Database Systems and Security

Database Performance Tuning

Evrad KAMTCHOUM

CENTER FOR CYBERSECURITY AND MATHEMATICAL CRYPTOLOGY

THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

January 16, 2025

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Contents

1 Introduction to Performance Tuning

2 Performance Optimization Techniques for Database Servers

3 Indexing Strategies and Query Optimization

4 Monitoring and Profiling Database Performance

5 Capacity Planning and Scalability Considerations

6 Conclusion

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 Introduction to Performance Tuning

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Overview

What is Performance Tuning?

Performance tuning involves optimizing database operations to improve
the speed and efficiency of data retrieval and processing. This includes
identifying and addressing bottlenecks, optimizing queries, and ensuring
efficient use of resources.

Importance of Performance Tuning

Enhances user experience by reducing response times.
Increases the efficiency of database operations.
Reduces resource consumption and operational costs.
Ensures scalability and reliability of database systems.

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Key Concepts in Performance Tuning

Query Optimization
Analyzing and improving SQL queries to reduce execution time.
Using indexes effectively to speed up data retrieval.
Avoiding complex and inefficient queries.

Indexing
Creating and maintaining indexes to improve search performance.
Understanding different types of indexes (e.g., B-tree, hash, full-text).
Balancing between the number of indexes and the overhead of maintaining them.

Resource Management
Monitoring and optimizing CPU, memory, and disk usage.
Configuring database parameters for optimal resource utilization.
Implementing caching strategies to reduce database load.

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Tools and Techniques for Performance Tuning

Performance Monitoring Tools

Tools like SolarWinds Database Performance Analyzer, New Relic, and Datadog.
Monitoring key metrics such as query execution time, CPU usage, and memory
consumption.
Identifying bottlenecks and areas for improvement.

Query Execution Plans

Understanding and analyzing execution plans to optimize queries.
Using tools like EXPLAIN in MySQL, and EXPLAIN ANALYZE in PostgreSQL.
Identifying inefficient operations such as full table scans.

Database Configuration
Tuning database parameters (e.g., buffer pool size, cache settings).
Adjusting settings based on workload and usage patterns.
Regularly reviewing and updating configurations.

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Best Practices

Regular Maintenance
Regularly updating statistics and rebuilding indexes.
Performing routine database health checks and audits.

Proactive Monitoring
Setting up alerts for performance issues.
Continuously monitoring database performance metrics.

Continuous Improvement
Staying updated with the latest database features and improvements.
Continuously refining and optimizing database queries and
configurations.

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 Performance Optimization Techniques for Database
Servers

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Overview

Introduction
Performance optimization for database servers involves a series of
techniques and best practices aimed at improving the speed, efficiency, and
reliability of database operations. This ensures a smooth and responsive
experience for users and applications that rely on the database.

Goals
Minimize query execution time
Maximize resource utilization
Ensure scalability and reliability
Reduce operational costs

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Query Optimization

Indexing
Create indexes on columns frequently used in WHERE clauses and joins
Use composite indexes for multi-column searches
Regularly maintain and rebuild indexes to avoid fragmentation

Query Refactoring
Simplify complex queries by breaking them into smaller parts
Use subqueries and derived tables efficiently
Avoid using SELECT *; specify only needed columns

Execution Plans
Analyze query execution plans to identify bottlenecks
Use EXPLAIN in MySQL or EXPLAIN ANALYZE in PostgreSQL
Optimize queries based on execution plan analysis

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Resource Management

Memory Optimization
Allocate sufficient memory to buffer pools and cache
Tune database parameters like innodb buffer pool size for MySQL
Monitor and adjust memory settings based on workload

CPU Optimization
Ensure efficient use of CPU resources
Distribute workload evenly across available CPUs
Optimize parallel query execution and background processes

Disk I/O Optimization

Use SSDs for faster read/write operations
Optimize storage layout and data distribution
Implement RAID for redundancy and performance

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Database Configuration

Parameter Tuning
Adjust database parameters for optimal performance
Use tools like MySQLTuner for MySQL to get configuration suggestions
Regularly review and update parameters based on performance metrics

