative sustainable travel and tourism practices. The BEST Education Network emerged
from a initiative known as Business Enterprises for Sustainable Travel, which was founded in 1998. The
primary objective of BEST was to develop and disseminate knowledge in the field of sustainable tourism. In
2003, BEST went through organizational changes and the group overseeing the educational and curriculum
aspects of the organization became independent and named itself the BEST Education Network.
The Network holds an annual three- to four-day Think Tank at various universities around the
world. Its 2011 Think Tank XI titled ‘‘Learning for Sustainable Tourism’’ was held at Temple University.
In addition to its annual Think Tank, BEST has developed sustainable tourism class modules as follows:
Sustainable Tourism Marketing Module; Sustainable Tourism Planning Module; Sustainable Opera-
tions Management Module; Sustainable Festivals, Meetings, and Event Management Module; and The
Bottom Line Reporting for Sustainable Development Module. These modules are available at
Goodfellow Publishers, www.goodfellowpublishers.com. The Network is chaired by Dr. Dagmar
Lund-Durlacher from MODUL University Vienna in Austria. MODUL University Vienna also houses
the BEST Education Network Secretariat. Visit its Web site: www.besteducationnetwork.org.
 Internet Exercises E 391

SUMMARY
Responsible citizens of the world have cause to realize that all of humankind’s activities must be
increasingly examined in a very critical manner with respect to their impact or their sustainability of
this planet. Tourism is only one of these activities, but it is an extremely important one. It follows that
tourism must understand and accept those limitations that are essential to maintaining a high quality
of life for all species. It is through the concept of sustainable tourism that the tourism sector seeks to
play its role responsibly. This chapter has examined the fundamentals of sustainable tourism as well as
the principles for its implementation and monitoring.
The main concept of ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the
environment and sustains the well-being of local people. From the tourists’ viewpoint, ecotourism
is typically the gratification provided by a unique experience in an undisturbed natural environment,
viewing flora, fauna, birds, animals, landforms, scenery, and natural beauty.
Benefits of ecotourism include providing jobs, helping preserve more areas, educating, and
encouraging heritage and environmental enhancement. Benefits to the local people are maximized by
hiring as many local people as possible and obtaining supplies and services locally.
Carrying capacity for visitors must be determined. It is defined as the maximum number of daily
visitors that the area can receive without damaging its attractive features. Enforcement of this limit,
along with good management and maintenance, is essential.
Sustainable tourism development is development that has been carefully planned and managed. It
is the antithesis of tourism that has developed for short-term gains. Because of the expected
continuing growth of tourism, sustainable development is the approach that will be needed. Because
of the pressure on the world’s resources, it is the only sensible approach.
No business sector has greater reason to promote and enforce environmental and business ethics
codes than tourism. The environment is the resource base for tourism, and without protection, the
natural attraction that brought the tourist in the first place will be lost.

E KEY CONCEPTS E
adaptive capacity core indicators of sustainable tourism pillars of sustainable development
allocation of responsibility dimensions of sustainable principles for implementing sustain-
benefits of ecotourism development able tourism
carrying capacity ecotourism site protection
climate change ecotourism development sociocultural authenticity
climate change adaptation effect on local populations sustainable development
climate change mitigation environmental preservation sustainable tourism
continuous monitoring heritage preservation

E INTERNET EXERCISES E
The Internet sites mentioned in this chapter plus some Background Information: Ecotourism Australia was formed
selected additional sites are listed for your convenience on in 1991 as an incorporated nonprofit organization and is the
the companion Web site for this book, www.wiley.com/ major national body for the ecotourism industry.
college/goeldner. Exercises
1. Describe the vision of Ecotourism Australia.
ACTIVITY 1
2. Describe its nature and ecotourism accreditation program.
Site Name: Ecotourism Australia
3. Discuss its EcoGuide Certification Program.
URL: www.ecotourism.org.au
4. What other activities does the association engage in?
392 E Chapter 17 Tourism and the Environment

ACTIVITY 2 Exercises
Site Name: United Nations Environment Programme 1. What publications does UNEP have on ecotourism and
URL: www.unep.org sustainable tourism?
Background Information: UNEP provides leadership and 2. What kind of information can you find in its Tourism
encourages partnerships in caring for the environment by Focus newsletter?
inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and people to 3. How does UNEP define ecotourism?
improve their quality of life without compromising that of 4. What does UNEP say about the environmental impacts
future generations. of tourism?

E QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION E

1. What is the definition of sustainable development? 12. What should be the goals of ecotourism for a tour
2. What is the definition of sustainable tourism? company? For the ecotourist? For the local popula-
tion? For the local government? For a conservation
3. What is the agenda for sustainable tourism?
organization?
4. Why is climate change important to tourism?
13. Differentiate ecotourism policy in developing and
5. What exactly is ecotourism? developed countries.
6. Why are there so many different terms for this idea? 14. Identify the principal limitations to ecotourism.
7. Why has this concept become so popular? 15. Referring to question 14, state some ways that these
8. Give some examples of the resources necessary for an limitations might be ameliorated.
ecotourism destination. 16. Why is capacity so important?
9. Are resources other than natural ones involved? Are 17. Why is it important to identify the values on which
these meaningful? Explain. tourism development is based?
10. Describe the role of local people in ecotourism and in 18. Of what use are ‘‘principles’’ in implementing rec-
sustainable development. ommendations to achieve sustainable tourism?
11. Why are preservation planning principles so 19. How much will consumers pay for environmental
important? friendly tourism?

E CASE PROBLEMS E

1. Bonnie S., CTC, is an agency travel counselor. She has He has decided that his firm would be more socially
decided that her agency’s market area has a good responsible if his tours (by minibus) would obtain
potential to sell more ecotours. How should Bonnie practically all needs from local sources. Give some
proceed to identify prospective buyers of such tours? examples of how he might do this and describe
2. As director of Ecuador’s national park system, Ernesto B. the benefits that would accrue locally. (When discussing
has become increasingly concerned about the overuse this, include both economic and social benefits.)
of Gal!apagos National Park. He worries that the current 4. Upon graduation, you have secured a job as tourism
popularity of the park—about 100,000 tourists each specialist with the World Wildlife Fund. Your first assign-
year—may actually be sowing the seeds of destruction. ment is to be a team member charged with helping
This situation may be inducing a disastrous future drop in to formulate plans for some kind of wildlife protection
visitor numbers. Outline some steps that he might take to: area in Zambia. This country is located in south-central
& Ascertain the present quality of the visitor experience. Africa. Its government is considering a new national
park and has requested expert assistance from the fund.
& Remedy some aspects of overuse of the park to
The president of the fund has made it very clear to the
ensure future success.
team that such plans must also aim to improve living
3. Nathan M. is the local managing director of a tour standards for the local population. These standards, at
company specializing in ecotourism. His company present, are grievously low. Most local people are
operates big-game and bird photo safaris in Tanzania.
 Endnotes E 393

subsistence farmers. They occasionally shoot big-game that the industry rapidly consumes valuable natural
animals that damage their crops, and also for meat. After resources, provides mostly low-paying unskilled
extensive field study, a particularly attractive area has employment, and degrades the culture of the main
beenfoundinwhichthesceneryisspectacular,theclimate tourist centers. As the state’s tourism director, how
very pleasant, the natural history resources outstanding, would you answer these charges?
and the local people friendly and hospitable. Thus, 6. Referring to case 5, the same environmental group has
theproposedparkseemstohaveanexcellentpotentialfor succeeded in convincing the state’s attorney general
attracting substantial numbers of ecotourists. Propose that all roadside billboards be eliminated. The various
some conceptual ideas as to how this challenge can be state hotel, motel, restaurant, attractions, and tourist
met successfully. promotion organizations vehemently oppose such
5. A very vocal environmental group has recently voiced legislation. Can you think of some kind of compromise
harsh criticism of the state’s tourism business. They claim plan that might satisfy both of these opposing groups?

ENDNOTES
1. Material in this chapter is extracted from Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy
Makers, (Paris, France and Madrid, Spain: United Nations Environment Programme, Division of
Technology, Industry and Economics and United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2006).
The authors acknowledge the value of this document and wish to convey their appreciation for
the willingness of UNEP and UNWTO to reproduce the document in whole or in part for
educational purposes.
2. Our Common Future: The World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland
Report, 1987; Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press).
3. Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy Makers, (Madrid: United Nations World
Tourism Organization, 2005), p. 11.
4. Ibid, 12–14.
5. Extracted from Climate Change and Tourism: Responding to Global Challenges, (Paris and
Madrid: World Tourism Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, 2008).
6. The ‘‘Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007,’’ international negotiations on GHG emission
reductions, held under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change. www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2007/unisinf230.html.
7. N. Stern, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2006).
8. Conservation International: www.conservation.org.
9. Dianne Brouse, ‘‘Socially Responsible Travel,’’ Transitions Abroad (January–February 1992), p. 23.