ae Pnteata | A Prailiced Approach to Geography ‘O’ Level Revision Sue llabus objectives eal IZIMSEC questions and answersPret (ct 2 ID cy Vw O rm DT Ce) Objectives By the end of this topic, you should be able to: © identify minerals that are found in Zimbabwe. © listand explain the categories of ‘minerals in Zimbabwe. © explain the factors influencing the exploitation of minerals. © explain the concept of mineralogy. © describe the environmental impact of ‘mining. © outline the legislative framework on ‘mining and mining rights. © explain the processing of minerals in Zimbabwe and other African countries © describe the importance of beneficiation ofminerals in Zimbabwe. ‘© explain the importance of health and safety issues in mining. ‘© explain the concept of Environmemal Impact Assessment (BLA). Introduction The extraction of minerals is a very important primary activity in many countries which has led to great economic developments Mining refers to the extraction of valuable minerals, liquids and gases from the earth which are present as ores, seams, veins or liquids. Even in ancient times, mining formed the basis of economic activities from the onset of the Stone Age. Zimbabwe's economy is also hinged on mineral exploitation with the country having more than, sixty minerals of economic value, Factors influencing mining Capital * Technology. © Market + Labour. © Transport, * Quality of ore * Size of seam, Minerals and mines in Zimbabwe Nickel - Bindura + Coal - Hwange © Phosphates - Dorowa * Tin -Kamativi © Asbestos = Mashava Diamonds —- Marange © Gold = Mazowe * Copper = Mhangura © Emeralds -Mberengwa © Platinum: ~ Ngezi Distribution of minerals in Zimbabwe * Most of Zimbabwe's minerals are found along the Great Dyke which stretches from West Nicholson in the Midlands to Bindura in Mashonaland Central Province. © Dykes are intrusive volcanic extrusions that cut across bedding planes ejecting magma, «The magma forms a ridge which will be rich in different kinds of minerals,‘© The Great Dyke in Zimbabwe has length of 550km and a width of approximately 11km. © The Dyke was discovered in 1925. © Ithas minerals such as gold, chrome and platinum. sting a moe Waowom tae Cwm . he pee Fig. 71 Distribution of minerals in Zimbabwe Precious minerals in Zimbabwe Gold. Platinum, © Diamonds. Chrome, + Copper Minerals in Zimbabwe are ranked according to ‘heir economic value and the foreign currency sefums they generate as well as contribution to ‘he national GDP. ‘Ores and mineral groups * Chrome, Copper. Nickel. Platinum, ‘Tungsten Tron. + Lithium, Mineral groups Minerals can be grouped into: © Ubiquitous minerals ~ These are common minerals of low value such as river sand, gravel and quarry stones that are found everywhere, © Non-ubiquitous minerals ~ These are high value and rare minerals which include gold, diamond, platinum, oil, copper and chrome, ‘© Metallic minerals ~ These consist of metals in their chemical composition. ‘They include manganese, iron ore and bauxite + Non-metallic minerals ~ They shine in their appearance and show a non- metallic lustre, They include limestone, ‘gypsum and mica. Uses of selected minerals in Zimbabwe Gold Gold coins. Jewellery. © Gold plating. + Blectroplating © Manufacture of electricity cables. * Manufacture of cutlery. Asbestos * Manufacture of roofing sheets. * — Manufacture of protective clothing, Coal © Manufacture of thermal electricity. © Domestic and industrial heating.Importance of minerals in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe has a variety of minerals that are valuable, The importance of minerals in Zimbabwe is seen through: * Foreign currency earnings for the country, * Creation of employment, * Development of thriving mi communities such as Hwange, Zvishavane, Shamva, Mazowe to mention a few. © Substantial contribution to the country’s Gross Domestic Product. + Empowerment of marginalised communities such as Mutoko and ‘Marange through mining granite and diamonds respectively. * Improvement of people’s lives who are directly and indirectly involved in mining. Infrastructural development, Development of industries that rely on ‘minerals as raw material Mining methods in Zimbabwe Basically there are methods which are 1g (a) Surface mining (b) Underground mining (@) Surface mining techniques (i) Open cast mining * A method used for extracting the ‘mineral from the earth by their removal from an open pit. * Overburden produced is removed using excavators and draglines. * Avery cheap mining technique especially on seams that are near the surface * In Zimbabwe, the method was used at Hwange for coal, Zvishavane and ‘Mashava for asbestos. Fig. 22 An open cast mine Advantages * — Itis cheap. + Itis less risky, * Itisa simple method. ‘+ Enables bulk exploitation Disadvantages © Causes sight pollution. © Results in erosion. © Causes deforestation ‘© Blasting destroys buildings and other infrastructure and it can also harm miners. © Creates habitats for mosquitoes causing malaria, (li) Strip mining Involves use of graders to scrape off ore just below the top soil like chrome ore in ‘Mutorashanga in Zimbabwe. Steps followed when extracting the ore is similar to that of open cast mining. Advantages of strip mining ‘© Cheap technique of extracting ‘© Simple technique. + Less risky. © Shallow open pits ensures fast accessibility to minerals, Disadvantages © Blasting of rocks damages infrastructure, © Causes land