Environmental  Degradation  as  a  Result  of  

Economic  Development  and  its  Impact  on  Society  
 

 
By  Tammy  Zeng  
Completed  Spring  2012  
University  Honors  in  International  Relations  
Capstone  Advisor:  John  Zhao,  School  of  International  Service  

  1  
  
Content  
 
Cover  Page…………………………………………………………………………………………………......…  1  
Content……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...2  
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3  
Theoretical  Approach…………………………………………………………………………………………4  
Introduction  ………………………………………………………………………………………………………5  
Research  Question………………………………………………………………………………………………7  
Map  of  Paper………………………………………………………………………………………………………9  
Part  1:  Economic  Development  and  Environmental  Pollution…………………………...….10  
Part  2:  Environmental  Pollution  and  Health  Effects……………………………………………..14  
Part  3:  Pollution  Related  Disputes  and  CCP  reactions…………………………………………..17  
Part  4:  Adaptation  Model  and  Analysis………………………………………………………………..22  
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………25  
Works  Cited………………………………………………………………………………………………………26  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  2  
Abstract  
In  just  30  years,  China  has  evolved  through  a  process  of  economic  
development  that  continues  to  be  unrivaled  by  the  rest  of  the  world.  Since  Deng  Xiao  
Peng’s  Open  Door  Policy,  China  has  reached  an  average  annual  GDP  growth  rate  of  
10%  and  has  lifted  billions  of  people  out  of  poverty  because  of  it.  However  economic  
progress  also  came  with  heavy  costs  for  the  environment.  For  example  in  Hong  
Kong  alone,  air  pollution  caused  an  average  of  30,000  deaths  per  year  (Wong).  The  
effects  of  air  pollution  and  other  health  hazards  related  to  economic  development  
have  a  disproportionately  larger  effect  on  people  of  lower  socio-­‐economic  status.  
The  marginalized  poor  of  China  suffer  from  the  negative  externalities  that  come  
with  development  but  reap  very  little  of  the  benefits.  These  issues  have  come  to  
complement  economic  development  and  in  many  ways  have  caused  social  unrest  
and  political  instability  in  many  regions  throughout  China.  Disruptive  actions  such  
as  protests  have  increased  tenfold  since  1994  from  8,700  to  87,000  in  2005(Storey).  
Even  with  economic  growth,  the  Chinese  appear  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  
Communist  Party,  and  reactions  towards  protests  and  demonstrations  have  been  
mixed  at  best.  Using  a  qualitative  approach,  the  focus  of  my  research  capstone  is  to  
analyze  whether  irresponsible  economic  development  shown  through  
environmental  pollution  can  cause  political  instability  and  the  role  of  the  Chinese  
government  in  response  to  citizens’  concerns.  My  analysis  using  the  adaptation  
theory  shows  that  the  Communist  Party  is  capable  of  adapting  its  role  in  order  to  
meet  the  needs  of  its  people.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  3  
Theoretical  Approach:  The  Adaptation  Model  
The  roots  of  the  adaption  model  stems  from  adaption  theory.  This  theory  was  
originally  coined  by  Charles  Darwin,  and  encompasses  the  idea  of  the  “survival  of  
the  fittest”.  By  applying  this  theory  to  mammal  species,  Charles  Darwin  discovered  
the  process  of  scientific  evolution.  He  found  that  organisms  have  an  ability  to  adapt  
to  changes  in  its  environment  and  adjust  over  time  to  survive  so  that  each  
generation  is  better  suited  to  their  environment.    
In  relation  to  China,  the  adaptation  theory  states  that  the  survival  and  the  
legitimacy  of  the  Chinese  Communist  Party  is  dependent  on  its  ability  to  adapt  and  
respond  to  challenges.  Historically,  China’s  revolution  played  a  large  part  in  
influencing  a  guerilla  style  policy-­‐making  approach  and  this  adaptive  approach  has  
continued  to  frame  the  way  policy  decisions  are  made  today.  Heilmann  and  Perry  
characterize  the  guerrilla  policy  style  that  allows  for  adaptive  governance  in  their  
chapter  Embracing  Uncertainty.  This  means  that  policy-­‐making  is  kept  fluid  allowing  
for  continual  improvisations,  adjustments,  and  pilot  efforts  that  take  into  account  
practical  experience.  Meanwhile,  strategic  decisions  are  made  through  top  
leadership  while  operationalization  and  implementation  are  left  for  local  
governments  to  take  into  account.    This  fluid  policy  style  allows  for  the  Chinese  
government  to  adapt  to  different  challenges.  According  to  Hellman  and  Perry,  the  
succession  of  post  Mao  leaders  have  managed  to  fashion  a  surprisingly  adaptive  
pattern  of  authoritarian  rule  capable  so  far  of  withstanding  challenges,  including  
growing  social  and  spatial  inequalities.  (Heilmann  and  Perry).      Therefore  my  
theoretical  approach  is  to  analyze  whether  the  challenges  of  sustainable  
development  is  something  that  the  CCP  is  capable  of  adapting  to.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  4  
Introduction  
  When  I  was  growing  up,  we  didn’t  have  luxuries  like  televisions  or  Wii  sets.  
We  didn’t  celebrate  birthdays  like  kids  do  here.  I  remember  when  I  was  young;  we  
would  be  lucky  to  get  an  egg  every  year  for  Chinese  New  Year.  We  didn’t  even  have  
shoes,  let  alone  brand  name  Nikes.  This  was  the  picture  that  my  mother  had  painted  
for  me  of  China  as  a  young  girl.  People  had  rationed  their  foods  and  even  with  frugal  
spending  habits,  few  families  were  able  to  meet  their  basic  needs.    
Last  year  when  I  visited  China,  the  vivid  image  my  mother  instilled  in  me  of  
immense  poverty  with  dirt  floors  and  bare  feet  simply  seemed  inaccurate.  As  I  
walked  through  the  streets  of  Beijing  I  was  constantly  surrounded  by  the  incessant  
noise  of  bustling  cars,  busy  street  vendors,  and  the  endless  blocks  of  department  
stores.  In  just  30  years,  China  had  evolved  through  a  process  of  economic  
development  that  continues  to  be  unrivaled  by  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  this  
process  of  development  was  easily  visible  throughout  the  streets  of  China.    
    With  the  start  of  the  Open  Door  Policy  by  Premier  Deng  XiaoPeng,  China  was  
able  to  reach  an  average  annual  GDP  growth  rate  of  10%  for  the  past  thirty  years.  
China  started  to  adopt  market  forces,  which  corrected  many  of  the  inefficiencies  
around  allocation  and  distribution.  China  also  started  to  encourage  international  
trade,  which  led  to  economic  growth  through  comparative  advantage.  The  process  
of  implementing  market  liberalization  and  privatization  policies  allowed  for  gradual  
economic  development,  which  ultimately  lifted  billions  of  Chinese  people  out  of  
poverty.    
However,  this  economic  development  also  caused  contention  within  China.  
Economic  progress  also  came  with  its  drawbacks  such  as  environmental  pollution  
and  income  disparities.  The  issue  of  air  pollution  in  China  is  a  large  concern  due  to  
the  increasing  number  of  mortality  rates  related  to  air  pollution.  In  Hong  Kong  alone,  
air  pollution  caused  an  average  of  30,000  deaths  per  year  (Wong).  The  effects  of  air  
pollution  and  other  health  hazards  related  to  economic  development  have  a  
disproportionately  larger  effect  on  people  of  lower  socio-­‐economic  status.  The  
marginalized  poor  of  China  suffer  from  the  negative  externalities  that  come  with  
development  but  reap  very  little  of  the  benefits.  These  issues  have  come  to  