Connection Management
Optimize connection pooling to manage multiple database connections
Configure max connections and connection timeouts appropriately
Monitor and limit long-running queries to avoid blocking

Caching
Implement query caching to reduce repetitive query execution
Use in-memory data stores like Redis or Memcached for frequently accessed data
Cache static data at the application level where appropriate

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Monitoring and Maintenance

Performance Monitoring
Use monitoring tools like Prometheus, Grafana, or SolarWinds
Track key metrics such as query latency, resource utilization, and error rates
Set up alerts for performance degradation or anomalies

Regular Maintenance
Regularly update database statistics
Perform index maintenance, including rebuilding fragmented indexes
Backup and test restore procedures to ensure data integrity

Capacity Planning
Forecast future growth and plan for scalability
Regularly review and adjust resource allocation
Implement load balancing and partitioning as needed

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 Practical Example: Performance Optimization Techniques

Scenario
You have a database for an e-commerce application that is experiencing
slow query performance. Your task is to optimize the performance of a
frequently executed query that retrieves product details along with their
categories.

Step 1: Analyze the Query

1 EXPLAIN SELECT p . p r o d u c t i d , p . name , c . c a t e g o r y n a m e
2 FROM p r o d u c t s p
3 JOIN c a t e g o r i e s c ON p . c a t e g o r y i d = c . c a t e g o r y i d
4 WHERE p . p r i c e > 100
5 ORDER BY p . name ;
6

Analyze the query using the EXPLAIN statement to understand how the
database executes it.

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 Practical Example: Performance Optimization Techniques

Step 2: Create Indexes

1 CREATE INDEX i d x p r i c e ON p r o d u c t s ( p r i c e ) ;
2 CREATE INDEX i d x c a t e g o r y i d ON p r o d u c t s ( c a t e g o r y i d ) ;
3

Create indexes on the columns used in the WHERE clause and JOIN conditions to speed up
data retrieval.

Step 3: Refactor the Query

1 SELECT p . p r o d u c t i d , p . name , c . c a t e g o r y n a m e
2 FROM p r o d u c t s p
3 JOIN c a t e g o r i e s c ON p . c a t e g o r y i d = c . c a t e g o r y i d
4 WHERE p . p r i c e > 100
5 ORDER BY p . name
6 LIMIT 5 0 ;
7

Refactor the query to include a LIMIT clause to reduce the number of rows returned, improving
performance for large datasets.

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Practical Example: Performance Optimization Techniques

Step 4: Monitor Performance

Use performance monitoring tools (e.g., Prometheus, Grafana) to track
the query execution time before and after optimization. Ensure the
improvements are consistent under different loads.

Step 5: Regular Maintenance

Schedule regular maintenance tasks:
Update statistics: ANALYZE TABLE products;
Rebuild indexes if necessary: OPTIMIZE TABLE products;

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 Indexing Strategies and Query Optimization

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Overview

Introduction
Indexing strategies and query optimization are crucial for improving the
performance and efficiency of database operations. This lecture will cover
various indexing techniques and how to optimize queries to ensure fast
data retrieval.

Goals
Understand different types of indexes
Learn how to create and use indexes effectively
Optimize SQL queries for better performance

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Types of Indexes

Primary Index
Automatically created on the primary key column(s)
Ensures unique identification of rows

Secondary Index
Created on non-primary key columns
Improves search performance on columns frequently used in queries

Unique Index
Ensures all values in the indexed column(s) are unique
Useful for enforcing uniqueness constraints on columns

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Types of Indexes (2)

Composite Index
Index on multiple columns
Useful for multi-column searches

Full-Text Index
Supports full-text search capabilities
Useful for searching large text fields

Spatial Index
Used for spatial data types
Improves performance of spatial queries

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 Creating and Using Indexes

Creating an Index
1 CREATE INDEX i d x p r i c e ON p r o d u c t s ( p r i c e ) ;
2 CREATE INDEX i d x n a m e c a t e g o r y ON p r o d u c t s ( name , c a t e g o r y i d ) ;
3

Using Indexes
Indexes are automatically used by the query optimizer
Ensure indexes are used by writing efficient queries
Avoid using functions on indexed columns in WHERE clauses