degradation,© Causes deforestation, * — Destruction of arable lands for agriculture (ill) Quarrying It is a surface mining technique mostly done for onstruction purposes where small pits are dug or cut. Quarrying can be done at a large or small scale, Black granite explorations in Mutoko are an example of quarrying activities, It also supplies headstones, rocks, and dust and pit sand mostly for the construction industry, Advantages Creates employment for local people. | © Less risky. | Does not require complex technology. | * Can be done by unskilled and semi- skilled miners, Disadvantages * Noise pollution, Land degradation, other infrastructure and even people's health, t * Blasting effect damages buildings and * Destruction of habitats for wildlife | @) Altuvial/placer Mining | Method used to extract minerals occurring in | alluvial deposits, for example, gol, tin, diamonds | ‘eed platinum Advantages is considered the most environmentally | friendly method of gold mining as a result of the | ‘duced environmental impact when compared to | ‘Sderground mining, Disadvantages * Not very productive. * Lack safety and tend to have a high environmental impact. (v) Panning It involves; * Digging a mixture of sand, gravel and mineral from the river bed, * Putting it in a pan and rotating the pan while tilted. * The lighter sand or gravel is washed ‘on the side leaving the heavier mineral at the bottom of the pan for example ‘gold mining along Angwa and Mazowe rivers, (b) Underground mining ‘Method employed when the mineral lies very deep below the surface and the overburden is too thick to be removed by mechanical means, Underground mining techniques (i) Shaft method Method is used when the mineral seam is deep underground, How it is carried out * Vertical shafts are sunk into the cearth’s crust to reach the layer with the mineral. * Horizontal tunnels are dug from the vertical shaft to reach the mineral * Props are erected to support the roof to prevent it from collapsing, + The mineral bearing rock is blasted loose by explosives * The deposit is transported on light rail ‘oF conveyor belt to the bottom of the shaft * _Itis then brought to the surface ina crane or a lft called cage, (ii) Dritt or adit mining * — Method employed when the mineral deposit can be reached from the valley sides‘© Horizontal tunnels (adits) are constructed from the side of a ‘mountain, ‘© Railway line is constructed into the mine to bring out the mineral, for example, mining of asbestos in ‘Zvishavane and Mashava. Mineralogy Methods of prospecting for gold Gold is one of the major foreign currency earners cof Zimbabwe. There are various methods used for ‘gold prospecting. ‘These are: * Geochemical prospecting ~ Based on systematic measurement of one or more of the chemical properties of rock, soil, glacial debris, stream sediment, ‘water or plants, The chemical mostly measured is the content of key trace element. © Geophysical prospecting - Combines the sciences of physies and geology to locate ore deposits. For example, the use of Geiger counters for detecting radioactive uranium deposits and ‘magnetic surveys to find iron deposits. Geophysical methods © Magnetic, © Gravimetric, © Electrical © Radiometric. © Seismic, Indicator plants ~ these are used in prospecting for deeply embedded mineral seams using the root system, Activity 7.1 (a) Embark on a visit o a mine in your locality and study the mining method that is used there. (b) Record the advantages and disadvantages of the method being used at the mine, Physio-chemical properties of alluvial minerals Most alluvial mineral deposits are mainly constituted by soils such as sand and clay in river beds, Several alluvial minerals such as gold and tin are found in the river beds mainly on the lower course where deposition takes place. Some of them are found on flood plains which are areas mostly prone to flooding and deposition. In Zimbabwe, the major mineral found in river beds {s gold on rivers such as Angwa, Save, Mazowe, dzi, Shashe and Shangani. These minerals found in rivers appear in very small quantities. These minerals are mostly mined by artisanal miners on asmall scale, Methods of gold panning © Dredging. © Placer mining. © Shuicing Problems of gold mining River siltation. ‘Water pollution due to use of chemicals. Land degradation as open pits are left Reduction in tourism potential for example Umzingwane. Deforestation. Loss of life due to mine collapse. Crime. Social ills such as prostitution Money laundering,Measures to increase gold panning contributions to the economy ‘Reducing procedures and paperwork requirements needed for one to venture into gold panning. Assisting youths to access loans from banks so as to venture into regularised gold panning so as to contribute to the national gold output Carrying out educational campaigns for youth to venture into mining so as to create empowerment. Organising youths into cooperatives for maximum capacity utilisation Fostering partnerships with international investors to ensure maximum output. Opening schools of mining so as to empower locals who venture into ‘mining, For example, the school of mines Environmental impact of mining The exploitation of mineral resources can have negative impacts ‘on the environment, Some of the environmental impacts include: = Widespread siltation along rivers affecting river capacity, Rivers such as Angwa in Mashonaland West is heavily silted due to mining activities = Use of chemicals in cleaning and purifying minerals can have negative impacts on the environment, For example, the use of mercury in gold panning. = Deforestation is a major characteristic of major mining areas and hence trees are a major ‘component of the environment which should be protected. = Water pollution is also widespread in mining areas due to disposal of chemicals which eventually affect aquatic life, for example, fish, = Mining produces a lot of dust which causes air pollution and disturbes pollination, for example, trees surrounding Dorowa mines are affected by air pollution. = Processes such as smelting at ‘mines result in the emission of ‘gases into the air damaging the ‘ozone layer and contributing to ‘ozone depletion as well as acid rain which destroys the vegetation resources, = Big pits that are left by mining companies cause sight pollution as well as becoming breeding grounds of mosquitos Mitigation measures Before any mining takes place, there is need for an (EIA) Environmental Impact Assessment which a document outlining the road map of a mining venture in terms of how the environment is going to be rehabilitated. Legislative frameworks need to be in place so that underhand dealings are climinated and mining laws are being religiously followed. For example, the Minerals and Mines Act has to be valued and followed very seriously. ‘The Environmental Management Act is another one to be followed in earnest. Rehabilitation efforts need to be stepped up so that the environment is restored to its former self after exploitation Education efforts also need to be stepped up so that the general people become aware of the importance of the environment, Education can be in form of awareness campaigns,‘+ There is need for mineral substitution in order to scale down exploitation which threatens the environment. For example, recycled material can be used instead of exploiting mineral reserves. Small scale mining This is the extraction of mineral ore by individuals and groups not formally employed by large mining conglomerates, In Zimbabwe, it accounts for a significant percentage of mining activities in the country. ‘The characteristics of small scale mining are: ‘* Miners use simple technology such as hoes, mattocks and shovels Miners use less capital Workers are semi-skilled and unskilled. Mining is done at a subsistence level The mining activities are haphazard and not organised. * Mining is seasonal and mostly done during the winter and dry season. * There are poor health and safety ‘measures in the mines, + Miners usually employ minors which is against the law. ‘* Most of their output is sold through informal markets. * The miners are always against law enforcement agencies, Contribution of small scale mining to Zimbabwe ‘+ Simall scale mining creates employment in various capacities. ‘© Small scale mining contributes significantly to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). © Small scale mining brings the much needed foreign currency in the country through sale of mineral output. © They act as a source of revenue for the government through payment of tax. * The mines also raise the standard of living for the people either directly or indirectly. ‘+ Small scale mines provide raw materials for other industries * They necessitate more output from the large established mining companies through competition Challenges faced by small scale mining industry Small scale mining industry faces a plethora of challenges and these include: failing to harness appropriate technology. * failing to access financial resources from banks due to lack of collateral security, ‘+ facing a lot of accidents due to the hiring of unskilled labour, small scale mines face a lot of accidents. * — working conditions are very poor in small scale mines, * falling prey to unscrupulous dealers resulting in heavy losses, ‘* suffering from serious competition from large established mining companies. Solutions to challenges faced by small scale mining ‘Small scale mines can be assisted by both the public and the private sector, Some of the measures that can be done to solve the challenges faced by small scale miners include: * Organising small scale miners into ‘cooperatives so that they pull resources together. © Government funded mechanisation programmes that can help small players to harness technology.| | | Provision of cheap loans so that small mining players can have access to finance, Organisation of safety health workshops for small scale mining concerns so that accidents can be reduced, Providing a framework for small scale ‘miners to sell their produce at formal markets, Speeding up the registration process so that small players can get into regulated mining, Legislative framework in mining Zimbabwe has a variety of legislative guidelines that control the mining sector so as to have order and sanity in the sector. Some of the legislative instruments include: 1. The Mine and Minerals Act The Mines and Minerals Act was enacted in 1961 and governs mining activities, processing of minerals and mining rights. The Act has been amended several times, The Act also governs the registration of miners and prospectors as well as licensing of mines. The Act sets out rules and obligations observed when carrying out mining activities. Payment of license fees to local authorities is also governed by the Act, 2 Environmental Management Act Mining destroys the environment, hence the need