  5  
complement  economic  development  and  in  many  ways  have  caused  social  unrest  
and  political  instability  in  many  regions  throughout  China.  Disruptive  actions  such  
as  protests  have  increased  tenfold  since  1994  from  8,700  to  87,000  in  2005.  
(Storey)  Even  with  economic  growth,  the  Chinese  appear  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  
Communist  Party,  and  reactions  towards  protests  and  demonstrations  have  been  
mixed  at  best.    
  I  plan  to  analyze  whether  or  not  irresponsible  economic  development  shown  
through  environmental  pollution  can  cause  political  instability.  I  hypothesize  that  
there  is  a  strong  correlation  between  environmental  pollution  and  economic  
development  and  this  has  made  China  more  politically  unstable.  I  also  explore  how  
the  Chinese  government  has  responded  to  the  environmental  disputes,  and  why  
there  continues  to  be  incongruences  between  policy  and  enforcement.      
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  6  
Research  Question  or  Puzzle  
Many  questions  remained  unanswered  after  coming  back  from  by  study  
abroad  experience  in  China.  My  internship  with  the  Economic  Observer,  a  
newspaper  focusing  on  the  Chinese  Economy  gave  me  a  realization  of  the  many  
social  ills  within  China  and  left  me  with  questions  that  continued  to  spur  my  
curiosity.  These  issues  included  the  income  gap,  the  houkou  system,  cancer  villages,  
drought,  unemployment,  social  security,  the  Jasmine  Revolution,  air  pollution  and  so  
on.  After  analyzing  all  of  these  issues,  economic  development  seemed  to  be  a  
common  link.    
China  is  constantly  being  applauded  for  the  their  economic  development  but  
the  problems  that  stem  from  economic  development  don’t  seem  to  gain  as  much  
attention.  On  a  surface  level,  I  noticed  the  web  of  connections.  A  progression  
towards  a  free  market  system  inevitably  causes  inequalities  in  terms  of  distribution  
leading  to  income  gaps.  Economic  development  without  environmental  regulation  
causes  air  pollution  leading  to  cancer  villages.  The  hokou  system,  which  restricts  
migration,  paired  with  regional  disparities  leads  a  large  number  of  migrants  without  
social  security.  Economic  development  also  allowed  for  improved  living  standards  
and  higher  educational  attainment,  but  the  supply  of  jobs  for  college  graduates  did  
not  necessarily  meet  the  demand  for  them.  These  issues  would  surface  but  political  
discourse  still  seemed  limited  because  criticism  was  not  received  well  by  the  
Chinese  Communist  Party.  Daily  reports  of  missing  dissidents  often  times  made  the  
news,  and  even  popular  figures  like  Ai  Wei  Wei  would  go  missing.  My  snapshot  of  
China  inspired  my  capstone  project  to  reflect  how  irresponsible  economic  
development  might  cause  political  instability.    
Originally,  I  had  planned  to  measure  the  effects  of  economic  development  
through  income  gaps,  environmental  degradation,  and  regional  disparity  to  
encompass  many  of  the  issues  that  I  felt  might  cause  political  instability.  After  
realizing  that  the  scope  of  this  paper  would  simply  be  too  large,  I  decided  to  narrow  
down  my  research  question  and  decided  to  focus  on  environmental  pollution.    
I  then  realized  that  linking  environmental  pollution  with  political  instability  
would  lead  to  a  host  of  questions  and  necessary  causalities.  For  example,  is  there  a  

  7  
connection  between  economic  development  and  environmental  pollution  in  the  case  
of  China?  What  are  the  health  effects  associated  with  environmental  pollution  and  if  
so  who  are  impacted  by  it?  If  environmental  pollution  in  fact  associated  with  
economic  development  and  this  has  proceeded  on  for  over  30  decades,  what  has  the  
response  been?  What  has  the  government  done  to  address  the  problems  if  at  all?  
I  make  the  assumption  that  economic  development  is  associated  with  
environmental  pollution  and  focus  primarily  on  the  effects  of  environmental  
pollution  and  its  impact  on  political  instability.  Therefore  my  research  question  is:  
Do  the  effects  of  environmental  pollution  cause  political  instability  in  China?      
   
