Course Outline for Introduction to Community Development EAE 121 2024/2025

Session

1. Concept of Community
i. Meaning of community as distinct from group or society-features
ii. Rural and urban communities- characteristics.
2. Concept of Community development
i. Definitions of CD
3. Basic Theories and Concepts of Community Development
4. Approaches to Community Development
5. Key Principles of Community Development
6. Characteristics and assumptions of community development programmes
and their component projects.
7. Economic, cultural and social factors in community development in Nigeria
8. Education as a potent force in poverty elimination/wealth generation in
Nigerian communities.
Concept of Community

What is a Community?

Early notions of the concept community focused on small, homogenous groups

with distinct features and self-sufficiency. However, modern scholars see communities as

dynamic systems involving social structures, cultural behaviours, and even conflicts. But

for our purposes we can adopt this operational definition: A community is a group of

people sharing a common space, time, social organization, and often, values and interests.

This shared space can be physical or virtual, and the group's identity can be fluid and

evolving.

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Features of Communities

To understand how communities develop, and the nuances of community

development, here are some key features to keep in mind:

1. People: Understanding the demographics and ethnic composition and social

structures within a community is crucial for designing effective development

projects.

2. Space/Place: Communities often occupy a defined physical area, shaping their

lives through geography, resources, and infrastructure.

3. Time: understanding the historical context and evolution of a community can can

significantly influence its current circumstances, development needs and

development approaches. Consider for instance refugees or resettled communities

with unique needs.

4. Social Organization: Understanding how people interact, collaborate, and make

decisions within a community is essential for effective interventions and

sustainable development.

Understanding what makes a Community?

It's important to beware of these common misconceptions about communities that can

hinder effective development. Let's examine a few:

1. Communities are diverse and can have internal conflicts, requiring inclusive

approaches to development and are inherently not unified and harmonious all the

time (Harmony and Unity).

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 2. Development requires more than just unity; factors like resources, infrastructure,

and external support also play a crucial role because strong community spirit only

will not always facilitates successful development.

3. Tradition is not always an obstacle to progress as some traditional practices can be

valuable assets in development, offering local knowledge and resilience.

4. Needs and aspirations vary within and between communities. They aren't always

readily available or easily categorized. Poverty and deprivation can render long-

term aspirations unclear, requiring participatory needs assessments.

5. Though communities have readily available leadership structure, leadership and

decision-making processes can be informal and complex, requiring flexible and

collaborative approaches.

6. Communities are inherently good, however, communities, like any social group,

can harbour negative aspects.

7. Everyone desires a higher standard of living and welcomes change, though

community people may have diverse aspirations and levels of comfort with

change, requiring culturally sensitive development strategies.

Definition of Community Development

Now, with a deeper understanding of communities, we can define community

development. There are many definitions, but we'll focus on two key perspectives:

The United Nations Definition

The United Nations Economic and Social Council defines Community

Development as: The process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united

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with those of the governmental authorities to improve the economic and socio-cultural

conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nation, and

to enable them to contribute fully to national progress.

This definition emphasizes:

• People's participation: Community members actively engage in identifying needs and

implementing solutions.

• Collaboration: Government and communities work together for mutual benefit.

• Sustainable development: Economic, social, and cultural aspects are all addressed.

The term ‘Community Development’ has come into international usage to connote

the processes that allows community residents to come together to plan, generate

solutions and take action developing the evolution of social, economic environmental and

cultural aspects of community (Hackett, 2004)

Community development is the planned evaluation of all aspects of community well

being (Frank & Smith, 1999)

Community development holds a potential to build community cohesion by facilitating a

community’s capacity to engage connections between individuals, organizations, local

groups (Chaskin et al, 2001)

Nigerian Perspectives:

From the Nigerian context, Filani (2000) defines community development as a

peoplecentered action: a process of social action in which people of the community

organize themselves for the identification of their needs, planning and act with maximum

reliance on their own resources, complemented by government and voluntary

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organization. For Okonkwo (2010): community development is about utilizing traditional

institutions and creativity for self-help projects. Whereby people will use their traditional

institutions and creativity to initiate self-help projects aimed at responding positively to

the problems of their environment. Although the onus for initiating such projects lies with

the members of the community, they do not necessarily have to conclude them alone.