Maintaining Indexes
Regularly monitor and rebuild indexes to avoid fragmentation
Drop unused or rarely used indexes to save resources

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Query Optimization Techniques

Writing Efficient Queries

Select only necessary columns: SELECT name, price FROM products;
Use WHERE clauses to filter data:
SELECT * FROM products WHERE price > 100;
Avoid using SELECT *; specify only needed columns

Using Joins Effectively

Use INNER JOIN for matching rows in both tables
Use LEFT JOIN for including all rows from the left table
Ensure indexes are present on columns used in JOIN conditions

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Query Optimization Techniques (2)

Query Execution Plans

Analyze query execution plans to understand how queries are executed
Use EXPLAIN in MySQL or EXPLAIN ANALYZE in PostgreSQL
Identify and optimize costly operations such as full table scans

Avoiding Common Pitfalls

Avoid using functions on indexed columns in WHERE clauses
Avoid wildcard searches at the beginning of a pattern
Use LIMIT to restrict the number of rows returned

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 Practical Example

Scenario
You need to optimize a query that retrieves product details along with
their category names, filtering by price and ordering by product name.

Original Query
1 SELECT p . product_id , p . name , c . category_name
2 FROM products p
3 JOIN categories c ON p . category_id = c . category_id
4 WHERE p . price > 100
5 ORDER BY p . name ;
6

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 Practical Example (2)

Optimized Query
1 EXPLAIN SELECT p . product_id , p . name , c . category_name
2 FROM products p
3 JOIN categories c ON p . category_id = c . category_id
4 WHERE p . price > 100
5 ORDER BY p . name
6 LIMIT 50;
7

Added LIMIT clause to reduce the number of rows returned

Ensure indexes on ’price’ and ’category id’ columns

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 Monitoring and Profiling Database Performance

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Overview

Introduction
Monitoring and profiling database performance are essential tasks for
database administrators. These processes help identify bottlenecks,
optimize performance, and ensure the database operates efficiently and
reliably.

Goals
Understand the importance of monitoring and profiling
Learn about key performance metrics and tools
Explore best practices for ongoing database performance management

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Importance of Monitoring and Profiling

Proactive Performance Management

Identify and resolve issues before they impact users
Ensure optimal resource utilization
Maintain database availability and reliability

Capacity Planning
Predict future resource needs based on usage trends
Plan for hardware and software upgrades
Avoid performance degradation due to resource exhaustion

Troubleshooting
Quickly diagnose and fix performance issues
Use detailed performance data to identify root causes
Reduce downtime and improve user satisfaction

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Key Performance Metrics

Database Throughput
Transactions per second (TPS)
Queries per second (QPS)
Measure the volume of work the database can handle

Response Time
Average query execution time
Latency for read and write operations
Assess how quickly the database responds to requests

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Key Performance Metrics (2)

Resource Utilization
CPU usage
Memory usage
Disk I/O
Network I/O

Error Rates
Number of failed queries or transactions
Types and frequency of errors
Identify reliability issues and areas for improvement

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Monitoring Tools

Prometheus and Grafana

Prometheus: Open-source monitoring and alerting toolkit
Grafana: Open-source platform for monitoring and observability
Integration for real-time monitoring and visualization

MySQL Performance Schema

Built-in database performance monitoring feature
Provides detailed performance metrics and diagnostics
Useful for in-depth analysis of MySQL performance

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Monitoring Tools (2)

pg stat statements (PostgreSQL)

Extension for tracking execution statistics of SQL statements
Helps identify slow-running queries and performance bottlenecks
Provides detailed query performance data

SolarWinds Database Performance Analyzer

Comprehensive database performance monitoring tool
Supports multiple database platforms
Provides detailed insights and recommendations for optimization

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Profiling Tools

MySQL Slow Query Log

Logs queries that take longer than a specified time to execute
Useful for identifying slow queries and optimizing them
Configurable logging threshold

EXPLAIN and EXPLAIN ANALYZE

EXPLAIN: Provides query execution plan in MySQL and PostgreSQL
EXPLAIN ANALYZE: Executes the query and provides detailed execution plan with
timing in PostgreSQL
Essential for understanding and optimizing query performance