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 
 

  8  
 Establishment  of  Causal  Relationships  in  Developing  Paper  
  Thesis:  When  Economic  Development  
occurs  irresponsibly,  this  causes  political  
instability      
   
 
Part  I  :  Economic  Development  Causes  
  Environmental  Pollution  

 
 
  Part  II:  Environmental  Pollution  causes  
negative  health  effects  and  this  
  disproportionately  affects  people  of  
  poverty  

 
 

 
  Part  III:  Knowledge  of  environmental  
pollution  and  its  impacts  cause  
  commotion  among  citizens.  With  out  the  
proper  form  of  political  discourse  this  
  result  to  protest.    
 

 
Part  IV:  CCP  tries  to  adapt  to  the  needs  of  
  the  people  by  making  short  term  policies  to  
gain  the  support  of  the  populace  but  may  
  not  necessarily  be  effective  in  enforcing  
those  polices.  The  Chinese  government  
  continues  forward,  as  shown  through  the  
  adaptation  model.    

 
 
 
 

  9  
Part  I:  Economic  Development  and  Environmental  Pollution  
  As  economic  development  progresses  the  production  capacity  and  living  
standards  for  people  improve,  leading  to  a  higher  demand  for  energy.  This  process  
of  industrialization  isn’t  any  different  from  that  of  other  countries,  where  the  
environment  is  often  sacrificed  in  order  to  pave  way  for  economic  development.  For  
the  US,  this  period  started  during  the  late  19th  century  and  for  China  this  process  
was  marked  by  the  Open  Door  Policy  in  1978.  In  China  this  period  of  growth  and  
industrialization  has  lasted  for  the  past  three  decades  and  has  started  to  leave  its  
ecological  mark.  Today,  China’s  environment  is  struggling  to  support  its’  large  and  
continually  growing  population  and  its’  constant  demand  for  energy.  Economic  
development  correlates  with  environmental  pollution  due  to  the  increasing  demand  
for  energy  and  the  heavy  use  of  coal  and  oil  in  order  to  satisfy  those  energy  needs.  
While  economic  progress  in  China  has  been  successful  in  lifting  the  largest  
number  of  people  out  of  poverty  in  the  past  decade,  China  has  also  grown  to  have  
higher  living  standards  for  its  people.  This  has  been  apparent  through  the  
transportation  industry.  While  30  years  ago,  most  people  could  barely  afford  
bicycles,  the  middle-­‐upper  class  in  China  today  often  own  a  car.  This  growing  trend  
is  shown  through  Yuefe  Jin’s  analysis  of  automobiles  and  energy  conservation  in  
China.  “Within  a  period  of  10  years,  China’s  automobile  output  rose  rapidly  from  
500,000  in  1990  to  3.25  million  in  2002,  with  an  average  annual  growth  rate  of  close  
to  13%  (Jin).  This  number  has  quadrupled  in  less  than  ten  years.  In  2009,  vehicle  
production  reached  13.79  million  and  sales  reached  13.64  million  at  an  increase  of  
more  than  45%,  making  China  the  world’s  largest  automobile  market  (Policy
Recommendations for Supporting the Development of Low Carbon Automotive Fuels in
China).  The  standards  of  living  of  Chinese  citizens  are  increasing,  and  the  effects  are  
shown  through  their  material  consumption.  The  energy  needs  necessary  to  satisfy  
these  demands  however  are  enormous.  
This  rapid  increase  in  the  demand  for  automobiles  has  implications  for  the  
use  of  energy,  oil  consumption,  and  green  house  gas  emissions.  The  increasing  
demand  for  automobiles  means  a  growing  demand  for  oil.  According  to  the  
International  Energy  Agency  (IEA)  the  growth  in  automobile  demands  means  that  

  10  
automotive  energy  consumption  will  increase;  and  by  2030  China’s  automobile  
energy  consumption  is  likely  to  surpass  400  Mt  of  fossil  fuels  (Policy  
Recommendations).    Currently,  95%  of  China’s  automotive  fuels  are  fossil-­‐sourced  
gasoline  and  diesel  and  the  demand  for  oil  is  constantly  rising  as  shown  below  
(Policy  Recommendations).  By  2020  transportation  is  expected  to  consume  over  
25%  of  China’s  total  energy,  and  imported  oil  will  occupy  60%  of  China’s  total  oil  
consumption  (Yang).      

 
The  use  of  fossil  fuels  as  a  source  of  energy  is  increasing  at  a  rapid  rate,  
which  causes  negative  implications  for  the  environment.  The  increasing  demand  for  
oil  means  increasing  the  output  of  green  house  gas  emissions  through  carbon  
dioxide.    In  2009,  GHG  emissions  caused  from  the  consumption  of  automotive  fuels  
in  China  amounted  480  million  tons  of  CO2  emissions,  an  increase  of  80%  from  
2000(Policy  Recommendations).    

  11  
  
The  increased  living  standards  associated  with  economic  development  have  
meant  a  higher  demand  for  material  goods,  and  this  growth  has  been  represented  
through  the  increasing  demand  for  automobiles  in  China.  Yet  as  automobile  demand  
increases,  so  does  the  demand  for  oil,  which  leads  to  increased  carbon  dioxide  
emissions.  Economic  development  therefore  does  have  a  negative  effect  towards  the  
environment;  this  is  also  shown  through  the  use  of  coal  as  a  source  of  energy.    
China’s  economic  development  has  meant  a  surge  in  energy  needs  and  coal  
has  been  China’s  predominant  source  of  energy  for  the  last  30  years.  The  use  of  coal  
is  popular  in  China  due  to  its  relatively  cheap  market  price  and  its  large  supply.  In  a  
competitive  market  the  cheapest  resources  win  the  largest  market  share  (Yang,  6),  
and  for  China  the  large-­‐scale  use  of  coal  has  helped  to  fuel  China’s  growing  economy.  
The  break  down  of  energy  use  in  2008  according  to  the  US  Energy  Information  
Administration  showed  that  coal  made  up  71%  of  total  energy  consumption,  oil  
made  up  19%,  hydroelectric  power  made  up  6%  and  natural  gas  made  up  3%(US  
EIA).    Therefore,  China’s  major  source  of  energy  is  coal.  In  2009,  China  consumed  an  
estimated  3.5  billion  tons  of  coal,  which  made  up  46  percent  of  the  world  total  (US  
EIA).    