For this course Community Development (CD) can be defined of as collaborative

among the community people with the utilization of available resources to make life

better for everyone involved. It's about people coming together, including from the

community or voluntary organization or the government, to improve how things are

going in their area. They work together to make the community more prosperous,

happier, and connected to the bigger picture of the country. Community development is

all about making things better.

Theories/Concepts of Community Development

Before diving into specific theories, let's first clarify what we mean by "theory"

and "concept" in the context of community development. A theory is a set of interrelated

ideas that attempt to explain and predict how something works. In community

development, theories help us understand how communities’ function, how they face

challenges, and how they can be empowered to achieve their goals. A concept, on the

other hand, is a basic building block of a theory. It's a mental image or idea that

represents a specific aspect of the theory. For example, concepts like "participation,"

"empowerment," and "social justice" are all important building blocks of community

development theories.

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 Understanding different theories of community development can help us navigate the

complexities of this field. Now, let's explore theories on community development:

1. Consensus Theory: This theory views communities as relatively harmonious

entities with shared values and goals. It emphasizes the importance of

collaboration and cooperation in achieving community development. Supporters

of this theory believe that communities can identify their needs and solve

problems through collective action. Community development practitioners, in this

view, act as facilitators who help communities identify and implement their

common aspirations.

2. Pluralist Theory: Unlike consensus theory, pluralist theory recognizes diversity

and potential conflict within communities. Different groups may have competing

interests and priorities. Pluralist theorists acknowledge that conflict can be a

natural part of community development, and that finding solutions requires

accommodating different perspectives. It emphasizes the importance of dialogue,

negotiation, and compromise in reaching decisions that benefit all members.

Community development efforts, under this approach, focus on building

collaboration and finding common ground among diverse voices.

3. Structuralist Theory: This theory emphasizes the underlying power structures and

inequalities that shape communities. In other words, it focuses on the unequal

power structures that can exist within and between communities. And argues that

community development efforts must address these power imbalances to ensure

that everyone benefits from progress. Structuralists believe that changing larger

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 social and economic structures is crucial for achieving true community

development. Community development is seen as a way to challenge these

inequalities and empower marginalized groups to achieve social justice and

sustainable development gain greater control over their lives and decisions.

(Brokensha, D., & Hodge, P. (1969).

4. Feminist Theory: This perspective highlights the role of gender relations and

inequalities in shaping community development processes and outcomes. Feminist

approaches advocate for gender-inclusive and empowering strategies that address

the specific needs and challenges of women (Moser, 1993).

5. Postcolonial Theory: This framework critiques the legacy of colonialism and its

impact on community development. It emphasizes the importance of decolonizing

knowledge, recognizing local knowledge and practices, and promoting community

self-determination (Grugel & Sultan, 2013).

Concepts that Guide Community Development Practices

We have explored foundations for understanding key community development

theories. Beyond understanding different theoretical perspectives, it's also important to

explore the normative concepts that guide community development practices. These

concepts serve as ideals or principles that ought to be pursued in community development

efforts. Here are some key examples:

• Participation: This central concept in community development refers to the

involvement of all community members in decision-making processes, ensuring diverse

voices are heard and considered. It emphasizes the active involvement of community

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members in decision-making processes and project implementation. Different theories

emphasize varying degrees and forms of participation, ranging from token inclusion to

full empowerment (Cooke & Kothari, 2001).

• Empowerment: This concept goes beyond participation; it involves building the

capacity of individuals and communities to take control over their own development and

solve their own problems. The focus is on increasing the capacity and agency of

individuals and communities to control their own lives and make decisions that affect

them (Narayan, 1997). Empowerment can be achieved through various means, such as

capacity building, resource mobilization, and advocacy.

• Equity and Social Justice: This aims to ensure that all community members have fair

access to resources and opportunities, regardless of their background or social status.

• Sustainability: Community development projects should aim for long-term success and

positive impact beyond the initial intervention. This requires considering environmental,

social, and economic sustainability factors (WCED, 1987).

Approaches to Community Development

There are numerous approaches to community development, each with its unique

principles and methodologies. I this section we will explore some of these approaches to

community development, their strengths and limitations, as well as their relevance to the

Nigerian context.

Top-down approach: This traditional approach involves the government or external

agencies making decisions and resources available to communities and they (government

or external actors) also initiate and direct development projects in a community. While it

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can offer resources expertise and quick infrastructure development, it often lacks

community participation, local ownership, and can be insensitive to community needs,

leading to unsustainable results.

