Meteor

A meteor, known colloquially as a shooting star, is a glowing streak of a small body (usually
meteoroid) going through Earth's atmosphere, after being heated to incandescence by
collisions with air molecules in the upper atmosphere,[2][3][4] creating a streak of light via its
rapid motion and sometimes also by shedding glowing material in its wake. Although a
meteor may seem to be a few thousand feet from the Earth,[5] meteors typically occur in the
mesosphere at altitudes from 76 to 100 km (250,000 to 330,000 ft).[6][7] The root word meteor
comes from the Greek meteōros, meaning "high in the air".[3]

Meteor seen from the site of the

Atacama Large Millimeter Array
(ALMA)[1]

Millions of meteors occur in Earth's atmosphere daily. Most meteoroids that cause meteors
are about the size of a grain of sand, i.e. they are usually millimeter-sized or smaller.
Meteoroid sizes can be calculated from their mass and density which, in turn, can be
estimated from the observed meteor trajectory in the upper atmosphere. [8] Meteors may
occur in showers, which arise when Earth passes through a stream of debris left by a comet,
or as "random" or "sporadic" meteors, not associated with a specific stream of space debris.
A number of specific meteors have been observed, largely by members of the public and
largely by accident, but with enough detail that orbits of the meteoroids producing the
meteors have been calculated. The atmospheric velocities of meteors result from the
movement of Earth around the Sun at about 30 km/s (67,000 mph),[9] the orbital speeds of
meteoroids, and the gravity well of Earth.

Meteors become visible between about 75 to 120 km (47 to 75 mi) above Earth. They usually
disintegrate at altitudes of 50 to 95 kilometres (31 to 59 mi).[10] Meteors have roughly a fifty
percent chance of a daylight (or near daylight) collision with Earth. Most meteors are,
however, observed at night, when darkness allows fainter objects to be recognized. For
bodies with a size scale larger than 10 cm (3.9 in) to several meters meteor visibility is due to
the atmospheric ram pressure (not friction) that heats the meteoroid so that it glows and
creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid particles. The gases include vaporised
meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through
the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second.

History

Meteors were not known to be an astronomical phenomenon until early in the nineteenth
century. Before that, they were seen in the West as an atmospheric phenomenon, like
lightning, and were not connected with strange stories of rocks falling from the sky. In 1807,
Yale University chemistry professor Benjamin Silliman investigated a meteorite that fell in
Weston, Connecticut.[11] Silliman believed the meteor had a cosmic origin, but meteors did not
attract much attention from astronomers until the spectacular meteor storm of November
1833.[12] People all across the eastern United States saw thousands of meteors, radiating from
a single point in the sky. Careful observers noticed that the radiant, as the point is called,
moved with the stars, staying in the constellation Leo.[13]

The astronomer Denison Olmsted extensively studied this storm, concluding that it had a
cosmic origin. After reviewing historical records, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers predicted
the storm's return in 1867, drawing other astronomers' attention to the phenomenon. Hubert
A. Newton's more thorough historical work led to a refined prediction of 1866, which proved
correct.[12] With Giovanni Schiaparelli's success in connecting the Leonids (as they are called)
with comet Tempel-Tuttle, the cosmic origin of meteors was firmly established. Still, they
remain an atmospheric phenomenon and retain their name "meteor" from the Greek word for
"atmospheric".[14]

Fireball

Camera recording of a superbolide

passage above Chelyabinsk Oblast,
Russia on 15th February 2013. The
object in this video is estimated to
be 17 to 20 metres (56 to 66 ft) in
diameter before atmospheric entry.
A fireball is a brighter-than-usual meteor which can be also seen during daylight. The
International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines a fireball as "a meteor brighter than any of the
planets" (apparent magnitude −4 or greater).[15] The International Meteor Organization (an
amateur organization that studies meteors) has a more rigid definition. It defines a fireball as a
meteor that would have at least magnitude of −3 if seen at zenith. This definition corrects for
the greater distance between an observer and a meteor near the horizon. For example, a
meteor of magnitude −1 at 5 degrees above the horizon would be classified as a fireball
because, if the observer had been directly below the meteor, it would have appeared as
magnitude −6.[16]

Fireballs reaching apparent magnitude −14 or brighter are called bolides.[17] The IAU has no
official definition of "bolide", and generally considers the term synonymous with "fireball".
Astronomers often use "bolide" to identify an exceptionally bright fireball, particularly one that
explodes in a meteor air burst.[18] They are sometimes called detonating fireballs. It may also
be used to mean a fireball which creates audible sounds. In the late twentieth century, bolide
has also come to mean any object that hits Earth and explodes, with no regard to its
composition (asteroid or comet).[19] The word bolide comes from the Greek βολίς (bolis) [20]
which can mean a missile or to flash. If the magnitude of a bolide reaches −17 or brighter it is
known as a superbolide.[17][21] A relatively small percentage of fireballs hit Earth's atmosphere
and then pass out again: these are termed Earth-grazing fireballs. Such an event happened in
broad daylight over North America in 1972. Another rare phenomenon is a meteor procession,
where the meteor breaks up into several fireballs traveling nearly parallel to the surface of
Earth.