  12  
 Coal  use  is  also  a  popular  in  China  because  it  is  a  relatively  abundant  natural  
resource  within  China.  China  has  the  third  largest  coal  reserves  in  the  world  and  
since  1989,  China  was  ranked  first  in  its  total  production  of  coal  (Thompson).  Since  
the  Chinese  people  rely  heavily  on  the  use  of  coal,  the  government  has  been  actively  
supporting  the  coal  industry.  According  to  the  12th  Five  Year  Plan,  the  Chinese  
government  plans  to  consolidate  the  coal  sector  in  order  to  fully  utilize  the  coal  
resources  within  China  (US  EIA).  China  is  slowly  increasing  its  production  and  
consumption  of  coal  and  although  the  market  price  of  coal  is  inexpensive,  the  costs  
associated  with  coal  use  to  public  health  and  the  environment  is  extremely  high.    
  The  effects  of  coal  can  be  measured  through  air  pollution  by  looking  at  levels  
of  carbon  dioxide,  sulfur  dioxide,  and  nitrogen  oxide.  According  to  the  a  National  
Energy  and  Strategy  Policy  Report  in  2004,  the  burning  of  coal  accounts  for  70%  of  
CO2  emissions,  90%  of  sulfur  dioxide  emissions,  and  67%  of  nitrogen  oxide  
emissions  (Grumbine).  By  2020,  SO2  levels  are  projected  to  increase  by  150%  
beyond  what  Chinese  experts  describe  as  the  maximum  capacity  for  the  entire  
country  (Grumbine),  and  for  NO2,  projections  to  2020  are  expected  to  increase  by  
86%  (Grumbine).  These  numbers  show  that  the  increasing  levels  of  air  pollution  
will  likely  cause  the  acidification  of  the  land,  and  will  result  in  negative  ecological  
impacts.    
The  connection  between  economic  development  and  environmental  
pollution  are  apparent  through  the  increasing  levels  of  emissions.  This  is  caused  
both  by  the  increasing  level  of  industrial  output  and  rising  living  standards.  More  
energy  is  constantly  needed  to  satisfy  the  growing  economy  and  this  often  comes  at  
the  cost  of  the  environment.        
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  13  
Part  II:  Environmental  pollution  and  Negative  Health  Effects  
Economic  development  causes  increasing  energy  demands,  and  in  China  
most  of  those  demands  have  been  met  through  the  use  of  coal  and  gas.  Therefore,  
my  analysis  of  health  effects  associated  with  environmental  pollution  focus  
primarily  on  air  pollution.    
Air  pollution  is  generally  measured  by  the  level  of  particulate  matter  in  the  
air.    Particulate  matter  is  the  amount  of  dust,  soot,  dirt  smoke,  or  liquid  droplets  in  
the  air  that  are  suspended  in  the  air  for  long  periods  of  time  (EPA).  Particulate  
matter  in  the  air  is  formed  when  gases  from  burning  fuels  react  with  sunlight  and  
water  vapor  (EPA).  Fuel  combustion,  power  plants,  and  industrial  processes  are  the  
main  causes  of  particulate  matter  in  the  air.  Air  particulate  matter  is  measured  by  
the  diameter  of  the  particles  in  the  air,  which  range  from  2.5  micrometers  to  10  
micrometers.  These  small  particles  are  inhaled  from  the  air  and  can  settle  within  the  
lungs,  which  can  lead  to  dangerous  health  effects  ranging  from  respiratory  issues  to  
cardiovascular  disease.  
Air  pollution  in  China  is  becoming  a  growing  concern  due  to  the  heavy  use  of  
coal.  As  previously  stated,  the  burning  of  coal  accounts  for  70%  of  CO2  emissions,  
90%  of  sulfur  dioxide  emissions,  and  67%  of  nitrogen  oxide  emissions  in  China  
(Grumbine).  The  chemicals  that  are  emitted  from  the  burning  of  fossil  fuels  cause  air  
pollution.  As  the  use  of  fossil  fuels  increase,  the  level  of  air  pollution  associated  with  
it  also  increases.  In  2003,  over  50%  of  China’s  urban  population  was  exposed  to  
annual  average  PM  level  in  excess  of  100  ug/m3,  which  is  twice  the  US  standard.  
The  increasing  amount  of  particulate  matter  settling  into  the  air  has  led  to  negative  
health  effects.    
Several  studies  have  been  conducted  measuring  the  correlation  between  air  
pollution  and  health  effects  in  China.  Two  popular  studies  include  the  study  
conducted  by  Maureen  Cooper  in  2010  and  the  study  conducted  by  Aunan  and  Pan  
in  2004.  In  the  article  What  are  the  Human  Affects  of  Air  Pollution  in  China,  by  
Maureen  Cooper,  she  measures  the  affect  of  air  pollution  through  levels  of  morbidity  
attributable  to  air  pollution.  Cooper’s  findings  show  that  a  per  10  ug/m3  increase  in  
additional  PM  10  levels  causes  a  0.7  %  increase  in  hospital  admissions  due  to  