to have legislation which governs how actors in the mining industry ought to protect the environment. The Act seeks to protect the environment from the negative effects ‘of mining on the environment. Mining causes land, air, water and sight pollution. The Act henceforth acts as the police for the environment, Violators of the Act are prosecuted, 3. The National Social Security Authority Act The Act was put into action in 1989 for the purpose of protecting workers and employers from work related hazards and risks, Both employers and employees need protection from work related accidents and risks At mines, miners are exposed to great risks as they work with chemicals and ‘other hazardous substances hence the need fo have an Act which protects against losses, The Act compels mine owners to invest in safety in order to prevent mishaps at work. Protective clothing, proper ventilation and sound machinery are some of the requirements of a proper working environment. The Act therefore provides parameters that should not be violated as prosecution or fine may result 4. Precious Minerals Act The Act was enacted to govern the sale of precious minerals such as gold. ‘Mines involved in the mining and sale of those precious minerals have to strictly comply with the Act to avoid violation which lead to prosecution, The Act is there to ensure that the country benefits from the exploitation of the precious minerals.Zimbabwe Processing of minerals © Due to improvements in technology, alot of countries in Africa are now practising beneficiation and value addition of their minerals 50 as to improve their revenue. © Zimbabwe has quiet a number of minerals that bring a lot of foreign ‘currency to the country. Some of the minerals that the country boast of are Gold © — Gold in Zimbabwe is mined by both mining conglomerates and artisanal miners. It is mined at mines such ‘as Penhalonga, Redwing, Renco ‘Sandawana and Turk Mine. Gold undergoes a lot of beneficiation to separate it from the gold bearing rocks. '* Companies use shaft mining. For artisanal miners, the gold will be found con the river banks though they follow processes until they get the pure gold ‘ore, The processes include: Extraction from river bank or gold seam. - Crushing. = Processing using mercury and cyanide. Melting gold = Moulding into gold bars Diamond Zimbabwe has diamond fields in Marange and Mberengwa. Diamonds are also found in alluvial deposits and are also mined by panners‘The processing of diamonds involves: Crushing ~ This reduces large run of ‘mine lumps into smaller pieces making, them easier to handle. ‘© Screening ~ Ore is sized using vibrating screens after each crushing stage + Scrubbing This is used to wash and break down clay lumps present in the ore * Concentration ~ Ore is mixed into a ferrosilicon slurry, then fed to a dense media cyclone, where the heavy minerals are separated from the waste. * Collection - Diamonds are recovered in various ways such as on belts or vibrating tables coated with a specially formulated grease that only the diamonds stick to or by an x-ray sorting ‘which identifies diamonds as they fluoresce or by their atomic mass. ‘Maia Go minerals "eases Nickel © Copper eLiun on PPhosciate Kiron gee oat 1m Micaand Beri elds APrrite Ocoat Fit (O Gicsasone Bat (9 wu ye —Rallvay Fig. 7.3 Minerals distribution in Zimbabwe Coal Fig. 74 CoalZimbabwe has big coal fields in Hwange and Mberengwa. Currently coal exploitation is being done at ‘Hwange using underground mining methods. Coal is a high energy and flammable fossil fuel used in the energy sector. Coal processing is done in Zimbabwe. Processing is done through crushing, washing and grading In Zimbabwe, coal is mainly used for generating thermal energy as well as for domestic usage in cooking and heating, Itis also used in the agricultural sector for ‘curing tobacco. Tron and steel industries also use coal to smelt iron ore. Coal also produces coke Tar and Benzol are also obtained from coal and they constitute 1% of blend fuel. Chrome in Zimbabwe is mined at mines such as Shurugwi and Kildonan Chrome ore is screened and loaded into trucks for further processing. Processing of chrome is done at ZIMASCO in Kwekwe and Gweru. The chrome ore is checked for quality, weighed and heated in furnaces and mixed with iron, Chrome is mixed with iron to produce ferro-chrome which is exported, Fig. 75 Chrome Beneficiation Beneficiation is the process of converting ores into concentrated metals, for example, conversion of iron ore into alloys, Beneficiation has a lot of advantages to the economy. These include: * More foreign currency from exporting processed minerals. * Creation of employment when factories engaged in processing of mineral ores are set up. + Communities share ownership schemes which can result in the development of infrastructure mainly in rural areas that were previously marginalised. * — More local people can get into mining related businesses through subcontracting by big conglomerates. + Beneficiation results in more benefits for the local communities as minerals are sold with a high value, + Beneficiation results in reduced brain drain, Safety and health in mining Mining is a very hazardous and dangerous ‘occupation which can lead to health related problems and death in case of disasters. Health issues tend to take centre stage in the mining industry. Mine workers deal with explosives, chemicals and dangerous environments. Mining