A steadily growing number of fireballs are recorded at the American Meteor Society every
year.[22] There are probably more than 500,000 fireballs a year,[23] but most go unnoticed
because most occur over the ocean and half occur during daytime. A European Fireball
Network and a NASA All-sky Fireball Network detect and track many fireballs.[24]

Fireball Sightings reported to the American Meteor Society

[22]

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Number 734 676 953 1,660 2,183 3,599 3,789 4,250 5,391 5,510 5,993 6,978 8,259 9,629
Effect on atmosphere

A meteoroid of the Perseids with a

size of about ten millimetres
entering the earth's atmosphere in
real time. The meteoroid is at the
bright head of the trail, and the
ionisation of the mesosphere is still
visible in the tail.

The entry of meteoroids into Earth's atmosphere produces three main effects: ionization of
atmospheric molecules, dust that the meteoroid sheds, and the sound of passage. During the
entry of a meteoroid or asteroid into the upper atmosphere, an ionization trail is created,
where the air molecules are ionized by the passage of the meteor. Such ionization trails can
last up to 45 minutes at a time.

Small, sand-grain sized meteoroids are entering the atmosphere constantly, essentially every
few seconds in any given region of the atmosphere, and thus ionization trails can be found in
the upper atmosphere more or less continuously. When radio waves are bounced off these
trails, it is called meteor burst communications. Meteor radars can measure atmospheric
density and winds by measuring the decay rate and Doppler shift of a meteor trail. Most
meteoroids burn up when they enter the atmosphere. The left-over debris is called meteoric
dust or just meteor dust. Meteor dust particles can persist in the atmosphere for up to several
months. These particles might affect climate, both by scattering electromagnetic radiation
and by catalyzing chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere.[25] Meteoroids or their
fragments achieve dark flight after deceleration to terminal velocity. [26]
Dark flight starts when
they decelerate to about 2–4 km/s (4,500–8,900 mph). [27] Larger fragments fall further
down the strewn field.
Colours

A meteor of the Leonid meteor

shower; the photograph shows the
meteor, afterglow, and wake as
distinct components

The visible light produced by a meteor may take on various hues, depending on the chemical
composition of the meteoroid, and the speed of its movement through the atmosphere. As
layers of the meteoroid abrade and ionize, the colour of the light emitted may change
according to the layering of minerals. Colours of meteors depend on the relative influence of
the metallic content of the meteoroid versus the superheated air plasma, which its passage
engenders:[28]

Orange-yellow (sodium)

Yellow (iron)

Blue-green (magnesium)

Violet (calcium)

Red (atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen)

Acoustic manifestations
The sound generated by a meteor in the upper atmosphere, such as a sonic boom, typically
arrives many seconds after the visual light from a meteor disappears. Occasionally, as with
the Leonid meteor shower of 2001, "crackling", "swishing", or "hissing" sounds have been
reported,[29] occurring at the same instant as a meteor flare. These are sometimes called
electrophonic sounds.[30] Similar sounds have also been reported during intense displays of
Earth's auroras.[31][32][33][34]
Theories on the generation of these sounds may partially explain them. For example,
scientists at NASA suggested that the turbulent ionized wake of a meteor interacts with
Earth's magnetic field, generating pulses of radio waves. As the trail dissipates, megawatts of
electromagnetic power could be released, with a peak in the power spectrum at audio
frequencies. Physical vibrations induced by the electromagnetic impulses would then be
heard if they are powerful enough to make grasses, plants, eyeglass frames, the hearer's own
body (see microwave auditory effect), and other conductive materials vibrate.[35][36][37][38]
This proposed mechanism, although proven plausible by laboratory work, remains
unsupported by corresponding measurements in the field. Sound recordings made under
controlled conditions in Mongolia in 1998 support the contention that the sounds are real.[39]
(Also see Bolide.)

Meteor shower

Multiple meteors photographed

over an extended exposure time
during a meteor shower

Meteor shower on chart

A meteor shower is the result of an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams
of debris from a comet or other source. The passage of Earth through cosmic debris from
comets and other sources is a recurring event in many cases. Comets can produce debris by
water vapor drag, as demonstrated by Fred Whipple in 1951,[40] and by breakup. Each time a
comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and a certain amount of
meteoroids are shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a
meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "dust tail" caused by
the very small particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).