  14  
cardiovascular  disease,  and  a  1.2  %  increase  in  hospital  admissions  because  of  
respiratory  diseases  (Cooper).  In  the  study  produced  by  Aunan  and  Pan  in  2004,  
entitled  Exposure  Response  Functions  for  Health  Effects  of  Ambient  Air  Pollution,  they  
found  that  a  per  10  ug/m3  increase  in  exposure  to  PM10  can  cause  a  4.8%  increase  
in  chronic  bronchitis.  In  2003,  450,000  hospital  admissions  were  associated  with  
respiratory  diseases,  while  300,000  hospital  admissions  were  associated  with  
chronic  bronchitis  (Aunan  and  Pan).  
These  health  effects  were  also  modeled  using  levels  of  sulfur  dioxide  as  a  
measure.  The  emission  of  sulfur  dioxide  is  primarily  caused  by  the  use  of  coal  in  
China,  meaning  that  there  is  a  direct  causal  relationship  between  energy  use  in  
China  and  health  affects.  According  to  the  Aunan  and  Pan  study,  hospital  admissions  
due  to  cardiovascular  disease  increased  by  0.19%  per  10  ug/m3  increase  in  the  
output  of  sulfur  dioxide  (Aunan  and  Pan).    
  Health  affects  range  from  cardiovascular  and  respiratory  diseases  to  
morbidity.  In  2003,  estimated  deaths  associated  with  outdoor  air  pollution  exceeded  
400,000  (Cooper).  The  cost  benefit  analysis  of  economic  development  and  energy  
use  should  be  looked  into  more  seriously  as  the  heavy  use  of  fossil  fuels  come  at  
heavy  costs  to  society.  Everyday,  Chinese  citizens  are  sacrificing  their  health  due  to  
out-­‐door  air  pollution.  
  The  health  effects  associated  with  outdoor  air  pollution  are  apparent  yet  the  
effects  of  air  pollution  are  often  times  more  severe  for  those  of  a  lower  
socioeconomic  status.  While  the  level  of  poverty  has  gradually  been  reduced,  the  
income  gap  within  China  has  increased  over  time.  Health  affects  associated  with  air  
pollution  disproportionately  affects  those  of  poor  socioeconomic  status.  With  an  
income  distribution  that  is  growing  increasingly  more  spread  out,  the  health  effects  
associated  with  poverty  are  becoming  more  apparent.    
  In  2008,  Wong,  Chun  and  King  conducted  a  study  to  measure  the  effects  of  air  
pollution  in  regards  to  socioeconomic  status  in  Hong  Kong,  China.  Social  deprivation  
was  measured  through  the  use  of  six  variables;  they  included  unemployment,  
monthly  household  income  <$250,  no  schooling  at  all,  one  person  household,  
subtenancy,  and  never  married  status.  The  first  four  variables  refer  to  educational  

  15  
attainment  and  material  wealth,  and  the  never-­‐married  status  is  included  due  to  the  
stigma  associated  with  singles.  The  classification  was  done  in  209  urban  tertiary  
planning  units  within  Hong  Kong  and  the  groups  were  separated  between  low  
middle  or  high  in  the  Social  Deprivation  Index(SDI).  The  study  showed  that  the  
number  of  deaths  associated  with  sulfur  dioxide  air  pollution  was  higher  in  high  SDI  
areas  as  opposed  as  opposed  to  low  SDI  areas.  The  study  also  showed  that  
cardiovascular  disease  associated  with  levels  of  nitrogen  dioxide  (NO2)  was  more  
common  for  those  with  a  high  SDI  index  as  opposed  to  a  low  SDI  index.  Another  
study  produced  by  Niedell  in  2004  measured  the  effects  of  carbon  emissions  and  
found  that  high  exposure  to  carbon  monoxide  was  found  to  have  a  larger  effect  on  
children  from  a  lower  socioeconomic  background  (Niedell).    
  The  studies  produced  by  Wong,  Chun,  and  King  and  Niedell  show  that  there  
is  a  strong  correlation  between  socioeconomic  status  and  health  effects.  There  are  
several  possible  explanations  for  this  effect.  For  example,  those  that  have  a  lower  
income  most  likely  have  limited  access  to  healthcare  and  poorer  nutrition.  
Therefore,  people  of  a  lower  socioeconomic  status  often  times  face  higher  risks  
associated  with  the  negative  impacts  of  air  pollution.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  16  
Part  III:  Pollution  Related  Disputes  and  CCP  reactions  
As  the  economy  has  progressed,  the  levels  of  pollutants  in  the  air  have  also  
increased  leading  to  larger  health  concerns.  Governments  are  generally  responsible  
for  the  negative  externalities  associated  with  economic  development,  and  when  they  
fail  to  act  responsibly  this  can  lead  to  social  unrest.    In  China,  environmental  
disputes  are  becoming  more  and  more  common,  as  people  are  becoming  more  
informed  of  the  effects  of  environmental  pollution.  Since  1997,  the  number  of  
pollution  related  disputes  have  increased  annually  by  a  rate  of  25%  (He).  The  levels  
of  protests  and  conflicts  related  to  pollution  in  the  21st  century  have  also  increased  
dramatically.  Between  2001  and  2005,  the  annual  numbers  of  pollution  related  
disputes  were  56,000,  71,000,  62,000,  51,000  and  12,800  respectively  (He).    
Protests  have  increased  steadily  as  citizens  are  gaining  more  knowledge  of  the  
negative  effects  of  pollution  and  its  relation  to  their  environment.  In  response  the  
CCP  tries  to  adapt  to  the  needs  of  the  people,  however,  barriers  involve  the  lack  of  
political  discourse  and  the  intermingling  between  economic  goals  and  
environmental  impact.    
General  awareness  and  knowledge  of  environmental  impacts  through  
personal  experience,  advocacy,  and  state  media  spurs  citizens  into  action  to  combat  
issues  related  to  environmental  pollution.  Disputes  or  drastic  protests  begin  only  
when  citizens  feel  that  their  personal  well  being  and  basic  rights  are  being  sacrificed.  
This  was  shown  in  the  case  study  produced  by  Jun  Jing  entitled  “Environmental  
Protests  in  Rural  China”.    This  case  study  involved  3,600  residents  from  Dachuan  
village  and  their  efforts  in  combating  water  pollution  in  their  community.  In  the  
early  1970s,  the  fertilizer  factory  that  was  built  in  the  village  produced  waste-­‐water  
which  was  dumped  into  the  Yellow  River.  The  stream  leading  to  the  Yellow  River  
was  the  only  source  of  water  for  the  villagers  and  as  the  years  passed,  citizens  
started  to  notice  the  health  effects  associated  with  consuming  polluted  water.  In  
1970,  three  horses  and  30  sheep  went  blind  from  drinking  the  water,  yet  the  
complaints  to  the  factory  yielded  minimal  results.  Then  in  the  1980s,  the  water  was  
so  polluted  with  ammonia,  that  the  crop  yields  were  being  damaged.  At  this  point,  
the  water  pollution  was  becoming  a  direct  threat  to  the  economic  well  being  of  

