certain illegal means are used by powerful states to achieve their ends. For example, USA declared War on Terror and attacked Iraq without UN approval. But states should generally refrain from use of force and employ peaceful methods for conflict resolution to allow coexistence and mutual cooperation eck Your Progress Exercise 2 Note: i) Use the space given below for answers. ii) See the end of Unit for tips for your answer. 1) What are the elements of National Interest? 2.4 BALANCE OF POWER The Realist school gives a good deal of importance to the idea and practice of balance of power (BoP) in International Relations, Following paragraphs explain the concept in detail 2.4.1 Meaning In International Relations, BoP is defined as the distribution of equal power among nations, When the power is more or less equally distributed, then no one state can dominate others and no state feels threatened, Balance of Power theory says if one state becomes powerful, then it will attack the weaker state thereby providing an opportunity to the threatened states to form a defensive coalition Sidney Fay describes it as just equilibrium so that none of the nations become strong to exert its will or force on another state, Inis Claude explains it as “a system in which some nations regulate their power relations without any interference by any big power”. The logic behind Balance of Power theory is that there is no world government. And each state has to rely on its own resources and strategies to prevent being attacked from another. So when a country faces threat from a powerful country, it either mobilizes its own resources or it gets into an alliance with other states so as to balance the adversary. 2.4.2 Nature i) Temporary and Unstable: BoP is short lived. And countries constantly change their allegiances and alliances to serve their national interests. ii) Requires Active Intervention: BoP is not a gift from nature, It is to be built and maintained with the active intervention from political leaders. iii) War tests the efficacy of BoP: BoP prevents the outbreak of war and when the war happens, BoP is broken Basic Concepts: Elements of National Power, National Interest, Colleetive Security, Balance of Power 31Introduction 32 iv) Not a device of Peace: BoP happens because of the volatile international situation. It is no guarantee of peace. ¥) Big Powers are the main players: Strong powers are the main players in creating and maintaining BoP whereas small powers are either allied partners or spectators or victims in the play. vi) Requires Multiple States: For BoP to happen, it requires multiple states to maintain power relations. vii) National Interest is the priority: It can be adopted by any State and national interest is the basis for deciding it, 2.4.3 History of BoP BoP concept has been as old as history. It was used by Greeks and Thucydides, an ancient Athenian political theorist said that BoP leads to security in international system, In 15# century during Renaissance, the concept was revived again among Italian city-states. ‘The idea of internationalism was replaced by BoP after the signing of Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 that demarcated the sovereign states, For a century, from 1815 to 1914, international security was maintained by BoP. However, the outbreak of First World War in 1914 broke the balance among different nations. The concept was revived again between 1919 and 1939 but it failed again when the Second World War happened, The Cold War era maintained precarious balance among communist states led by USSR and capitalist states headed by USA. Post the disintegration of Soviet Union and the socialist bloc, USA adopted the role of world leader and unipolarity became the basis of international relations. With emergence of rising powers such as China, India and others and resultant multipolarity in the international system, the relevance of BoP has been renewed 2.4.4 Methods Compensation: It is mainly territorial compensation, A state gets divided or annexed if itis considered dangerous for the balance. Colonial powers used this method to divide the territories amongst themselves if there was a threat to their colonial possessions and to the balance among them. Prior to the First World ‘War, European imperial powers divided and carved out new borders of small states especially in the eastern Europe and the Balkans, Alliances and Counter Alliances: group of nations enter into an alliance to counter the threat and secure their position and enhance their power in international system, Usually, a formation of an alliance leads to a counter alliance During Cold War, USA formed NATO, SEATO, CENTO and Soviet Union ereated Warsaw Pact. Intervention and Non-Imervention: It’s a dictatorial method carried out to change or maintain a desired situation in a country. USSR’s intervention in Afghanistan, American intervention in Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, Iraq are few examples, Divide and Rule: It’s a divisive measure to control and weaken the opponent. For example, China has been trying to break unity among ASEAN nations so that they do not stand united against its aggressive moves in South China SeaBuffer Zones: There are neutral areas that separate wo big powers which are generally adversaries, Each superpower then tries to exert influence on the buffer zone and take its control leading to struggle between the two big powers in the neutral zone, Armaments and Disarmaments: To secure themselves in international system, countries compete in arms race by accumulating weapons for their defence. This can be deterrent to world peace and security and can lead to war. Currently, disarmament has gained traction where countries are asked to reduce and gradually climinate the use of weapons as defense and offence mechanism, Treaties like Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons ask for banning of weapons, Balancer: This concept is used less frequently now given the unipolarity/ multipolarity syndrome in world order. But earlier Britain played the role of a balancer in Europe. A balancer plays a neutral role and is not allied to any of the contending party. It negotiates and mediates between the two so as to keep the balance. 2.4.5 Critical Evaluation Arguments in Favour of the usefulness of BoP as a tool to maintain international peace and stability are as follows: i) BoP isa source of stability in international system. Fredric Geniz remarked “BoP has many a times prevented a war, War breaks out only when any state assumes excessive power”. ii) It aids in adjustments and readjustments so as to prevent the outbreak of war, iii) Multiple states participate to maintain the status quo and it often leads to bipolarity or multipolarity in the international system. iv) Small states enjoy the public goods such as law and order, international peace, security being offered in the balance. ¥) _Itdiscourages war. Usually a counter alliance exists to counter the threat of a hegemonic alliance. A strong opposition limits the excessive power of either party. vi) It is a source of peace and world order. From 1815-1914, it successfully prevented war Arguments not in favour of BoP are: i) BoPlostits relevance in the 1990s as the world became unipolar. In military terms, the world remains unipolar and USA is the hegemon. No group of countries can balance the US as of now. ii) BoP isnotan adequate and efficient way of maintaining order in international society. It inculeates a sense of fear. iii) BoP is an uncertain and fragile arrangment. As it is based on fear and insecurity looms large iv) States are not usually free to break alliances, Basic Concepts: Elements of National Power, National Interest, Colleetive Security, Balance of Power 3334 ¥) It’s not real peace, Intemational peace is based on morality and protection of human rights, Peace in BoP is based on constant fear of conflict vi) States are not static. Their powers keep expanding or reducing which can, and does, threatens the precariousness of BoP. 2.4.6 Is BOP Still Relevant? International relations have undergone a sea change. Earlier, European states ruled the roost, Now the emergence of various powers in Asia, Africa and Latin America has abated the supremacy of major powers making BoP principle redundant, Secondly, the end of imperialism and colonialism also contributed to the decline of European powers who were the major players in BoP. Third, the balancer has disappeared from the international arena. Britain had done this job carlier. Fourth, proliferation of nuclear weapons has created a dreadful situation. ‘Their use can lead to a catastrophic war that can cause irreversible change. How do you balance a nuclear power? The nations no longer want a total war. Sadly, Balance of Power keeps the option of war open. Fifth, the emergence of United Nations and other international and regional actors have played an important role in diffusing tensions and contributing to harmony and peace. BoP belongs to the era when international organizations did not exist. But BoP has not become completely obsolete. From international arena, it has shifted to regional area. Critics of BoP like Martin Wright and Friendrich admit that BoP is still a fundamental element in international relations. ‘Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Note: i) Use the space given below for answers ). See the end of Unit for tips for your answer. 1) What is Balance of Power? 2.5 | COLLECTIVE SECURITY 2.5.1 Definition Itis a security arrangement in the political, regional or global arena in which a state accepts that security of one is the security of all, Therefore, the states in a group collectively cooperate to provide security to all in case of any threat or breach of peace, Collective security acts as a deterrent against aggression because the collective power of all nations is used to repel aggression or war against any state. It is based on the principle that aggression against one is an aggression againstall, For international peace and community, aggression has to be countered with collective action by group of states. Schleicher explains “collective security as an arrangement among states in which all promise, in the event any member of the system engages in certain prohibited acts (war and aggression) againstanother member, to come to latter’s assistance.” The two key elements of collective security are “security” and ‘collective’. Security of one nation is inextricably linked to the security of all nations, National security is international security, Breach of security of one nation entails breach of security of all nations. “Collective” here means that group of states has to collectively deal with the aggressor. It highlights the spirit of ‘All for One and One for All.” Organski in his work Horld Politics lists five basic assumptions of collective security: (i) Inan armed conflict, member nation-states will be able to agree who is the aggressor, (ii) All member nation-states are equally committed to contain the aggression, (iii) All member nation-states have same freedom of aetion and ability to join in the aggression. (iv) The collective power of the member-states will be adequate to counter the aggression. (v) In the context of collective security, the aggressor country will modify his action or have to face defeat Morgenthau gives three prerequisites for the success of collective security: (i) The collective military strength has to be in excess to that of the aggressor in order to defeat him, (ii) The member-states must share the same beliefs of the security of world order. (iii) Conflicting interests among member-states should be subordinated to common good, which is common defence of all member-states 2.5.2 Chief Features i) An instrument of power management: In order to preserve international peace, collective security is used to manage the crisis at the time of war or attack ii) It acknowledges universality of aggression: It admits that aggression will happen and a group of states has to be formed to counter it. iii) Nations have commitment to end aggression: All nations pool their resources to stop the aggression. iv) Jt prevents war: An aggressor nation will avoid war as it knows that its act will be met with collective defence. ¥)_ War is the enemy and not the state: Collective Security works towards eliminating war not the aggressive state 2.5.3, UN Collective Security Concept ‘The Charter of United Nations for the preservation of international peace and security, Chapter VII of the UN Charter talks about collective security system and its title reads: Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, and Acts of Aggression. Chapter VII contains 13 Articles, Articles 39-51, which provide for a collective system to secure international peace and security. UN Security Council has been assigned the job of initiating collective security action against the act of aggression. ‘The 13 articles provide for the following, Article 39; Responsibility of Security Council to determine whether an action is an act of aggression or not and to decide on the steps to secure international peace Article 40: States that the first step towards prevention of war/aggression can be provisional measures like ceasefire. Basic Concepts: Elements of National Power, National Interest, Colleetive Security, Balance of Power 3536 Article 41: Refers to enforcement actions other than collective military actions. It can recommend sanctions against the aggressor. Article 42: Security Council can take military action to preserve international peace and security Article 43: Members of Security Council are required to contribute resources, effort and forces for raising collective security force that may have to take action under Article 42 Articles 44-47: Procedures for raising, maintaining and using UN Peace Keeping Force for collective security action, Article 48: Action on the decision of Security Council is to be taken by all the members or some of them as the Security Couneil may determine. Article 49: Members of the United Nations have to mutually assist in carrying out decisions by Security Council Article 50: Lays down the ways in which non-member states can adjust their policies and actions towards the decision that may be taken up by the Security Council under Articles 41-42 Article 51: In case of an armed attack against a State, UN accepts the right of the State to individually or collectively take measures for self defense until the Security Council has taken measures to protect international peace and security. Collective Security was used for the first time in 1950 to solve Korean Crisis. In 1956, it was used again in Suez. Canal crisis. It has also been used during the crises in Congo, Hungary, Lebanon, Iran-Iraq war, war against Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan in the year 2001. However Collective Security came under severe scanner when the USA launched attack on Iraq in 2003 without UN’s consent. 2.5.4 Critical Evaluation Though Collective Security was formulated for noble reasons of preserving international peace and security, but its too idealistic in nature, It assumes that there exists complete understanding among nations to protect each other. Also, at times it is not possible to identify the aggressor, The aggressor might act in self defense. Collective security admits war as a means to secure peace, And there is high probability that war might not be neutral and can be influenced by an ideology or vested interest, ‘The other major problem is that the UN lacks a permanent international force to enforce the collective security decision of the Security Council. The process is slow and the time gap between the date of aggression and the date by which an international peacekeeping force is raised and reaches the troubled spot is big. Lastly, collective security is a dangerous concept as the local war can escalate into a global war. Despite the above criticisms, collective security remains a device of crisis management to secure world peace and prevent war.