Migration Letters

Volume: 20, No: S8(2023), pp. 1434-1444

ISSN: 1741-8984 (Print) ISSN: 1741-8992 (Online)
www.migrationletters.com

Comparative Analysis of English and Albanian: The

Communicative Function of Sentences
Libron Kelmendi1, Valdet Hysenaj2

Abstract
This paper is focused on the linguistics of both English and Albanian language, as the
two languages belong to the same parent language, the Indo-European, but undeniably
each of them has its own features. Precisely, this paper is concerned with aspects
belonging to the study field of syntax. The paper does have on focus the types of sentences
according to their communicative function. By saying that it is focused on the types of
sentences according to communicative function, it is understood that in both languages
these sentences will be analysed by the syntactic point of view. As the title signifies, this
paper will be a comparative paper, falling under the study field of comparative syntax,
meaning that it will analyse the types of sentences according to function in both
languages and the similarities and differences will be pointed out. This research within
this paper is ought to analyse and determine how these types of sentences are translated
in Albanian and how do English sentences fall into Albanian. This is also a study of
concerns that would be beneficial to new students of English and Albanian language.

Keywords: language; syntax; sentence; English; Albanian.

1. Introduction
In general, this paper is concerned with aspects of syntax perceived from the viewpoint of
two different languages; English and Albanian. Grammarians consistently and
conventionally divide grammar in two different yet interconnected fields of study:
morphology and syntax. However, this paper is concerned and limited on analysing
sentences from the syntactical viewpoint.
According to Burton-Roberts (2011) syntax is traditionally the name given to the study of
the form, positioning, and grouping, of the elements that go to make up sentences.
According to Vesel Nuhiu (2002), syntax deals with the structure and classification of
phrases, clauses and sentences. It can be called ‘grammar outside the word’. The syntax
of phrases can be called minor syntax, and the syntax of clauses and sentences can be
called major syntax.
Both languages, Albanian and English, are part of the Indo-European language family.
Even though both languages have its place in the Indo-European family of languages, in
addition to mutual features, they normally have differences from one another. In this
paper, the aim will be at pointing out similarities and differences between these two

1
Haxhi Zeka University, Peja, Kosovo, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6298-7953
2
Fehmi Agani University, Gjakova, Kosovo
1435 Comparative Analysis of English and Albanian: The Communicative Function of Sentences

languages when contrasted in terms of sentences according to communicative function.

By examining the types of sentences according to communicative function it is meant to
syntactically inspect in detail the complexity of the sentences based on their form, content
and the complexity of their usage to convey a specific message in a specific
communicative function. Also, by elaborating the types of sentences according to
communicative function it is meant to carefully involve all the complicated details of
different types of sentences that are interrelated.
It can be noted here that there is already a gap in comparative studies between English
and Albanian language. While Albanian students are using English as their primary
source of information about the world, be it an academic research or extensive non-
academic reading activities, there is a tendency among professors and even academics to
ignore the field of comparative studies over English and Albanian linguistics. It must be
noted also that both, English and Albanian departments at universities, do not cover
courses where the main aim would be at pointing out similarities and differences between
languages.
However, a few studies currently have been focused in English and Albanian
language (Kurani&Trifoni, n.d.; Millaku, 2014; Millaku, 2016; Nuhiu, 2013). Those
aforesaid studies have had their focus in particular areas of linguistic fields such as
phonetics, morphology, morphosyntax, syntax, and semantics. From these previous
researches, it can be documented that the types of sentences according to their
communicative function in English and Albanian is still a topic that lacks in discussion so
that this research is of particular novelty. It is highlighting that the novelty is taken from
the fact that such research is focused in comparing English and Albanian which is rarely
conducted, the limitation of this study is on analysing, comparing and contrasting the
types of sentences according to their communicative function which is a detailed case.
The aforementioned are the novelty and originality of the study to complete the gap of
this certain case. In this focus, as theoretically, this study will enrich the literature of
English and Albanian studies. Hence, the novelty of this research paper fills the gap
among former studies in this particular field.
1.1. Literature review
This section will adapt to ground theory surrounding this research concern of types
of sentences according to their communicative function in English and Albanian.
1.1.1. Types of sentences according their communicative function in English language
Sentence communicative function refers to the purpose of the speaker in uttering a clause
or sentence. According to Aarts (2001), sentences, based on their communicative
function, are divided into four classes:
1. Declarative sentences.
2. Interrogative sentences.
3. Imperative sentences.
4. Exclamative sentences.
Also, Verspoor and Sauter (2000) state that English sentences can be classified according
to communicative functions and patterns into four basic finds: Declarative, Interrogative,
Imperative and Exclamatory sentence patterns.
These four classes of sentences according to their function are grouped into:
communicative sentences and informative sentences.
Communicative sentences aim the speaker rather than the listener. These sentences are
used to express what the speaker wants or feels at the very moment of uttering.
Communicative sentences include exclamatory and imperative sentences.
 Libron Kelmendi et al. 1436