Bottom-up approach: This approach prioritizes local participation and empowers

communities to identify their needs, set priorities, and design and implement their own

development projects. Bottom-up approach empowers local communities, emphasizing

its strengths in inclusivity and ownership. This fosters ownership and sustainability. The

approach, however, face potential challenges in resource mobilization, coordination,

capacity building and navigating complex power dynamics.

• The Integrated Approach or Participatory Approach: A hybrid of top -down and

bottom-up, this approach combines external resources and expertise with local

knowledge and priorities. It facilitates collaboration and ensures projects are relevant to

the community's needs. It seeks to ensure that development projects are informed by local

needs and priorities while leveraging external resources and expertise.

Asset-based approach: This approach recognizes and builds upon the existing strengths

and resources within a community. By focusing on identifying and building upon existing

strengths and resources within a community. It empowers community members to utilize

their skills, knowledge, and networks to drive development. It fosters local confidence

and collaboration, leading to sustainable development solutions.

Human Rights-based approach: This approach focuses on empowering communities to

claim their fundamental rights to resources, services, and participation in decisionmaking.

This approach emphasizes the importance of respecting and fulfilling human rights in the

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context of community development. The focus is to ensure that development projects do

not violate fundamental rights. It actively promotes social justice, equality and equity, but

also requires addressing systemic inequalities and power imbalances.

Key Principles and Values of Community Development

Let's delve into the treasure chest of principles and values that guide successful

community development:

• Self-help and Self-Responsibility: Communities must take ownership of their

development, actively participating in planning and implementation. This fosters a sense

of agency and empowers individuals to take charge of their lives and their shared

environment.

• Participation: Every voice matters! Community development thrives on inclusivity and

active participation. Everyone, regardless of background or status, has the right to

contribute their ideas and perspectives to shape their community's future.

• Equity and Justice: No one should be left behind. Community development strives for

a just and equitable society where everyone has access to opportunities and resources,

regardless of their circumstances.

• Sustainability: We're not just building for the present, but for generations to come.

Sustainability ensures that development efforts consider the long-term environmental,

economic, and social impacts, leaving a legacy of thriving communities for future

generations.

Social justice: Upholding fairness and ensuring everyone has equal opportunities and

access to resources.

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• Empowerment: Building skills, confidence, and capacity within communities to

manage their own development.

• Cultural sensitivity: Recognizing and respecting the unique traditions, beliefs, and

practices of each community.

• Environmental sustainability: Protecting the environment while meeting the needs of

present and future generations.

Characteristics of Community Development Programmes

Participatory: Community development programs involve active participation of

community members in planning, decision-making, and implementation.

Community-led: Community development programs are led and managed by

community members, with support from external agencies.

Holistic: Community development programs address multiple aspects of community life,

including social, economic, environmental, and cultural.

Inclusive Community development programs strive to include all members of the

community, regardless of their age, sex, ethnicity, or socio-economic status.

Flexible: Community development programs are adaptable to changing community needs

and circumstances.

Collaborative: Community development programs involve collaboration among

community members, local organizations, and external agencies.

Partnership: Community development programs involve partnerships among

community members, local organizations, and external agencies to leverage resources

and expertise.

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Capacity Building: Community development programs aim to build the capacity of

community members, local organizations, and community institutions to sustain

development efforts.

Sustainability: Community development programs aim to achieve long-term

sustainability, through strategies such as resource mobilization, income generation, and

environmental conservation.

Cultural Sensitivity: Community development programs respect and build upon local

cultures, traditions, and values.

Flexibility: Community development programs are adaptable to changing community

needs and circumstances.

Transparency: Community development programs promote transparency and

accountability in decision-making, resource allocation, and program implementation.

Component Projects of Community Development Programmes

Infrastructure Development: Construction of community facilities, such as schools,

healthcare centers, roads, and water supply systems.

Economic Empowerment: Initiatives to enhance economic opportunities, such as

vocational training, entrepreneurship development, and microfinance programs.

Social Services: Provision of essential services, including healthcare, education, and

social welfare programs.

Environmental Conservation: Initiatives to protect and conserve natural resources, such

as reforestation, soil conservation, and waste management programs.

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Capacity Building: Training and capacity-building programs for community members,

local organizations, and community leaders.

Advocacy and Policy Influence: Initiatives to influence policy and decision-making

processes, to promote community interests and rights.

Research and Monitoring: Research and monitoring programs to assess community

needs, track progress, and evaluate program effectiveness.

Examples of Community Development Programs

Integrated Rural Development Programmes: Programmes that address multiple aspects of

rural development, including agriculture, infrastructure, health, and education.

Urban Slum Upgrading Programmes: Programmes that aim to improve living

conditions in urban slums, through infrastructure development, social services, and

economic empowerment initiatives.

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Programmes: Programmes that aim to

reduce disaster risk and promote community resilience, through infrastructure

development, early warning systems, and emergency preparedness initiatives.

Community-Based Natural Resource Management Programmes: Programmes that

aim to promote sustainable natural resource management, through community-led

initiatives and collaborative management of natural resources.

Education and Training: Initiatives to enhance education and skills development, such

as literacy programs, vocational training, and entrepreneurship development.

Health and Nutrition: Initiatives to improve health and nutrition, such as healthcare

services, sanitation and hygiene programs, and nutrition education.

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Infrastructure Development: Initiatives to improve infrastructure, such as construction

of roads, bridges, schools, and healthcare facilities.

Economic Empowerment: Initiatives to enhance economic opportunities, such as

microfinance programs, entrepreneurship development, and job creation initiatives.

Environmental Conservation: Initiatives to protect and conserve natural resources, such

as reforestation, soil conservation, and waste management programs.

Social Protection: Initiatives to protect vulnerable populations, such as children, women,

and the elderly, from abuse, exploitation, and neglect.

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: Initiatives to reduce disaster risk and

promote community resilience, through infrastructure development, early warning

systems, and emergency preparedness initiatives.

Advocacy and Policy Influence: Initiatives to influence policy and decision-making

processes, to promote community interests and rights.

Examples of Community Development Programmes

Rural Development Programmes: Programmes that aim to improve rural livelihoods,

through initiatives such as agriculture development, infrastructure improvement, and

social services.

Urban Development Programmes: Programmes that aim to improve urban livelihoods,

through initiatives such as slum upgrading, infrastructure development, and social

services.

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Community-Based Natural Resource Management Programmes: Programmes that

aim to promote sustainable natural resource management, through community-led

initiatives and collaborative management of natural resources.

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Programmes: Programmes that aim to

reduce disaster risk and promote community resilience, through infrastructure

development, early warning systems, and emergency preparedness initiatives.

Youth Development Programmes: Programmes that aim to empower youth, through

initiatives such as education and training, entrepreneurship development and leadership

development.

Economic, Cultural, and Social Factors that influence Community Development in

Nigeria:

Economic Factors

Poverty: Widespread poverty in Nigeria hinders community development, as many

communities lack access to basic necessities like food, water, and healthcare.

Unemployment: High unemployment rates in Nigeria contribute to community

underdevelopment, as many individuals lack the financial resources to invest in their

communities.

Infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, and water supply,

hinders community development in Nigeria.

Corruption: Corruption in Nigeria's economic systems can divert resources away from

community development projects.

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Dependence on Oil: Nigeria's economy is heavily dependent on oil exports, which can

lead to economic instability and hinder community development.

Cultural Factors

Traditional values: Traditional values and customs in Nigeria can influence community

development, as some communities may prioritize traditional practices over modern

development initiatives.

Ethnic diversity: Nigeria's ethnic diversity can lead to cultural differences and conflicts

that hinder community development.

Language barriers: Language barriers can also hinder community development in

Nigeria, as some communities may not speak the dominant language (English).

Religious influences: Religious influences can shape community values and priorities,

which can impact community development in Nigeria.

Cultural Heritage: Nigeria's rich cultural heritage can be a source of community pride

and identity, but can also be a challenge to balance with modern development initiatives.

Social Factors

Education: Access to education is a significant social factor that influences community

development in Nigeria, as educated individuals are more likely to contribute to

community development.

Healthcare: Access to healthcare is another critical social factor that influences

community development in Nigeria, as healthy individuals are more productive and

contribute to community development.

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Social Cohesion: Social cohesion is essential for community development, as

communities with strong social bonds are more likely to work together to achieve

development goals.

Leadership: Effective leadership is crucial for community development in Nigeria, as

leaders can mobilize resources and motivate community members to work towards

development goals.

Community participation: Community participation is essential for community

development in Nigeria, as community members must be involved in decision-making

and implementation processes to ensure that development initiatives meet community

needs.