companies should ensure the following: ‘+ Assound health policy, ‘* A funetional clinic at the mine ‘= Acompensation framework in case of accidents, * A functional first aid team, ‘+ Periodical health coaching clinics. * Adequate protective clothing.Importance of health in mining Guarantees continuity of operations. Ensures maximum capacity utilisation Ensures a competitive advantage for a mining concern, Guarantees mining growth. Reduces staff turnover. Sustainable use of minerals Mining ventures destroy the environment especially with regards to the future, ‘When carrying out mining activities, due care needs to be done so that the environment remains in its natural state as ever. Sustainable exploitation and use of minerals guarantees an ever intact environment. To develop sustainably, there will be need to consider the environment for the purposes of the future For the purpose of sustainable utilisation of mineral resources, the following can be done: ~ — Reuse ~ This can result in resources lasting longer as the same resource can be used over and over again. = Recycling - Waste materials can be used for developing other products. = Miiltiple usage of the same resource, Sustainable use of mineral resources is necessary as minerals are non- renewable resources but if utilised in a sustainable way long term benefits cane be realised. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ‘© Mining is an activity that destroys the environment ‘+ _Ittherefore needs to be undertaken with the environment in mind. An environmental impact assessment needs to be done before any mining venture. © The EIA is a document outlining how the environment is going to be rehabilitated due to the mining activities being done, * _ EIAis compulsory especially in developed nations while a number of developing countries are now taking it seriously Purpose of EIA ‘© Potentially screens out environmentally unsound projects ‘© Proposes modified designs to reduce environmental impacts. © Identifies feasible alternatives. + Predicts feasible alternatives. * Identifies mitigation measures. © Influences decision making and the development of terms and conditions EIA steps Screening This is the step of evaluating proposals to find out which ones should be subjected to an EIA or not Scoping ‘© This is the process of finding out issues that are likely to be important during the detailed EIA phase, + Italso involves an interaction between the affected, interested parties, government and proponents for identifying issues with respect to a proposed project.Baseline study * — Itinvolves collection of all the information about the environment. * Itprovides a baseline against which possible impacts and change as a result of the project can be measured. Impact prediction It involves predictions about the change that can be brought as a result of undertaking the project. Impact assessment Assessment requires careful, expert interpretation and understanding of impacts so as to influence decision making. Mitigation Itinvolves taking measures to reduce or remove ‘environmental impacts, Producing environment impact statement ‘tis a formal document released and outlining all. ‘the information about the project that would have been gathered. EIA Review A team from EMA assesses the adequacy of an IA report, taking into consideration impacts ‘es the environment, rehabilitation plans and ‘comments from the public. | Monitoring and auditing * _Itis carried out to provide relevant information about impacts that can be used by the entity seeking to do mining activities. + Monitoring is done to test the accuracy of impact predictions, Importance of EIA to the mining industry Carrying out an EIA is very important in the mining industry as it ensures a lot of advantages, EIA helps in the following parameters: + Ithelps to eliminate environmental degradation. + Ensures maximum capacity utilisation. * — Maintains environmental originality. * Helps a miner to have indepth knowledge of the area helshe seeks to do business * Promotes sustainable utilisation of mineral resources, ‘© Encourages serious investment Cost benefit analysis * tis process of weighing up benefits and costs for decision making purposes ‘+ Itis a means of securing the best position when intending to get into a mining venture. + The aim is to avoid positions that give a disadvantage to a miner, * — When doing business there are cost and benefits associated. Benefits should outweigh costs. + A scenario will be when opening a mining venture in a rugged area, alot of cost will be incurred in rehabilitating the area and if the value of the mineral falls short of the cost of rehabilitation, mining will not be permissible there, Procedure in cost benefit analysis ‘© Making a comprehensive list of the cost and benefits, This includes costs such as direct, indirect and unseen costs of risk. + A monetary unit of all the cost is drawn up. No overstating and understating is permissible,Importance of cost benefit analysis in mining ‘Comparison of the values of costs and benefits. Decision making. Ithelps in making proper decisions in mining. Tis very expensive to set up and start ‘mining operations especially in bulky mining. Mining can have huge environmental impacts, some of which might be unforeseen and could add more cost in the future Carrying out cost benefit analysis helps to maintain a culture of being responsible by carrying out a proper cost benefit analy: