Module 2: Language and Community

Language
The following are definitions of language:
(i) system of communication between humans, through written and
vocal symbols
(ii) speech peculiar to an ethnic, national or cultural group (iii) words,
especially employed in any art, branch or knowledge, or profession
(iv) a person’s characteristic mode of speech
(v) by extension, the articulate or inarticulate expression of thought
and feeling by living creatures.

Language combines a wide variety of features and is the most precise

and complex means of communication that exists.

Language is one of a range of means of communication. It is not to be

regarded as just another form of communication. It is perhaps the most
complex of all. It is flexible, dynamic, systematic, creative and socially
governed. It is to be distinguished from all other forms of communication,
both human and non-human, because it does more than simply
communicate.

There is a popular misconception that language is just another form of

communication. It is important to note that language is not like other forms of
communication and that in fact it is a peculiarly human phenomenon, though
many of its features are to be found in other forms of communication.

There are two types of languages: denotative and connotative

language. Denotative language is language interpreted literally while
connotative language has emotive shades of meaning.

Functions of Language
∙ Language is a marker of evolution for the human species ∙
Language offers human beings the means of expressing
themselves verbally.
∙ Language is extensive, meaning that the ability to speak
separates us from all other species.
∙ Language stands as being widely creative.
∙ Language has identity, meaning that you begin to identify people
based on his or her use of language. It creates personal identity.

Characteristics of Language
∙ Language has a human characteristic. Only humans have the physical
capability to pronounce the wide variety of sounds that are used in
world’s languages. Language must be sound based. However, it is not
necessary to write it to be considered a language. Communication
must take place for it to be considered a language.
Mutual intelligibility: where information could be passed on and
 understand

Note that, in order for a language to become a standard form, it must

be written.

∙ Language is verbal. It is based on recognizable sounds.

∙ Language is symbolic. This means that it uses words as

representations or symbols of ideas. Most words have an arbitrary,
but mutually agreed relationship between the symbol and the
meaning. Symbolism in language ensures that ideas are easily shared
among speakers of the same language. Dictionaries are actually
records of the symbolic meaning of the words in a language. They
ensure that the symbolism remains consistent despite the advent of
new generations and new speakers.

∙ Language is systematic. Languages have structure. Each language

has specific grammar rules and follow specific word order. Unlike
other forms of communication, language makes use of a number of
different systems operating at several levels.

1. Sound
Since some sequences of sound are not acceptable. Note
that the spelling in some cases is not readily recognized
because it may not suggest a sequence of sounds that
speakers of English recognize or use
normally. Each language has its accepted sound
patterns that are easily recognizable to its speakers. 2.
Grammar
Since some order of words, or parts of words, are not
acceptable. The grammar of a language is a set of rules that
govern how the words of the language are put together to
make meaning.
3. Semantics
Words have specific meanings and people cannot keep
changing the meanings of words because they feel like it, nor
can they combine words which produce
ridiculous combinations such as ‘green cow’. Such a form
is only possible as a figure of speech.

∙ Language is evolutionary. One manifestation of language change

is the invention of new words. As humans invent or discover new
things and new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be
created to represent them.
Changes in meaning are another way in which language evolves.
Generally, these changes occur when a significant group of persons
persistenly uses a word to mean something other than its traditionally
accepted definition.
 ∙ Language has a maturational characteristic. As and individual grows
older, their ability to produce and comprehend language increases.

∙ Language is non-instinctive. It needs to be learnt through

communicative interaction with others. While humans are born with
the ability to acquire language, they can only do so through imitation.

∙ Language is dynamic. Language is constantly changing. It has great

flexibility and can vary according to certain social or geographical
factors.

Language and A Language

∙ Language (generic) is a vehicle of thought, system of expression. The
principal means used by human beings to communicate with one
another. Language is primarily spoken, but it can also be written.
∙ Language is the verbal form of human expression. ∙ Language is a
purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced
symbols.

∙ A language (individual) is a set of elements and a system for combining

them into patterned sentences that can be used to accomplish
specific tasks in specific contexts. Examples: to greet friends, argue,
ask the time.
∙ A language is any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished
from other such system by its peculiarities of structure and vocabulary
– i.e. every language is distinct from other languages because of
these features.
∙ A language is one recognizable, identifiable or accepted entity used by
one or more communities of speakers.

∙ A language community is all the speakers of a particular

language.

∙ A language family is a group of languages that have all

developed from a single ancestral language.

Purposes of language
1. Expressive purposes
Language can be used simply to express one’s feelings, ideas or
attitudes, without necessarily taking a reader or listened intro
consideration. When language is used in this way, the speaker is not
trying to effect change in an audience or elicit response. He/she is
merely giving vent to emotion or needs. Diaries and journals are
obvious examples of language used for expressive purposes.
2. Informative purposes
Language is employed with the intention of conveying information to
others. This purpose is used to convey ideas, truth statements,
instructions, abstract and complex propositions and to aid
understanding. Therefore, a news broadcast, a bulletin board or a
textbook are all examples of language being used for this purpose.

3. Cognitive purposes
When language is used cognitively, it is with the intention of affecting
the audience in some way in order to evoke some type of response.
Therefore, when one uses language to persuade, entertain, stir to
anger or arouse sympathy, one is using language for cognitive
purposes. Jokes, political speeches and horror stories are different
examples of ways in which language can be used cognitively.

4. Poetic purposes
Language used in literary, stylistic or imaginative ways is poetic.
The user focuses on the structure and pattern of the language and
places emphasis on the manner in which language is manipulated.

5. Phatic purposes
Language is used simply to establish or maintain contact among
people. This use of language is most obvious in spoken
communication. Language used for phatic purposes does not
necessarily seek to generate a meaningful response. Although the
phatic purpose of language does not often apply to written
communication, in the case of letter writing, the greeting and closure
are phatic. Informal or friendly letters and email may also use
expressions.

6. Metalinguistic purposes
This is the use of the language to comment on, refer to or discuss
language itself. A critique of a speech is
metalinguistic.

7. Social purpose
Sometimes when language is used, it has more to do with certain
cultural or ceremonial conventions that relate to social interaction in a
particular community.

8. Identifying purpose
This is seen in the use of slogans, chants, anthems, nicknames and
other terms that allow for expression of personal or group identity.

9. Ritual purpose
This language offers the possibility of exercising control over certain
aspects of life.
 10. Aesthetic purpose
Aesthetic use of language in its absolute form (for example,
experimental poetry) exploits qualities of language such as sound
and pattern, but may invite a variety of different interpretations and
responses.

11. Persuasive purpose

The persuasive purpose is used to convince, or persuade, the reader
that the opinion, or assertion, or claim, of the writer is correct or valid.

Variation
Although any speaker of a language could communicate with any other
speaker of the same language, these people often do not all speak the
language in the same way. The way in which language is used often varies
from group to group, from one situation to another, and from individual to
individual. The language used may also vary in relation to the intent of the
speaker or the purpose of the communication or even the nature of the
relationship between the speaker and the audience.

∙ Variation is the changes in language in response to various

influences. For example: social, geographic, individual and group
factors.
∙ Some factors influencing language variation are social pressures,
development in technology, geographical location, political and
economic status.
∙ How do varieties develop?
They develop where there is limited communication between different
parts of a community that share one language. Geographical
boundaries, isolation, political conflict or military hostilities may lead to
sustained loss of contact between
groups so that changes in the language are not shared by all speech
communities.

Dialect
∙ Dialect is a variety of a language spoken by an identifiable subgroup
of people, i.e. dialects can be characteristic of geographic, regional,
ethnic, socio-economic or gender groups; any version of a language
spoke by a particular
geographic or social sub-group, e.g. British Standard English,
Cockney English, Yorkshire English, Trinidad Standard English,
American English, Dominican Standard English.
∙ Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes
dominant. This is usually due to the fact that it is the dialect spoken by
 the people with the economic power or greatest social influence in
that society. In this case, their dialect becomes accepted as the
standard variety of that language. Therefore, the standard variety
becomes the one used for writing and other formal purposes and is
often given prestige over the other varieties.
∙ No one variety of a language is superior to another and that every
language is really a collection of dialects.
∙ A group of people who speak the same dialect is known as a speech
community.
∙ Although two person may speak the same dialect, their accents may
be different. An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation.
Accents can be regional or social.
∙ Dialects differ from one another by semantics (word choice), syntax
(sentence structure), grammar and morphology (word forms).
∙ No matter what dialect is spoken by a speech community, each user is
capable of manipulating that dialect in relation to the context of
communication. Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to,
you can vary the way you express yourself. This type of language
variation is called code switching. This is the ability to manipulate
between the standard and non-standard dialect based on the social
setting.
∙ Dialectal Variation refers to a person’s conscious choice of dialect
which can be the variation of Creole or Standard English. Choice of
dialect is chosen based on the speaker’s status, educational
background, emotional state and attitude towards the dialect.
∙ The three different types of dialects are basilect, mesolect and acrolect.
∙ Basilect is a basic form of the dialect spoken by the group at the
bottom of the social ladder.
∙ Mesolect is a midway point between basilect and acrolect.
∙ Acrolect is a dialect that is closest to the standard European language
spoken by the groups in close contact with most powerful sector of
the society.
∙ Jamaican Language Continuum
This is the range of languages and language dialects spoken in
Jamaica. This range is represented as a continuum because: 1. Not
every point on the continuum is a separate language 2. Jamaicans will
switch from one to the other continuously in conversations and in
different situations
3. according to some persons, the Creole is continuously
changing and becoming more like English.