On the other hand, informative sentences are beneficial for both the speaker and the
listener. These sentences do aim to give, get, convey, receive information so they require
the interaction of both the speaker and the listener involved, which leads to greater
cooperation. Informative sentences include declarative and interrogative sentences.
According to Kim and Sells (2008), a declarative makes a statement, an interrogative asks
a question, an exclamative represents an exclamatory statement, and an imperative issues
a directive.
Declarative sentences or statements are those sentences that are mostly used to convey
information. These sentences must consist of the primary sentence elements, a subject
and a predicate that have to be concord in tense and number but they may contain also
secondary sentence elements. Declarative sentences have a fixed word order. The subject
comes first, followed by the predicator. The predicator precedes the indirect object (if
present) which is followed by the direct object (if present).

I was here. (S+P+A)

Mr. James taught at Oxford. (S+P+A)

According to Swick (2018), declarative sentences may be of two types; the first one
constituent of verbs which show an incomplete action or one in progress and the second
one constituent of verbs that denote a completed action.
Interrogative sentences or questions are divided into further subcategories. The first type
or subcategory is that of Yes/No question which is called so because the answer which is
expected begins with the affirmation Yes or negation No.
The second type or subcategory is the one which begins with an interrogative word: who,
what, why, which, when or how. These questions are known as wh-questions. Through
the use of wh-words, specific information about the subject, object complement or
adverbial can be retrieved.
The third type or subcategory of interrogative sentences deals with the alternative
questions. These questions offer as a reply one of two or more options which are
presented in the question.
Imperative sentences or commands, are used to direct someone to do or not do something.
Imperatives can be of three kinds:
1. Imperatives without Subject.
2. Imperatives with Subject.
3. Imperative with Let.
Exclamative sentences are used to express the speaker’s own feelings towards the reality.
These sentences do show strong emotions. Exclamative sentences are formed with an

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1437 Comparative Analysis of English and Albanian: The Communicative Function of Sentences

initial wh-word and they end in an exclamation mark. Exclamative sentences do consists
of an exclamatory phrase and the predicate
1.1.2. Types of sentences according their communicative function in Albanian language
In Albanian literature, the sentence is defined as the basic syntactic unit through
which the thought is formed, expressed, communicated. In the monograph of the
Academy of Sciences of Albania, entitled "Grammar of the Albanian Language 2" (2002),
the sentence is defined as "a fragment of speech usually consisting of two or more lexical
words joined according to certain ratios, based on rules of a language, in a single
entirety.” Albanian professor of English, Vesel Nuhiu (2002), defines the sentence as "the
longest grammatical unit and the smallest communication unit".
In speech, the speaker usually informs about something, expresses the desire or
request to see or perform an action or condition, or asks about something. From this,
based on the communicative function, three types of sentences are distinguished:
declarative sentences (fjalitë dëftore), imperative sentences (fjalitë dëshirore, fjalitë
nxitëse), interrogative sentences (fjalitë pyetëse).
Alb. Fjalitë dëftore are sentences that convey facts or reality. Through such sentences
we conclude, ascertain, give opinion, show our judgment or opinion about something. In
discourse, declarative sentences are the most common and most used.
Example: (Alb) Dëbora po shkrinte në të gjitha drejtimet.
(En) The snow was melting everywhere.
Declarative sentences in the Albanian language usually follow this word order: subject +
predicate + object + adjunct. However, Albanian language does not have a fixed order.
This makes it possible for the predicate, the object, or even the adjunct to appear at the
beginning of the sentence. Whereas in the structure of declarative-exclamatory sentences,
exclamatory word appear at the beginning of the sentence.
In the declarative sentences in the Albanian language, two types of sentences are clearly
distinguished; the simple declarative sentence (fjalia e thjeshtë dëftore) and the
declarative-exclamatory sentence (fjalia dëftore-thirrmore).
Example: (Alb) (Ne) Po i afrohemi pyllit. (Fjalia e thjeshtë dëftore)
(En) We are approaching the forest. (Simple declarative sentence)
(Alb) Arritëm! Arritëm! – bërtiti shoferi i autobusit. (Fjalia dëftore-
thirrmore)
(En) We arrived! We arrived! - the bus driver shouted.(Declarative-
exclamatory sentence)
When we show or describe something with a particular feeling (surprise, joy, sadness,
fear), the declarative sentence is called declarative-exclamatory sentence. At the end of it
we put exclamation mark.
Example: (Alb) Sa këmbëngulëse që është mësuesja jonë!
(En) How persistent our teacher is!