Relationship between Economic, Cultural, and Social Factors

Economic inequality: Economic inequality can exacerbate cultural and social

differences, leading to community conflicts and hindering development.

Cultural resilience: Cultural resilience can help communities cope with economic

challenges, but can also hinder modern development initiatives.

Social capital: Social capital, such as community networks and trust, can facilitate

community development by mobilizing resources and promoting cooperation.

Economic opportunities: Economic opportunities, such as job creation and

entrepreneurship, can enhance community development by increasing income and

improving living standards.

Education is a Powerful Tool for Poverty Elimination in Nigerian Communities.

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Reasons Why Education is a Potent Force in Poverty Elimination

Increased Earning Potential: Education increases an individual's earning potential,

enabling them to secure better-paying jobs and improve their economic status.

Improved Employability: Education enhances employability skills, making individuals

more attractive to potential employers and increasing their chances of securing

employment.

Entrepreneurial Skills: Education provides individuals with the skills and knowledge

needed to start and manage their own businesses, creating opportunities for self-

employment and wealth creation.

Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: Education develops critical thinking and

problem-solving skills, enabling individuals to make informed decisions and navigate

complex challenges.

Health and Wellbeing: Education improves health and wellbeing by increasing

awareness of healthy practices, disease prevention, and nutrition.

Social Mobility: Education provides a means for social mobility, enabling individuals to

move up the social ladder and improve their socio-economic status.

Community Development: Education enables individuals to contribute to community

development, participate in decision-making processes, and advocate for their rights and

interests.

Challenges to Education in Nigerian Communities

Limited Access to Education: Many Nigerian communities lack access to quality

education, particularly in rural areas.

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Poor Infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure, including classrooms, libraries, and

technology, hinders the delivery of quality education.

Inadequate Funding: Insufficient funding for education leads to a lack of resources,

including textbooks, educational materials, and teacher training.

Teacher Shortages: Teacher shortages, particularly in rural areas, exacerbate the

challenges of delivering quality education.

Cultural and Social Barriers: Cultural and social barriers, including early marriage and

child labor, can prevent individuals from accessing education.

Strategies for Improving Education in Nigerian Communities

Increase Funding for Education: Increase funding for education to improve

infrastructure, provide resources, and train teachers.

Improve Access to Education: Improve access to education, particularly in rural areas,

by building new schools and providing transportation.

Recruit and Train Teachers: Recruit and train teachers, particularly in rural areas, to

address teacher shortages.

Promote Cultural and Social Change: Promote cultural and social change by raising

awareness about the importance of education and challenging harmful practices.

Encourage Community Participation: Encourage community participation in education

by involving parents, community leaders, and local organizations in decision-making

processes.

The Impact of Education on Poverty

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Increased Earning Potential: Education increases an individual's earning potential,

enabling them to secure better-paying jobs and improve their economic status.

Improved Employability: Education enhances employability skills, making individuals

more attractive to potential employers and increasing their chances of securing

employment.

Entrepreneurial Skills: Education provides individuals with the skills and knowledge

needed to start and manage their own businesses, creating opportunities for self-

employment and wealth creation.

Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: Education develops critical thinking and

problem-solving skills, enabling individuals to make informed decisions and navigate

complex challenges.

Challenges to Education in Nigerian Communities

Limited Access to Education: Many Nigerian communities lack access to quality

education, particularly in rural areas.

Poor Infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure, including classrooms, libraries, and

technology, hinders the delivery of quality education.

Inadequate Funding: Insufficient funding for education leads to a lack of resources,

including textbooks, educational materials, and teacher training.

Teacher Shortages: Teacher shortages, particularly in rural areas, exacerbate the

challenges of delivering quality education.

Cultural and Social Barriers: Cultural and social barriers, including early marriage and

child labor, can prevent individuals from accessing education.

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Strategies for Improving Education in Nigerian Communities

Increase Funding for Education: Increase funding for education to improve

infrastructure, provide resources, and train teachers.

Improve Access to Education: Improve access to education, particularly in rural areas,

by building new schools and providing transportation.

Recruit and Train Teachers: Recruit and train teachers, particularly in rural areas, to

address teacher shortages.

Promote Cultural and Social Change: Promote cultural and social change by raising

awareness about the importance of education and challenging harmful practices.

Encourage Community Participation: Encourage community participation in education

by involving parents, community leaders, and local organizations in decision-making

processes.

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