Basilect. is the form of Creole with more African derived features

than other forms. The first point on the continuum. It is most often
spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.

Mesolect is a form of Creole with more English derived features than

the basilect. The point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most
 often spoken by urban and educated persons.

Acrolect is the last point on the continuum. An example is

Jamaican Standard English. It is most often spoken in formal
situations.

Register
∙ A register is the form of a language in which one may choose to speak,
where “form” refers to ranges in formality and informality.
∙ Standard English is a formal register, Jamaican Creole is a more
informal register.
∙ Words used to refer to informal register include: colloquial,
vernacular.
∙ A register is also a language variety associated with a particular
situation of use; the range of language choice available for use
in different situations.
∙ One may choose to use an entirely different variety or dialect of a
language from one situation to the next. The variety of language that you
use at any given time is your register.
∙ Choice of register also generally reflects the speaker’s/writer’s
relationship with the audience.
∙ The ability to change your register is an important life skill. ∙ There
are five types of registers:
1. Frozen Registers
Used in print and public media, sermons, pledges, prayers. The
language of the register is fixed and unchanged. No direct
response from a reader or listener is expected.
2. Formal or Academic Registers
Used in formal social settings and interviews. It is the language of
seminars and lectures, ceremonies, public speaking and
conversation between strangers. This register almost always uses
Standard English. The sentence structure and vocabulary are
complex but more easily understood in general than some forms.

3. Consultative Registers
Used in situations where the listener is expected to give some
feedback. Example: a doctor visit, interview,
counseling, client-lawyer. This register indicates that the
speakers are not intimately related but that there is sustained
communication between them. Standard and non-standard
forms of language may be used as the speakers may switch
codes to relate more easily to each other.

4. Casual or Informal
Used when talking with friends and acquaintances in a non formal
setting. This register is usually recognized by the slangs used. The
topic of discussion may be general and there is a conversational
 tone reflected in the use of colloquialisms (a word or phrase that is
not formal or literary and is used in ordinary or familiar
conversation.) and slang. There may be attempts to code-switch to
adopt the dialect of the person.

5. Intimate Registers
It is the language of persons who are very close. This is usually
marked by specialized words or expressions only understood by
the parties involved in the intimate
relationship. Communication is aided by non-verbal elements and
reference may be made to unspecified topics and situations. There
is evidence of intimacy in the use of nicknames and terms of
endearments as well as expression of personal emotions.
Incomplete sentences, interruptions, shortened responses and
unexplained references are the norm.

Standard
∙ This is the dialect used for education and other formal or official
purposes.
∙ How does a dialect become a standard?
It is spoken by the dominant group in the society thus it commands the
most prestige and becomes the target to which people aspire.
Education, publishing and an established body of literature enhance
the status of the prestigious dialect and
it emerges as the standard and is often supported by
economic, political and social factors.
Creole
∙ The term Creole originally meant a person of European parents who
had been born and raised in a colonial territory. Later, it was used to
refer to anyone native to these countries and then it became the name
of the language spoken by these people.
∙ A Creole is a language that is as a result of contact between Africans
speaking different native languages and Europeans speaking different
varieties of European languages. Or it is the set of varieties which
have their beginnings in situation of contact where groups of people
who do not share a common language are forced to communicate
with each other.
∙ A Creole is a language that comes into being through contact between
two or more languages.
∙ The substrate of Creole is the grammar of the African languages while
the superstrate of Creole is the vocabulary of European languages.
∙ It is the set of varieties which have their beginnings in situations of
contact where groups of people who do not share a common language
are forced to communicate with each other.
∙ When people who speak different languages find themselves in a
situation where they have to communicate with each other for purposes
of trade, business or to survive, these people usually devise a form of
 language communication
called a pidgin. A pidgin is a system of communication that has
grown up among people who do not share a common language but
need to trade or conduct business.
∙ Pidgins are not ordinary languages since they are normally used only
for communication between persons from different speech
communities. However, in some case, a pidgin begins to be used as
the first language of people in the same community.
∙ The pidgin may then become a native language; it acquires the more
complex grammar of a full language and is referred to as a Creole.
∙ Therefore, all Creole languages start as pidgins. Sometimes Creole
languages are referred to as patois or patwa. However, the word
patois can be used as synonym for any non-standard variety or local
dialect, including pidgins.
Characteristics of English Creole Languages