  17  
many  of  the  agricultural  farmers  in  the  area.  The  minimal  cooperation  shown  by  the  
factory  led  to  protests  in  1981  and  after  a  day  cadres  gave  in  and  started  to  supply  a  
source  of  tap  water  in  the  central  region  of  Dachuan.  Then  by  the  mid  1980s  around  
the  time  of  the  One  Child  Policy,  families  started  to  notice  birth  defects,  and  this  
became  a  serious  concern  for  every  family  and  protests  resumed  with  even  more  
fervor.  At  each  stage  of  protest,  villagers  learned  the  personal  impacts  that  water  
pollution  can  have  and  after  exhausting  the  proper  channels  of  communication,  
villagers  were  left  to  protest.    
Access  to  information  and  environmental  awareness  was  also  what  
instigated  the  closure  of  factories  in  Futian,  in  the  Sichuan  Province.  In  this  case  
study  produced  by  Tilt  and  Xiao,  entitled  “Industry  Pollution  and  Environmental  
Enforcement”,  environmental  awareness  came  through  the  outlets  of  social  media.  
In  2002,  an  expose  called  “Ten  Minutes  Tonight”  focused  on  the  local  factories  in  
Futian  and  the  detrimental  effects  of  pollutants  from  the  factory.  In  this  expose,  a  
reporter  with  a  hidden  camera  confronted  the  owner  of  the  factory  about  the  
environmental  hazards  of  his  factory.  In  response,  the  owner  simply  boasted  and  
said  that  despite  its  obvious  pollution  problems  their  industry  constituted  a  vital  
source  of  tax  revenue  and  therefore  was  immune  to  regulation.  Within  just  a  year  
the  district  government’s  environmental  protection  group,  Renhe  District  EPB  was  
forced  by  national  policy,  citizen  complaints  and  public  scrutiny  to  shut  down  a  
large  number  of  factories  in  Futian  for  noncompliance  with  emission  standards  (Tilt  
and  Xiao).    
Another  key  reason  the  number  of  environmental  protests  have  been  rising  
is  because  of  the  lack  of  political  discourse  between  citizens  and  the  government.  In  
1997  the  number  of  letters  sent  to  the  People’s  Republic  over  environmental  abuse  
amounted  to  100,000.  By  2002  this  number  reached  400,000  and  by  2006  it  was  
close  to  600,000  (Jing).  Yet  the  majority  of  these  petition  letters  calling  for  
government  action  and  representation  were  simply  ignored.  Of  the  many  letters  that  
were  sent  in,  the  court  system  handled  no  more  than  1%  of  the  country’s  
environmental  lawsuits  (Jing).    When  environmental  lawsuits  are  rejected  by  the  
court  system,  this  leads  to  petition  drives,  and  when  petition  drives  fail  

  18  
demonstrations  and  protests  follow(Jing).  Citizens  are  lacking  the  proper  outlets  to  
express  their  concerns  and  when  their  efforts  are  continually  dismissed,  citizens  
have  no  other  choice  but  to  protest.    
The  main  source  of  political  discourse  between  the  government  and  its  
people  is  the  petition  system.    Also  called  xinfang  this  system  was  suppose  to  
encourage  political  stability  by  creating  a  means  of  communication.    However,  those  
that  petition  often  face  repercussions,  and  are  often  held  responsible  if  they  lead  to  
disruption  actions.  Under  the  1994  Beijing  Petition  Regulations,  petitioners  have  
clear  regulations  they  must  abide  by  (Storey).    For  example  “Petitioners  will  be  
investigated  for  criminal  responsibility  if  they  engage  in  disruptive  action,  damage  
property  and  threaten  staff  among  other  activities;  they  will  also  be  subject  to  
prosecution  if  they  are  deliberately  provocative  and  incorrigible”(Storey).    Yet  
despite  regulations,  the  number  of  petitions  sent  to  the  central  government  is  
continually  growing,  while  the  government  response  is  limited.  For  the  most  part  
these  petitions  are  ignored.    The  lack  of  discourse  and  the  minimal  means  of  
addressing  concerns  lead  to  disruptive  actions.  The  number  of  disruptive  action  in  
China  grew  from  8,700  in  1993  to  87,000  in  2005  (Storey).  Many  citizens  are  losing  
their  confidence  in  the  structure  of  the  petition  system  as  a  means  of  discourse  and  
are  becoming  more  active  in  protests  in  order  to  satisfy  their  demands.    
The  Chinese  government  responds  to  the  demands  of  environmental  
protection  in  different  manners  due  to  sometimes-­‐divergent  goals  between  the  
central  government,  district  government,  and  township  government.  The  central  
government  sets  more  expansive  policies  and  tries  to  abide  by  international  ideas  
around  sustainability.  The  central  government  has  increased  its  efforts  around  
environmental  sustainability  by  creating  more  regulatory  agencies,  increasing  
regulatory  standards  through  policy  initiatives  and  providing  increased  funding  
toward  environmental  protection  projects.  For  example,  the  State  Environmental  
Protection  Agency  (SEPA)  since  its  start  in  the  1970s  has  gradually  grown  from  
88,000  employees  in  1995  to  over  380,00  employees  in  2006  (Tilt  and  Xiao).    The  
level  of  funding  towards  environmental  protection  efforts  has  also  grown  
significantly.  Government  statistics  report  that  investment  in  pollution  control  and  