(Alb) Qenke me të vërtetë i zoti!

(En) You are really good!
Alb. fjalitë dëshirore, fjalitë nxitëse - In the Albanian language these sentences are of two
subtypes:
1. (Alb. Fjalitë dëshirore) Sentences that express desire from the speaker and that
have a characteristic verb mood called mënyra dëshirore in Albanian. It is one of the verb
 Libron Kelmendi et al. 1438

moods in the Albanian language, which expresses an action or condition that is thought
by the speaker as a wish for something that he/she wants to happen. This mood is not
present in English. Such sentences include congratulations, curses, greetings and oaths.
Example: (Alb) Këndofshi përjetë!
(En) I wish you sing forever!

(Alb) Qofsh i gëzuar!

(En) I wish you to be happy!
2. (Alb. Fjalitë nxitëse) Sentences that express the clear request of the speaker to
accomplish something. Such sentences include a definite command, proposal, message,
advice, prayer. These sentences have as a characteristic the verb in an imperative manner.
Example: (Alb) Merruni armët!
(En) Take their weapons!

(Alb) Nisemi pra!

(En) Let us go!
Alb. Fjalitë pyetëse are sentences by which the speaker seeks to learn something he
does not know at all or does not know completely, or wants to be assured of the truth of a
fact.
Example: (Alb) E kujt është kjo makinë?
(En) Whose car is this?

(Alb) Çdo ky?

(En) What does he want?
1.2. Research questions
This research is a study that aims to analyse the types of English and Albanian
sentences according to their communicative function and also point out similarities and
differences between two Indo-European languages when comparing types of sentences
according to their communicative function.
Precisely, the following research questions were addressed:
1. How declarative sentences in English are translated and classified in Albanian?
2. How interrogative sentences in English are translated and classified in Albanian?
3. How imperative sentences are translated and classified in Albanian?
4. How exclamatory sentences are translated and classified in Albanian?

2. Method
The research part of the study concentrates on a comparison of the types of sentences
according to their structure in English and its equivalent form on Albanian translation in
actual texts.

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1439 Comparative Analysis of English and Albanian: The Communicative Function of Sentences

2.1. Sample / Instrument

The idea of this research was to gather 40 items for the English – Albanian translation
part. These 40 items would be divided into 10 items per each type of English sentence
according to function. For excerption purposes, one book was chosen translated from
English into Albanian. The book examined is George Orwell's 1984 translated into
Albanian by Çelo Hoxha.
2.2. Data collection and analysis
Among the 40 samples in the examined English text, there are 10 cases of declarative
sentences, 10 of interrogative, 10 of imperative and 10 of exclamative sentences.
However, among the equivalent of the same 40 sentences in the Albanian text, it turned
out that the structure of this division of 10 samples for each type of sentence changes.
Instead of having a translation of the sentences in Albanian according to the same
communicative intention given in the author's language, the translated version highlights
the differences between the English imperative and the types of urdhërore, dëshirore and
nxitëse in Albanian. The inequality between the occurrence of types of sentences
according to the communicative function in the text is in fact the first finding of the study.

3. Results and discussion

This is the section for presenting the results from the collected data and the section for
discussing them. The aim of this section is to present the results as simply and clearly as
possible. A second aim of this section is to present the results objectively, without
expressing subjective opinion. The results will be presented in tables, followed by a
discussion.

# Sentence in the Communicative Sentence in the Communicative

English version function in Albanian function in
English version Albanian
1. It was a bright Declarative Ishte një ditë e Dëftore
cold day in April, ftohtë dhe e
and the clocks shndritshme
were striking prilli, orët e
thirteen. qytetit ranë
trembëdhjetë
here.
2. A sense of Declarative E kaploi një Dëftore
complete ndjenjë
helplessness had pasigurie.
descended upon
him
3. The Parsons’ flat Declarative Apartamenti i Dëftore
was bigger than Parsonsve ishte
Winston’s, and më i madh se i
dingy Uinstonit, por i
pistë në një
in a different way.
tjetër kuptim.
4. The diary would Declarative Ditari do të Dëftore
be reduced bëhej hi, ndërsa
ai do të
to ashes and
avullonte.
 Libron Kelmendi et al. 1440

himself to vapour.