Grammar
∙ Nouns, verbs and pronouns are not altered in form to indicate plurals,
tense, person or case.
∙ Creole uses the plural marker ‘dem’ without changing the noun in
any way.
Singular Plural

Standard English Girl Girls

Creole Gal/ gyal Dem gyal/ de gyal

dem

∙ Creole does not utilise an auxiliary verb to indicate change in person.

However, the Creole differentiates between the
second person singular and plural by inserting ‘all’ in the latter case.
Standard English Creole

1st person singular I am eating I eatin

2nd person singular You are eating You eatin

3rd person singular He/She/It is eating He/She/It eatin

1st person plural We are eating We eatin

2nd person plural You are eating You all/All you eatin

3rd person plural They are eating Dey/Dem eatin

 ∙
Another characteristic of Creole grammar is its use of predicate
adjectives.
Standard English English Creole French Creole

I am tired I/me tired Mwen las

He is sick He/him sick E malad

You are thirsty You tired Ou swef

∙ The use of double negatives is another characteristic that Creole shares

with Standard French (and Spanish) but not with Standard English
Standard English Creole Standard French

I’m not doing I not doin nothing Je ne fais rien

anything

∙ Creole does not reverse word order to indicate the

interrogative form of a sentence
Standard English Creole

You have eaten You eat already

Have you eaten? You eat already?

CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAMMAR

English Creole Caribbean Standard English

Unmarked count nouns with Pluralised count nouns with

generic meaning, for example, generic meaning, for example,
mango sweet mangoes are sweet

Unmarked action verbs with past Past-marked action verbs with past
time reference, for example, she time reference, for example, she
pinch me and run outside pinched me and ran outside
 Preverbal markers, for example, Auxiliaries and suffixes, for
ben/bin/wen/did (past marker), go example, did/-ed (past),
(future marker), a (marker of will/shall (future), -ing
continuous and habitual), does (continuous), simple present
(marker of habitual) tense forms (cook, cooks)

Subject-adjective structures, for Subject-copula-adjective

example, mi sick, di mango structures, for example, I am
sweet sick, the mango is sweet

Subject-verb word order in Inversion of subject and auxiliary

question formation, together with in question formation together

rising intonation, for example, you with rising intonation, for
done cook di food? example, have you finished
cooking the food?

No voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of Voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of
words or syllables; a ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound words or syllables, as, for
instead, as, for example, in fif, example, in fifth, with
wit/wif

Phonology
∙ Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the
systematic organization of sounds in languages
∙ In the case of English-based Creole, the most distinctive differences in
sound combinations are observed in sounds that occur in Standard
English but not in the Creole.
∙ A very obvious one is the ‘th’ sound, which does not exist in Creole. It
is replaced by either the ‘d’, ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound, depending on its postion in
the word and the presence or absence of other non-English influences
on the Creole.
∙ Creole also dispenses with the final consonant in the words that end
in ‘ing’ or with ’d’.
∙ In some cases, an English sound combination is not dropped but
 reversed, for example: ask becomes aks and film become flim.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHONOLOGY

English Creole* Caribbean S tandard English

No voiced consonant clusters at the Voiced consonant clusters at the

end of words, for example, -nd > n, end of words, for example, -nd, as
as in han, san in hand, sand

No voiceless consonant clusters at Voiceless consonant clusters at the

the end of words, for example, -st > end of words, for example, -st, as in
-s, as in tes, wris; -ft > f, as in left; -; test, wrist; -ft, as in left; - ghed, as in
-ghed > gh, as in laugh; -ped >p, as laughed; -ped, as in leaped
in leap

No voiceless-voiced consonant Voiceless-voiced consonant

clusters at the end of words, for clusters at the end of words, as in
example, -sed > s, as in miss;
-ghed, gh, as in laugh; -ped>p, as

in leap missed, laughed, leaped

No voiced ‘th’ sound at the Voiced ‘th’ sound at the beginning of

beginning of words or syllables; a ‘d’ words or syllables, as, for example,
sound instead, as, for example, in in they, them, la.ther
dey, dem, la.der
 No voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end Voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of
of words or syllables; a ‘t’ or ‘f’ words or syllables, as, for
sound instead, as, for example, in example, in fifth, with
fif, wit/wif

* It should be noted that some of the English Creole characteristics are at

times carried over into Caribbean Standard English.