  19  
treatment  grew  from  8.2  billion  yuan  in  1999  to  16.3  billion  yuan  in  2003  (Tilt  and  
Xiao).  Now  expenditures  on  environmental  protection  make  up  about  1.4%  of  GDP  
(Tilt  and  Xiao).    Both  through  policy  and  funding  the  central  government  has  
committed  to  improving  environmental  conditions.  The  support  for  the  necessary  
policy  initiatives  is  in  place  and  the  policy  goals  for  sustainable  growth  is  admirable,  
however,  policy  goals  are  often  times  not  met  due  to  lack  of  enforcement.    
Despite  the  broad  mandates  by  the  central  government,  the  reality  is  that  the  
priorities,  projects,  and  implementation  of  environment  regulations  are  actually  the  
responsibility  of  the  district  and  local  governments.  The  priorities  of  the  different  
levels  of  government  do  not  usually  align.  This  was  the  case  for  the  study  done  in  
Futian.  As  noted  earlier  factories  in  this  particular  village  were  shut  down  due  to  the  
attention  brought  on  by  the  media.    
The  factory  owner  stated  he  had  no  regard  for  environmental  regulations  
since  his  industry  essentially  supports  the  economy  of  the  village.  When  the  
factories  were  forced  to  shut  down  in  2002,  the  black  and  white  nature  between  
economic  development  and  environmental  sustainability  became  apparent.  After  
the  shut  down  the  fiscal  situation  in  the  township  plummeted.  Industrial  taxes  
declined  form  more  than  2  million  yuan  in  the  late  1990s  to  zero  following  the  
factory  closures  (Tilt  and  Xiao).  Prior  to  the  factory  closing,  the  majority  of  the  taxes  
were  spent  on  development  projects  in  the  village,  including  investment  in  
infrastructure,  healthcare,  and  schooling.  After  the  factory  closures  the  operating  
budget  for  development  projects  were  cut  by  two  thirds.  Businesses  within  the  
village  also  suffered  heavy  economic  losses.  Half  of  the  retail  stores  that  originally  
catered  to  the  factory  workers  and  their  families  were  forced  to  close.    In  this  case  
the  level  of  environmental  enforcement  was  detrimental  for  the  community.  This  
case  study  showed  that  on  a  local  level,  officials  are  often  less  likely  to  take  on  
environmental  protection  measures  very  seriously  as  taxes  often  make  up  a  large  
portion  of  local  government  revenue.    
The  district  government  generally  plays  the  middle  ground  in  balancing  the  
priorities  of  the  central  and  local  governments.  In  the  Futian  case  the  district  
government  sided  with  the  central  government  by  strictly  enforcing  the  emission  

  20  
standards  already  in  place.  The  Futian  case  was  more  sensitive  due  to  the  public  
scrutiny  caused  by  the  expose,  but  on  a  general  note  the  district  government  is  
suppose  to  encourage  sustainable  development  by  balancing  the  goals  of  both  the  
central  government  and  the  local  government.  This  can  be  a  hard  task  considering  
the  different  priorities  of  each  group.    
Overall,  there  has  been  increased  commotion  on  the  subject  of  
environmental  protection  because  citizens  are  gaining  a  greater  understanding  of  
their  health  and  well-­‐being  in  relation  to  the  environment.  Environmental  
awareness  has  led  to  greater  demands  for  government  action,  however  the  channels  
for  communication  and  political  discourse  are  often  times  ineffective.  In  order  to  
avoid  political  instability  there  needs  to  be  an  improved  outlet  for  political  
discourse  and  discussion.  Also,  the  different  levels  of  government  need  to  also  
cooperate  in  order  to  consolidate  often  times  divergent  goals  in  order  to  promote  
sustainable  development.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  21  
Part  IV:  Adaptation  Model  Analysis  
  The  adaptation  model  would  assume  that  the  survival  of  the  Communist  
Party  is  dependent  on  their  ability  to  adapt  and  respond  to  challenges.  In  my  
analysis  I  look  into  how  the  CCP  is  able  to  do  this  through  meeting  the  challenges  of  
sustainable  development.    
  As  the  Chinese  economy  started  to  grow,  many  environmental  conditions  
were  over-­‐looked  because  economic  growth  was  a  generally  prioritized  over  
environmental  pollution.  The  building  of  factories  within  villages  was  considered  a  
sign  of  growth  and  industrialization,  and  many  local  governments  encouraged  these  
investments.  However,  the  last  two  decades  have  shown  the  negative  externalities  
of  pollution  that  are  often  times  accompanied  with  increased  industrial  output.  
Environmental  awareness  has  caused  a  growing  number  of  environmental-­‐related  
disputes  and  protests.  The  matter  in  which  the  CCP  reacts  to  the  above  challenges  is  
key  in  measuring  the  party’s  continued  success.    
  The  central  government,  in  its  efforts  to  quell  social  unrest  in  regards  to  
environmental  pollution,  has  put  into  place  a  wide  range  of  policies  and  initiatives  to  
encourage  and  incentivize  environmental  protection.  In  1995,  the  CCP  refused  to  
spend  even  half  of  the  recommended  1.5%  of  its  GNP  towards  environmental  
protection  (Vemeer).  But  by  2003,  the  CCP  close  to  doubled  its  effort  by  spending  
16.3  billion  yuan  or  1.4%  of  its  GNP  towards  environmental  sustainability  (Tilt  and  
Xiao).  As  the  CCP  is  realizing  the  hazards  related  to  environmental  pollution  and  the  
challenges  related  to  them,  the  central  government  is  stepping  up  and  responding  to  
the  needs  of  its  people.  Along  with  financial  support,  the  central  government  has  
also  been  active  in  creating  more  stringent  environmental  polices  and  have  shown  
growing  efforts  in  regulating  those  policies.  SEPA,  the  bureaucracy  focused  
primarily  on  advocating  for  environmental  protection  and  regulation  has  also  
grown  significantly  in  size.  These  efforts  are  a  positive  sign  of  the  central  
government  gradually  adapting  to  some  of  the  environmental  demands  of  its  
citizens.  
  On  a  local  and  district  level  the  goals  and  priorities  are  different.  The  
government  structure  in  China  generally  allows  for  more  autonomy  and  