5. Thoughtcrime Declarative Krimi i Dëftore

does not entail mendimit nuk
death: do e përcjell
thoughtcrime IS vdekjen: krimi i
death. mendimit është
vdekje.
6. Winston was Declarative Uinstonit iu Dëftore
dreaming of his fanit nëna.
mother.
7. We’re getting the Declarative Gjuha po merr Dëftore
language into its trajtën e plotë –
final shape—the trajtën që do të
shape ketë kur nuk do
të flitet gjuhë
it’s going to have
tjetër veç saj.
when nobody
speaks anything
else.
8. He smiled, Declarative Ai buzëqeshi, Dëftore
sympathetically duke shpresuar
he hoped, not të dukej
trusting himself to dashamirës,
speak. ngaqë s’kishte
besim tek fjalët.
9. Winston heard a Declarative Uinstoni dëgjoi Dëftore
succession of një seri
shrill cries which piskamash që
appeared to be dukej sikur
occurring in the vinin nga ajri
air above his sipër kokës së
head. tij.
10. Perhaps one did Declarative Ndoshta njeriu Dëftore
not want to be do më shumë që
loved so much as ta kuptosh sesa
to be understood. ta duash.
Table 1- Declarative sentences in English and their equivalents in Albanian
In the table above, the sample collected from George Orwell's "1984" is given. In
this table, there are 10 sentences which were collected from the abovementioned book.
The given sentences are all declarative sentences according to their communicative
function. In the same table, in the column of the sentences in Albanian language, 10
sentences are given which are the equivalent sentences identified in the translated version
of George Orwell's "1984", translated into Albanian by Çelo Hoxha. From the analysis
made on the communicative function of the sentences given in both English and Albanian
language, we conclude that all 10 sentences have the same communicative function in
both languages.

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1441 Comparative Analysis of English and Albanian: The Communicative Function of Sentences

# Sentence in the Communicative Sentence in the Communicative

English version function in Albanian function in
English version Albanian
1 Don’t you see Interrogative E shikon sa e Pyetëse
the beauty of bukur është,
that, Uinston?
Winston?
2 How could you Interrogative Si mund ta Pyetëse
tell how much kuptoje se cilat
of it was lies? nga këto ishin
gënjeshtra?
3 May I see Interrogative A mund të Pyetëse
shikojmë pak
your papers,
dokumentat,
comrade?
shok?
4 ‘You haven’t Interrogative Mos ke thyer Pyetëse
broken gjë?
anything?’
5 Isn’t it bloody? Interrogative Nuk te duket e Pyetëse
tmerrshme?
6 ‘You are Interrogative Jeni të gatshëm Pyetëse
prepared to të bëni vrasje?
commit
murder?’
7 ‘Julia, are you Interrogative Xhulia, zgjuar Pyetëse
awake?’ je?
8 Why should Interrogative Përse fruti duhet Pyetëse
the fruit be të ishte më i
held inferior to përulur para
the flower? lules?
9 They dono ‘ow Interrogative Ata s’ia kanë Pyetëse
to treat a lady, haberin të sillen
me zonjat, apo
do they?’
jo?
10 ‘Then where Interrogative Atëherë, në Pyetëse
does the past qoftë se e
exist, if at all?’ shkuara
ekziston, ku
ndodhet?
Table 2 - Interrogative sentences in English and their equivalents in Albanian
In the table above, the sample collected from George Orwell's "1984" is given. In this
table, there are 10 sentences which were collected from the abovementioned book. The
given sentences are all interrogative sentences according to their communicative function.
In the same table, in the column of the sentences in Albanian language, 10 sentences are
given which are the equivalent sentences identified in the translated version of George
Orwell's "1984", translated into Albanian by Çelo Hoxha. From the analysis made on the
communicative function of the sentences given in both English and Albanian language,
 Libron Kelmendi et al. 1442

we conclude that all 10 sentences have the same communicative function in both
languages.

# Sentence in the Communicative Sentence in the Communicative

English version function in Albanian version function in
English Albanian
1 ‘Stand easy!’ Imperative Mjaft! – urdhëroi Fjali nxitëse
barked the instruktorja, ca thirrmore e
instructress, a më mirëfilltë
little more përzemërsisht.
genially.
2 ‘Remain Imperative Qëndroni aty ku Fjali nxitëse
exactly jeni. Mos lëvizni thirrmore e
derisa të merrni mirëfilltë
where you are.
urdhër.
Make no
movement until
you are
ordered.’
3 ‘Up with your Imperative Duart lart! – Fjali nxitëse
hands!’ yelled a klithi një zë me thirrmore e
savage voice. egërsi. mirëfilltë
4 ‘Come back! Imperative Kthehu! Fjali urdhërore