Vocabulary
∙ The vocabulary (lexicon: list of all the words in a language) of Caribbean
Creole English is derived primarily from Standard English. However, a
number of words used in Creole speech are related to cultural influences
from other European, Amerindian, African, East Indian and Chinese
languages.
∙ Like any other language, the vocabulary of Creole is dynamic and
reflects changes that arise out of social movements such as
Rastafarianism or the incorporation of prevalent slang.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VOCABULARY

English Creole Caribbean Standard English

Peculiar words and phrases (for Equivalents: child, eat, cou-cou,

example, pickney, nyam, cou cou, confused, pudding and souse,
bazodi, puddin and souse, nostril, tears, door/threshold,
nose-hole, eye-water, door mouth, bring along, waste time, best or
walk with, spin top in mud, hit prevail over someone, give
somebody for six, watch somebody someone a look of anger,
cut-eye) disapproval, envy, etc.
 Shared words but different parts Shared words but different parts
of speech, for example, stink (adj), of speech, for example, stink (n,
over (v, prep, adv), out (prep, v), over (prep, adv), out (adv,
adv), sweet (adj, v, n) prep), sweet (adj, (n)

Shared words but different Shared words but different

meanings, for example, miserable meanings, for example, miserable
(=ill-tempered, (playfully) (= wretched), ignorant (lacking in
annoying), ignorant (= ill acknowledge)
tempered)

Challenges Faced in Choosing Creole over the Standard

Language
∙ The standard language has an established tradition of written literature,
while Creole has mainly oral tradition and a short history of written
literature.
∙ The standard language has published dictionaries and
grammar while Creole has a few recently published
dictionaries.
∙ The Standard language is the accepted medium of education, while
Creole is rarely used as the official language in education.
∙ The Standard language is globally recognized as the official national
language, while Creole is recognized as official in few regions.
∙ The Standard language is the most prestigious (inspiring respect and
admiration; having high status) dialect of a language, while Creole
which is composed of African sound, phrases and sentence patterns
and mainly European lexicon (vocabulary) is not viewed as
prestigious.
∙ The Standard language has had centuries of evolution and it borrows
words from other languages, however, the Creole is a result of sudden
forced change.
∙ The Standard language has a complex system of rules but Creole
has simplified rules.
∙ The standard language enjoys stability and uniformity, while Creole
moves from decreolization to creolization continuously (a language
continuum is said to exist when two or more different languages or
dialects merge one into the other(s) without a definable boundary)
 Language in Society

Factors influencing Language

1. Historical Factors
The language situation in any country can normally be linked directly
to historical factors. These are often related to colonization or
migration.

For example: French and English are spoken in Canada today

because it was the scene of several conflicts between France and
English in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Colonisation is the greatest factor responsible for the spread of

certain languages from more homogeneous populations to distant
and diverse geographical locations
2. Social Factors
The social dominance of a group ensures that its dialect becomes the
one that assumes the place of important in the society and is
considered to be the standard language of that society. Language is
also dynamic and never static unless there are no more speakers of
that language. Much of the dynamism of a language is a result of
constant social change and the emergence of new cultural
phenomena as a result. However, the elements of social and
economic class always affect attitudes to and choice of language.

For example: individuals seeking to be recognized as part of a certain

social group may deliberately cultivate the language or dialect of that
group although they do not normally speak that dialect.

Sometimes a person may switch from one variety of language to

another throughout the day as he/she interacts in different social
settings.

3. Cultural Factors
Global movement of people (globalization) has been a major influence
on language. Many migrants and refugees are eager to assimilate
quickly as much of the new culture as they can, to facilitate their ability
to fit in with their society. As generations are born into the new culture,
much of their original language is lost.