Query Profiler Tools

pt-query-digest (Percona Toolkit): Analyzes MySQL query logs
pgBadger: PostgreSQL log analyzer and query profiler
Helps in identifying and optimizing slow-running queries

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Best Practices for Monitoring and Profiling

Regular Monitoring
Set up continuous monitoring of key performance metrics
Use alerts to notify of performance issues or anomalies
Review and analyze performance data regularly

Routine Profiling
Regularly profile queries and database operations
Use profiling tools to identify slow queries and optimize them
Continuously tune and adjust based on profiling results

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Best Practices for Monitoring and Profiling (2)

Capacity Planning
Monitor usage trends to predict future resource needs
Plan for hardware and software upgrades before performance degrades
Scale resources based on anticipated growth and usage patterns

Documentation and Review

Document monitoring and profiling processes
Regularly review and update monitoring configurations and thresholds
Ensure all team members are aware of best practices and procedures

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 Capacity Planning and Scalability Considerations

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Overview

Introduction
Capacity planning and scalability are critical aspects of database
administration. Effective capacity planning ensures that a database can
handle future workloads, while scalability considerations help maintain
performance as demand grows.

Goals
Understand the principles of capacity planning
Learn about scalability strategies
Explore best practices for ensuring database performance and
reliability

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Capacity Planning

Definition
Capacity planning involves estimating the resources required to support future database
workloads, ensuring that the database can handle expected growth without performance
degradation.

Key Components
Workload Analysis
Resource Estimation
Growth Forecasting

Steps in Capacity Planning

Analyze current workload and performance metrics
Estimate future workload based on growth trends
Calculate required resources (CPU, memory, storage)
Plan for resource upgrades and scaling

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Scalability Considerations

Definition
Scalability refers to the ability of a database to handle increasing
workloads by adding resources, either by scaling up (vertical scaling) or
scaling out (horizontal scaling).

Vertical Scaling
Adding more resources (CPU, memory) to an existing server
Simple to implement but has hardware limitations
Suitable for applications with single-node architecture

Horizontal Scaling
Adding more servers to distribute the workload
More complex to implement but offers higher scalability
Suitable for distributed applications and databases
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Scalability Considerations (2)

Load Balancing
Distributes incoming traffic across multiple servers
Ensures no single server becomes a bottleneck
Improves availability and reliability

Partitioning
Divides a large database into smaller, more manageable pieces
Can be done by range, list, or hash partitioning
Enhances performance and manageability

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Best Practices for Capacity Planning

Regular Monitoring
Continuously monitor performance metrics
Track usage trends and anomalies
Adjust capacity plans based on real-time data

Performance Testing
Conduct regular performance and stress tests
Validate capacity plans under simulated workloads
Identify potential bottlenecks before they occur

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Best Practices for Capacity Planning (2)

Resource Optimization
Optimize database queries and indexing
Use efficient data storage and retrieval practices
Regularly tune and maintain database systems

Scalable Architecture
Design applications with scalability in mind
Use microservices and distributed architectures
Ensure the database can scale horizontally if needed

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Practical Example

Scenario
An online retail application is experiencing rapid growth, and the database needs to handle
increasing traffic and transaction volumes.

Capacity Planning Steps

Analyze current traffic and transaction volumes
Project future growth based on historical data
Estimate required resources for the projected workload
Plan for additional server capacity and storage

Scalability Implementation
Implement horizontal scaling by adding new database servers
Set up load balancers to distribute traffic
Partition the database to improve performance

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Exercise: Database Performance Tuning

Scenario
You are a database administrator for an e-commerce company. The company’s website
experiences slow performance during peak shopping times, and users are reporting delayed
responses when browsing products and completing transactions. Your task is to identify and
resolve the performance issues.

Tasks
1 Analyze Slow Queries
Use the database’s slow query log to identify queries with long execution times.
Select two slow queries for further analysis.
2 Optimize Queries
Use the EXPLAIN command to understand the execution plan of the identified
queries.
Suggest and implement optimizations (e.g., indexing, query rewriting).
3 Resource Utilization Monitoring
Monitor CPU, memory, and I/O usage during peak times.
Identify any resource bottlenecks.

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Exercise: Database Performance Tuning (2)

Tasks
4 Implement Indexes
Analyze the existing indexes on the database tables.
Create additional indexes to improve query performance, if necessary.
5 Adjust Database Configuration
Review and adjust database configuration parameters (e.g., buffer size,
cache settings).
Test the impact of configuration changes on performance.

Expected Outcomes
Reduced query execution times
Improved overall database performance
Better resource utilization during peak times

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Solution: Database Performance Tuning

Analyze Slow Queries

Identified two slow queries from the slow query log:
1 SELECT ∗ FROM o r d e r s WHERE o r d e r d a t e > ’ 2023−01−01 ’ ;
2 SELECT p r o d u c t i d , COUNT( ∗ ) FROM o r d e r i t e m s GROUP BY
product id ;
3

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Solution: Database Performance Tuning (2)

Optimize Queries
Used EXPLAIN to analyze execution plans:
1 EXPLAIN SELECT ∗ FROM o r d e r s WHERE o r d e r d a t e > ’ 2023−01−01 ’ ;
2 EXPLAIN SELECT p r o d u c t i d , COUNT( ∗ ) FROM o r d e r i t e m s GROUP BY
product id ;
3

Optimization suggestions:
Add index on ’order date column:
1 CREATE INDEX i d x o r d e r d a t e ON o r d e r s ( o r d e r d a t e ) ;
2

Use indexed column for grouping:

1 CREATE INDEX i d x p r o d u c t i d ON o r d e r i t e m s ( p r o d u c t i d ) ;
2

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Solution: Database Performance Tuning (3)

Resource Utilization Monitoring

Monitored CPU, memory, and I/O usage using tools like ‘top‘,
‘vmstat‘, and ‘iostat‘.
Identified high I/O wait times indicating a potential disk bottleneck.

Implement Indexes
Existing indexes on ‘orders‘ table:
1 SHOW INDEXES FROM orders ;
2

Created additional indexes:

1 CREATE INDEX i d x o r d e r d a t e ON o r d e r s ( o r d e r d a t e ) ;
2 CREATE INDEX i d x p r o d u c t i d ON o r d e r i t e m s ( p r o d u c t i d ) ;
3

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Solution: Database Performance Tuning (4)

Adjust Database Configuration

Reviewed and adjusted configuration parameters:
1 SET GLOBAL i n n o d b b u f f e r p o o l s i z e = 2G ;
2 SET GLOBAL q u e r y c a c h e s i z e = 64M;
3

Tested performance impact of changes:

Noted improvement in query response times
Reduced I/O wait times

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Solution: Database Performance Tuning (5)

Results
Query execution times significantly reduced:
1 SELECT ∗ FROM o r d e r s WHERE o r d e r d a t e > ’ 2023−01−01 ’ : 1 . 2 s −>
0.3 s
2 SELECT p r o d u c t i d , COUNT( ∗ ) FROM o r d e r i t e m s GROUP BY
p r o d u c t i d : 2 . 4 s −> 0 . 5 s
3

Improved overall database performance during peak times

Better CPU, memory, and I/O utilization

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 Conclusion

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Conclusion: Database Performance Tuning

Key Takeaways
Query Optimization: Identifying and optimizing slow queries is
crucial for improving database performance. Techniques such as index
creation, query rewriting, and using EXPLAIN are essential.
Indexing Strategies: Proper indexing can significantly reduce query
execution times by allowing the database to quickly locate data.
Resource Monitoring: Monitoring CPU, memory, and disk I/O helps
identify bottlenecks and optimize resource utilization.
Configuration Tuning: Adjusting database parameters like buffer
sizes and cache settings can improve overall performance.
Continuous Improvement: Performance tuning is an ongoing
process. Regular monitoring, analysis, and adjustment are necessary
to maintain optimal database performance.

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Conclusion

Conclusion
Effective database performance tuning is critical for ensuring efficient data
access and response times. By applying the strategies discussed, you can
enhance the scalability, reliability, and overall performance of your
database systems.

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