5 Attention! Your Imperative Vini re! Ju lutem, Fjali nxitëse

attention, vini re! thirrmore
please!
6 Take your Imperative Zini vendet, ju Fjali nxitëse
places, please. lutem! thirrmore
7 Look here! Imperative Shiko! Fjali nxitëse
thirrmore
8 ‘Let’s pick up a Imperative Gjatë rrugës Fjali nxitëse
gin on the marrim nga një
way.’ xhin.
9 Go and sit Imperative Shko ulu në anën Fjali nxitëse
tjetër të krevatit.
on the other
side of the bed.
10 Don’t come up Imperative Mos u afro derisa Fjali nxitëse
to me until you të më shikosh thirrmore e
see me among a mes turmës. mirëfilltë, e
lot drejtpërdrejtë
of people.
Table 3 - Imperative sentences in English and their equivalents in Albanian
In the table above, the sample collected from George Orwell's "1984" is given. In this
table, there are 10 sentences which were collected from the abovementioned book. The
given sentences are all imperative sentences according to their communicative function in
English. In the same table, in the column of the sentences in Albanian language, 10

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1443 Comparative Analysis of English and Albanian: The Communicative Function of Sentences

sentences are given which are the equivalent sentences identified in the translated version
of George Orwell's "1984", translated into Albanian by Çelo Hoxha. From the analysis
made on the communicative function of the sentences given in both English and Albanian
language, we conclude that imperative sentences in English are translated in different
(fjali nxitëse, fjali urdhërore and fjali thirrmore) types of sentences in Albanian.

# Sentence in the Communicative Sentence in the Communicative

English version function in English Albanian version function in
Albanian
1 ‘You’re a traitor!’ Exclamative Ti je tradhtar! – Thirrmore
yelled the boy bërtiti fëmija.
2 ‘It exists!’ he cried. Exclamative Ekziston! – klithi. Thirrmore

3 ‘Goldstein!’ Exclamative Goldshtein! – Thirrmore

bellowed the boy as ulëriti djali ndërsa
the door closed on u mbyll dera.
him.
4 Oh, rubbish! Exclamative Oh, gjepura! Thirrmore

5 ‘Comrades!’ cried an Exclamative Shokë,- klithi një Thirrmore

eager youthful voice. zë i padurueshëm
rinor.
6 O cruel, needless Exclamative O keqkuptim Thirrmore
misunderstanding! mizor, i
panevojshëm!
7 O Exclamative O arratisje, Thirrmore
kokëfortë dhe e
stubborn, self-willed
vetkërkuar, nga
exile from the loving
gjoksi i dashur.
breast!
8 Victory! Exclamative Fitore! Thirrmore

9 Julia, my love! Exclamative Xhulia, shpirt! Thirrmore

10 What a bore! Exclamative Oh, ç’bezdi! Thirrmore

Table 4 - Exclamative sentences in English and their equivalents in Albanian

In the table above, the sample collected from George Orwell's "1984" is given. In this
table, there are 10 sentences which were collected from the abovementioned book. The
given sentences are all exclamative sentences according to their communicative function.
In the same table, in the column of the sentences in Albanian language, 10 sentences are
given which are the equivalent sentences identified in the translated version of George
Orwell's "1984", translated into Albanian by Çelo Hoxha. From the analysis made on the
communicative function of the sentences given in both English and Albanian language,
we conclude that all 10 sentences have the same communicative function in both
languages.
 Libron Kelmendi et al. 1444

4. Conclusions
This research was based on the identification of sentence types according to their
communicative function in English and Albanian. The main purpose of this paper was to
provide knowledge about the communicative function of sentences in English and
Albanian. From the analysis made on the available literature, we can conclude that in the
English language there are 4 different types of sentences based on the communicative
function. While, in the Albanian language, from the analysis of the available literature, we
conclude that there are 3 types of sentences, with one type having 2 subtypes.
Moreover, research has been conducted with the main aim on the identification of the
types of sentences in English and Albanian texts. From this research, a comparative
analysis was made between the 4 types of sentences identified in the English language
and the same sentences in the same texts translated into the Albanian language. From this
analysis, we can conclude that declarative sentences and interrogative sentences in all
cases have the same communicative function in Albanian as in English. However,
exclamatory sentences in the English language are in each case translated with the same
communicative function, but in the reviewed literature, we do not find this type of
sentence in the Albanian language. Finally, imperative sentences in the English language
are not always translated with the same communicative function in the Albanian
language. Imperative sentences in the Albanian language have the communicative
function of the exclamatory sentence, the subjunctive sentence and the imperative
sentence, which in the English language are all included in the imperative sentence.

References
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