For example: In the case of Hispanic populations in the US, a form

of language has evolved that features aspects of both Spanish and
English. The name ‘Spanglish’ has been coined for this
phenomenon, but linguists would refer to it as ‘code mixing’.

While acculturation, or assimilating, of the new culture affects the

 language of immigrants, sometimes the language of the host country
also undergoes changes as a results of the new cultural influences.

For example: Several Spanish words have become part of

everyday English language (taco, piñata)

The coexistence of different languages from different cultures in a

society results in linguistic changes in all the languages. However, the
nature of the cultural change determines which language is more
widely influential and what types of change takes place.
For example: In the case of the USA, the fact that some states may
well have more Spanish than English native speakers will be largely
instrumental in how language develops there.

4. Political Factors
The official language of a country is normally indicated in the national
constitution or other official sources. Recognition given to other
languages is also a political or government decision. Most countries
maintain the assigned status of their languages regardless of political
changes. However, in some countries, language is significantly
influenced by political events.

Language policies typically define a government’s plan regarding the

approach to the treatment of language in the specific country. The
policy may either promote or discourage the use of a particular
language or languages and in some cases it is designed to protect an
ethnic language that may be in danger of disappearing.

Political influences on language can determine the extent to which

minority languages or dialects are accepted, recognized or utilized in a
society.

For example: In Quebec, Canada, the provincial government

stipulated that only French should be used on street signs and in
places where bilingual signage was allowed, the English letting had to
be significantly smaller and within stipulated dimensions.

Turmoil and violence can arise out of political disputes over

language as seen in Sri Lanka and Turkey.

Roles of Languages

∙ There are several roles of languages such as social, political, ethical

and psychological.
 Positive Uses of Language Negative Uses of Language

To assert authority Discrimination against Others: To

make an unjust or prejudicial
distinction in the treatment of
different categories of people

To mark identity To alienate:

To make someone feel isolated or
estranged

To mark solidarity (unity) To ridicule:

The subjection of someone or
something to
contemptuous/scornful and
dismissive language or
behaviour

To make social linkages To mark social biases::

The tendency of survey
respondents to answer questions
in a manner that will be viewed
favorably by others

To promote cultural awareness To make face threats

Marginalization:
To put or keep someone in a
powerless or unimportant
position within a society or group

Language Situation in the Caribbean

∙ The language situation in the Caribbean is the result of a highly stratified
plantation society as well as severe social and geographical isolation
of subgroups.
∙ The Caribbean is often described as a complex linguistic region, largely
because its complicated history has resulted in an array of languages,
dialects and vernacular forms that provide rich material for study by
linguists from far and wide.
∙ The original inhabitants of the region had their own wide range of
languages, some of which are still spoken by small groups in
places such as Guyana and Suriname.
∙ Many Caribbean people are not aware that there are significant
Amerindian influences on their way of life and language today.
∙ The arrival of the European colonists in the fifteenth and sixteenth
 centuries meant that non-indigenous languages began to take root
in the society. It is important to note that many of these Europeans
were themselves speakers of non standard dialects and no one
variety of English, French, Portuguese, Dutch or Spanish was
spoken.
∙ When the need arose for cheap labour to work on the plantations,
Africans were captured, enslaved and imported primarily from
countries along the west coast of Africa. Many
of them were also speakers of various non-standard dialects of their
own languages. However, in order to minimize
communication among the enslaved Africans as a security measure,
plantation owners made sure that they purchased from a variety of
ethnic groups so that few Africans speaking the same language
could be found on any one plantation.
∙ After the emancipation of the enslaved Africans in 1838, estate
owners began recruiting indentured labourers from India, China
and some Portuguese territories with the last major group arriving
from Syria and Lebanon.
Official Country Popular Other
Languages Language Languages