  22  
independent  discretion  on  the  local  level,  therefore  local  cadres  are  more  prone  to  
corruption.    This  is  essentially  what  causes  the  weak  and  uneven  enforcement  of  
environmental  laws.  In  both  the  Futian  and  Dachuan  disputes,  local  government  
failed  to  respond  properly  to  the  demands  of  the  community.  In  the  Futian  case,  the  
issue  of  environmental  pollution  could  have  been  addressed  prior  to  the  expose  had  
environmental  regulations  been  properly  enforced  earlier.  After  the  media  exposure,  
citizens  and  higher  government  officials  vehemently  advocated  for  the  closure  of  the  
factories.  If  the  local  government  had  ordered  a  gradual  phase-­‐out  of  emissions  
prior  to  the  expose,  this  could  have  saved  the  village  from  economic  collapse.    
The  failure  of  local  government  is  also  shown  in  the  Dachuan  case.    In  the  
Dachuan  disputes,  villagers  had  asked  their  local  government  for  advice  regarding  
the  issue  of  water  pollution.  However,  the  local  government  instead  of  cooperating  
with  the  citizens  to  find  a  proper  compromise;  they  simply  dismissed  the  issue.  The  
local  government,  which  is  suppose  to  advocate  for  the  needs  of  its  citizens  failed  in  
its  role.  When  citizens  came  to  protest  it  was  apparent  that  cadres  sided  more  with  
the  factory  owners  because  they  themselves  were  receiving  a  portion  of  the  profits.  
During  one  of  the  major  protests,  citizens  called  out  the  Communist  Party  Secretary  
General  Manager  to  drink  the  polluted  water  that  the  rest  of  the  village  was  forced  
to  use.  It  took  close  to  20  years  of  constant  protest  for  the  factory  to  address  the  
issue  of  water  pollution.  These  frustrations  could  have  been  alleviated  with  less  
tension  had  the  local  government  been  more  prominent  in  its  role  of  environmental  
regulation.    
  One  of  the  failures  of  the  guerilla  style  of  policy  making  is  that  political  
accountability  is  sacrificed  by  the  leadership  flexibility  (Heilman  and  Perry).  Also  
since  many  institutions  remain  unchecked  by  either  the  media  or  other  
bureaucracies,  they  become  more  prone  to  corruption.  Corruption  was  obvious  in  
both  cases  regarding  Futian  and  Dachuan.  Since  the  local  EPA  wasn’t  active,  and  the  
local  government  sided  with  the  factory  owners,  citizens  did  not  receive  proper  
representation  and  the  political  discourse  that  was  necessary  in  communicating  the  
priorities  of  the  people  were  ineffective.  Also  the  independence  and  autonomy  that  
was  given  to  local  cadres  was  unchecked,  and  without  political  transparency  local  

  23  
cadres  were  able  to  get  away  with  providing  lax  environmental  regulations  to  the  
industries  of  their  choosing.  Public  attitudes  also  reflected  the  failure  of  local  
government  In  2009,  Tony  Saich’s  created  a  study  using  data  from  the  Horizon  
Market  Research  Company  (3,000-­‐4,000  respondents)  analyzing  approval  ratings  
for  different  branches  of  the  government.  In  his  analysis,  Saich  found  that  95.9  %  of  
residents  were  satisfied  with  the  CCP,  80%  of  residents  were  satisfied  with  midlevel  
government,  and  only  60%  of  residents  were  satisfied  with  the  local  government.  In  
order  to  improve  public  sentiments,  local  government  needs  to  play  a  larger  role  in  
addressing  the  concerns  of  its  citizens.    
  Although  the  CCP  is  adapting  by  encouraging  environmental  sustainability  on  
many  fronts,  the  CCP  also  needs  to  consider  “adapting”  to  a  more  transparent  and  
representative  political  structure  so  that  the  needs  of  local  residents  are  met.  
Overall,  there  is  still  a  strong  amount  of  confidence  and  pride  in  the  Communist  
party.  With  approval  ratings  of  95%,  the  central  government  still  retains  a  strong  
amount  of  support  (Saich).  And  despite,  the  growing  number  of  protests  there  is  still  
a  strong  sense  of  legitimacy  towards  the  central  government.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  24  
Conclusion:    
  The  past  30  years  of  economic  development  has  caused  forms  of  social  
unrest,  however  the  Chinese  Communist  Party  has  responded  effectively  to  many  of  
the  needs  of  its  people.  The  central  government  in  the  past  five  years  has  
implemented  more  environmental  regulations  and  created  more  funding  towards  
environmental  initiatives.  This  process  is  an  ongoing  one,  but  the  CCP  has  started  to  
step  up  in  its  efforts.  Now  China  is  moving  towards  more  sustainable  development  
in  order  to  balance  economic  growth,  environmental  concerns,  and  social  harmony.  
The  central  government  is  essentially  adapting  to  the  country’s  environmental  
concerns.  Moving  forward  China  is  likely  to  adapt  through  processes  of  gradual  
change.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  25  
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