The frequency of fireball sightings increases by about 10–30% during the weeks of vernal
equinox.[41] Even meteorite falls are more common during the northern hemisphere's spring
season. Although this phenomenon has been known for quite some time, the reason behind
the anomaly is not fully understood by scientists. Some researchers attribute this to an
intrinsic variation in the meteoroid population along Earth's orbit, with a peak in big fireball-
producing debris around spring and early summer. Others have pointed out that during this
period the ecliptic is (in the northern hemisphere) high in the sky in the late afternoon and
early evening. This means that fireball radiants with an asteroidal source are high in the sky
(facilitating relatively high rates) at the moment the meteoroids "catch up" with Earth, coming
from behind going in the same direction as Earth. This causes relatively low relative speeds
and from this low entry speeds, which facilitates survival of meteorites.[42] It also generates
high fireball rates in the early evening, increasing chances of eyewitness reports. This explains
a part, but perhaps not all of the seasonal variation. Research is in progress for mapping the
orbits of the meteors to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon.[43]

Notable meteors

Comparison of approximate sizes

of notable impactors with the Hoba
meteorite, a Boeing 747 and a New
Routemaster bus

1992 – Peekskill, New York

 The Peekskill Meteorite was recorded on October 9, 1992 by at least 16 independent
videographers.[44] Eyewitness accounts indicate the fireball entry of the Peekskill meteorite
started over West Virginia at 23:48 UT (±1 min). The fireball, which traveled in a
northeasterly direction, had a pronounced greenish colour, and attained an estimated peak
visual magnitude of −13. During a luminous flight time that exceeded 40 seconds the fireball
covered a ground path of some 430 to 500 mi (700 to 800 km).[45] One meteorite
recovered at Peekskill, New York, for which the event and object gained their name, had a
mass of 27 lb (12.4 kg) and was subsequently identified as an H6 monomict breccia
meteorite.[46] The video record suggests that the Peekskill meteorite had several
companions over a wide area. The companions are unlikely to be recovered in the hilly,
wooded terrain in the vicinity of Peekskill.
2009 – Bone, Indonesia
A large fireball was observed in the skies near Bone, Sulawesi, Indonesia on October 8,
2009. This was thought to be caused by an asteroid approximately 10 m (33 ft) in diameter.
The fireball contained an estimated energy of 50 kilotons of TNT, or about twice the
Nagasaki atomic bomb. No injuries were reported.[47]
2009 – Southwestern US
A large bolide was reported on 18 November 2009 over southeastern California, northern
Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho and Colorado. At 00:07 local time a security camera at the
high altitude W. L. Eccles Observatory (9,610 ft (2,930 m) above sea level) recorded a
movie of the passage of the object to the north.[48][49] It had a spherical "ghost" image
slightly trailing the main object (likely a lens reflection of the intense fireball), and a bright
fireball explosion associated with the breakup of a substantial fraction of the object. An
object trail continued northward after the fireball. The shock from the final breakup
triggered seven seismological stations in northern Utah. The seismic data yielded a terminal
location of the object at 40.286 N, −113.191 W, altitude 90,000 ft (27 km). This is above the
Dugway Proving Grounds, a closed Army testing base.
2013 – Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia
The Chelyabinsk meteor was an extremely bright, exploding fireball, or superbolide,
measuring about 17 to 20 m (56 to 66 ft) across, with an estimated mass of 11,000 tonnes
as the relatively small asteroid entered Earth's atmosphere.[50][51] It was the largest natural
object known to have entered Earth's atmosphere since the Tunguska event in 1908. Over
1,500 people were injured, mostly by glass from shattered windows caused by the air burst
approximately 25 to 30 km (80,000 to 100,000 ft) above the environs of Chelyabinsk, Russia
on 15 February 2013. An increasingly bright streak was observed during morning daylight
with a large contrail lingering behind. At no less than one minute and up to at least three
minutes after the object peaked in intensity (depending on distance from trail), a large
 concussive blast was heard that shattered windows and set-off car alarms, which was
followed by a number of smaller explosions.[52]
2019 – Midwestern United States
On November 11, 2019, a meteor was spotted streaking across the skies of the Midwestern
United States. In the St. Louis Area, security cameras, dashcams, webcams, and video
doorbells captured the object as it burned up in the earth's atmosphere. The superbolide
meteor was part of the South Taurids meteor shower.[53] It traveled east to west ending its
flight somewhere near Wellsville, Missouri.[54][55]

Monitoring

World map of large meteoric

[56]
events (also see Fireball below)

In a range of countries networks of sky observing installations have been set up to monitor
meteors.

FRIPON

North American Meteor Network

Desert Fireball Network

European Fireball Network

Gallery

Orionid meteor Sporadic bolide over the Meteor (center) seen from the
desert of Central Australia and International Space Station
a Lyrid (top edge)

Possible meteor Comet Shoemaker–Levy

(center) photographed 9 colliding with Jupiter:
from Mars, March 7, The sequence shows
2004, by MER Spirit fragment W turning into a
fireball on the planet's
dark side

See also

American Meteor Society International Meteor Organization

Bolide Leonids

Desert Fireball Network List of meteor showers

Fireballs Aotearoa Lyrids

Green fireballs Meteor air burst

Hydrometeor North American Meteor Network

 Orionids Tollmann's hypothetical bolide

Perseids

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