Spanish Cuba Spanish

Puerto Rico English/Spanish

Santo Domingo Spanish

French French Guiana French

Lexicon
Guadeloupe Creole

Martinique

French and Haiti

Haitian

English St. Lucia English

Lexicon Creole
Dominica

Belize English Spanish,

Lexicon Creole Garifuna,
Mayan

Anguilla French
Lexicon
Creole

Antigua
 Barbuda

Cariacou

Grenada Arawakan,
Cariban,
Warrau

Guyana

Jamaica

Nevis French
Lexicon
Creole

Petit Martinique

St. Kitts

St. Vincent

Trinidad and
Tobago

Dutch Suriname English Hindi, Urdu,

Lexicon Javanese,
Creole, Amerindian
Sranan, Languages
Tongo, Ndjuka,
Saramaccan

Aruba Papiamento Spanish,

Bonaire English

Curacao

Attitudes to Caribbean Language

∙ Language clearly plays a major role in all aspects of society with the
most obvious being its social role of allowing people to relate to each
other in all facets of their lives: to share information, emotions and
ways of lives.
∙ Some people may form impressions of your personality, emotional state,
geographic origin, age or socio-economic status from the language
you use and the way you use it. Some impressions may be formed
 largely because of societal and personal attitudes to certain types of
language. Therefore, people often adopt certain linguistic behaviours
that they believe would create more favourable impressions of
themselves.
∙ In Caribbean society, there are varying attitudes to language. Because
of our history, people of the region tend to place a high premium on
the standard languages or, as we have notes before, the languages of
power and economic might. Many people believe that upward mobility
is largely dependent on one’s ability to fit in with the predominant
socio-economic class, and language is the main signified of this fit.
∙ Attitudes to language may vary from one sector of the society to another
and some people demonstrate self-conscious behaviour when
speaking the standard language. This is largely a result of the fact that
in most societies one is often judged on the basis of the variety of
language that one speaks. This is even more prevalent in societies
with a colonial legacy, like the Caribbean, where certain dialects are
associated with the institution of slavery or conquest.
∙ Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native
language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing that
language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche.
Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages
alongside the target language so that children can clearly differentiate
among the codes and hence be less likely to mix the two.

Language in International Situations

∙ Language is an important means of creating and recognizing identity.
Our sense of self and our sense of community are tightly tied in with
the language we speak.
∙ You may have noticed that, very often when individuals are in foreign
countries, the moment they encounter someone from ‘home’ they
immediately revert to their original dialect of way of speech.
∙ Language, in this case, creates a sense of ethnic community, or of
belonging to a group, and immediately assuages the feeling of being
an outsider in a foreign land.

Choice of language
∙ While attitudes to local dialects have been slowly changing, many
people still associate the use of Creole with negative images and
believe that its use should be relegated to specific circumstances and
occasions. However, the fact that non standard language varieties are
the most widely spoken in the Caribbean makes them the choice of
persons trying to get information to large sections of society.
∙ A language variety is usually chosen because of its perceived social
function.
∙ Such factors which influence the choice of language and
communicative behaviours in interactive situations are:
1. Audience
 2. Message
3. Purpose
4. Occasion
5. Gender
6. Age

Arguments Against Creole as a Language

1. Creole is the language of the lower class, uneducated, powerless,
country folks and people whose ancestors were African slaves in
the Caribbean.
2. Creole is the language of comedy. Creole is used in the arts and can
therefore often be seen as ‘substandard’ or ‘inferior’. 3. Creole cannot be
written as here is no consensus on an official written form.
4. Creole language varies from island to island
5. Creole has little or no prestige*.
6. Creole is stigmatized as a ‘bad’ or ‘improper’ way of speaking. 7.
Creole offers no form of social mobility.
8. Working in a foreign country requires the use of Standard English

Arguments For Creole as a Language

1. There is mutual intelligibility. Information could be passed from
one person to another and easily understood.
2. There is a structure of the linguistics: rules of grammar and
pronunciation, syntax (sentence structure), semantics and lexicons.
3. It can easily show emotion.
4. For a language to be considered official, it must be written. Creole is
in fact a written language since a dictionary exists.

*Prestige: The level of respect accorded to a language or dialect as

compared to that of other languages or dialects in a speech community. The
degree of esteem and social value attached by members of a speech
community to certain languages, dialects, or features of a language variety.

Overt prestige: Using the standard language as well as having a

prestigious accent.

Covert prestige: One that is generally perceived by the dominant culture

group as being inferior but which compels its speakers to use it to show
membership in an exclusive community. It allows people to identify with
others based on age, gender, regional or cultural forms.

How does a language acquire prestige?

Its speakers occupy a dominant role in the society.
It affords its speakers access to economic power and upward social mobility.
It is the recognized language for education.
It has value as the instrument of technological innovation. There is a
significant body of written work using that language.
Technology, Culture and Communication
∙ Culture influences the ways in which people communicate and the
technology they select as part of that communication ∙ The ways in which
we communication evolve out of the nature of our culture and the type of
communication technology available to us.
∙ Technology alters and shapes out culture while it influences the
decisions and choices people make regarding
communication.

Technology and Communication

∙ Technology can be defined as the technical means that people use to
improve their surroundings.
∙ The first major technological phenomenon associated with
communication was the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth
century. The printing press facilitated the spread of information in all
areas of human life. It was also able to influence human thought.
∙ For a long time, the only mass communication medium was print,
until the invention of the electromagnet in 1825 kick started
electronic communications: telegraph, telephone, radio and
television.
∙ However, it is hard to imagine that there can be anything to
revolutionise communication to the extent that the Internet and
other modern electronic media have done.
∙ Technology has enhanced our lives by offering multiple options for our
modes of communication and by affording us
the opportunity to exist in a virtual world in which we can
potentially communicate with everyone else.
∙ Apart from the array of available modes of communication, we are also
faced with large volumes of information that needs to be sorted,
processed, filed, responded to or utilized. Therefore, comprehension
skills must be deployed in several areas at
once.
∙ It is also important to develop expertise in the use of all
communication tools at your disposal so as to select the appropriate
mode and to observe the required etiquette for modern
communication. These skills are referred to as interactive skills
which is defined as ‘the generation of meaning through exchanges
using a range of contemporary tools, transmissions and processes.’

Technology and Culture

∙ One of the greatest impacts of technology on culture has been language.
∙ If the Internet reflects the language of the dominant economic power,
then speakers of other languages are forces to adapt or remain at a
disadvantage.
∙ Technology is responsible for the influx of a large number of words into
the English language. For example: blogger, google, wiki. However,
the majority of technology-associated words are adaptations of
 vocabulary already in use. For example: netbook, homepage,
facebook, software, youtube. Many abbreviations have also been
accepted as words. For example: USB, HTML, mp3. An entire new
language known as Netlingo has evolved to facilitate the speed with
which conversations now take place.
∙ The development of technology has an impact on the culture of a society
by influencing or changing the way in which things are done. As a
society becomes more technology driven, there is a need to
communicate faster and to transfer larger amounts of information.
Therefore, traditional means of communication are either abandoned
or adapted to suit the new technology.
∙ In the same way technology affects writing and speaking
communication, it also influences reading behaviours. Many people
now own electronic readers on which they can download books and
other documents. This means that certain cultural practices such as
going to the library are abandoned.
∙ Listening behaviours have also been influenced by the changing
technology. Music has been more portable as the vinyl record was
replaced by the audio cassette, then iPods.
∙ Technology impacts on the way we learn and impart knowledge. Paper
charts, chalk and chalkboards are replaced by slideshows and
videos.
∙ Social interaction has also been influenced. The television has been
blamed for a number of cultural changes such as increased antisocial
behaviour and less community interaction since people tend to spend
more time indoors.
∙ Business culture has been modified. You are more likely to hear of a
sale through electronic media. Daily offers and special also fill
your email inbox.

Culture and Communication

∙ Culture refers to common practices and beliefs held by a specific
group.
∙ Differences in culture are visible when one looks at the folk tales and
proverbs of the different countries. There are similarities in the
presence of these supernatural beings but they point to a slightly
different cultural experience.
∙ The history of the Caribbean is one that clearly illustrates the
relationship between language and culture. There are French, Dutch,
English Creoles throughout the Caribbean. Additionally, the Caribbean
countries illustrate the effect of culture on language in the place
names in various islands.
∙ The names of our food have also been influenced by culture. In
Guyana and Trinidad, a significant Indian presence in the foods
eaten there.
∙ Currently within the various countries of the Caribbean, there has been
significant movement of people which has led to changes in the
 language patterns in those countries.
∙ Another influence of culture on language is seen in the spelling
of words. For example: centre/center,
organize/organise, cheque/check. While the understanding is that
neither choice is an example of misspelling, the writer should be
consistent in the use of American Standard or British Standard.
∙ In the world of business, language and culture can play a very important
part in shaping the effectiveness of communication. Language can be a
barrier to communication especially when the individuals on two
different sides speak a different language which leads to poor
business interaction.
∙ The dynamic nature of language makes it adaptable to changes in
the culture and worldview of its speakers. For example: the
issue of political correctness.
∙ Many terms and expressions that were once commonly used are now
deemed to be offensive or detrimental to the sense of identity of
minority groups. Widespread access to the media has made people
more aware of how labels attached to certain behaviors and lifestyles
can lead to stereotyping which
prevents certain groups from enjoying all the opportunities
available in modern society. For example: it is better to say "people
of colour" and "visually impaired" and "plus size"