Review

Solar Energy Resource and Power Generation in Morocco:

Current Situation, Potential, and Future Perspective
Rania Benbba 1 , Majd Barhdadi 2 , Antonio Ficarella 3 , Giovanni Manente 3 , Maria Pia Romano 3 ,
Nizar El Hachemi 2 , Abdelfettah Barhdadi 4 , Ahmed Al-Salaymeh 5 and Abdelkader Outzourhit 1, *

1 Laboratory of Materials Energy and Environment, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University,
Marrakech 40000, Morocco; [email protected]
2 Modeling and Decision Support Systems Team, Mohammadia School of Engineers, Mohammed V University,
Rabat 10000, Morocco; [email protected] (M.B.); [email protected] (N.E.H.)
3 Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
[email protected] (A.F.); [email protected] (G.M.);
[email protected] (M.P.R.)
4 Semiconductors Physics and Solar Energy Team, Energy Research Centre, Ecole Normale Supérieure,
Mohammed V University, Rabat 10000, Morocco; [email protected]
5 Mechanical Engineering Department, School of Engineering, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The world’s attention is currently focused on the energy transition to sustainable energy.
The drive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to limit global warming, energy security,
and the generalization of access to energy have contributed to the adoption of the Moroccan Energy
Strategy, with a strong focus on renewable energy (RE). Morocco is notoriously poor in conventional
primary fossil energy resources, with energy dependence on the order of 90%. In addition, the
energy crisis that resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical conflicts, compounded
with steady increase in demand, has heavily affected the security and stability of the country’s energy
Citation: Benbba, R.; Barhdadi, M.;
situation. The transition to RE by strongly engaging in the implementation of several solar, wind,
Ficarella, A.; Manente, G.; Romano,
and hydro energy projects has made the country the leader in RE in Africa. These projects benefit
M.P.; El Hachemi, N.; Barhdadi, A.;
Al-Salaymeh, A.; Outzourhit, A. Solar
from the country’s excellent solar and wind energy potential. As a consequence, by 2030, the share
Energy Resource and Power of RE in the installed capacity is expected to reach 52%. An overview of the current situation of RE
Generation in Morocco: Current (particularly solar energy) in Morocco is provided, including the potentials, obstacles, challenges,
Situation, Potential, and Future and future perspectives. Thanks to its high solar potential, it is predictable that Morocco’s effort will
Perspective. Resources 2024, 13, 140. be focused on this field: the Erasmus plus INNOMED project is a virtuous example of international
https://doi.org/10.3390/ cooperation, aiming at promoting solar energy through capacity building and the creation of solar
resources13100140 energy networks, in synergy with EU Partners.
Academic Editor: Benjamin
McLellan Keywords: solar energy; photovoltaic; CSP; solar thermal; Morocco; renewable energy; sustainable
development; strategic investment
Received: 11 August 2024
Revised: 24 September 2024
Accepted: 4 October 2024
Published: 11 October 2024
1. Introduction
Population growth, urbanization, and global economic development are gradually
increasing the demand for energy. Historically, fossil fuels, particularly coal, natural gas,
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. and oil, have been the main sources of energy to meet these needs. However, fossil-fuel
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. resources are limited, and their exploitation leads to greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 ), which
This article is an open access article contribute directly to global warming, causing devastating effects on a global scale [1].
distributed under the terms and Coal is the most dominant irreversible energy source worldwide, with a global reserve
conditions of the Creative Commons
estimated at 1150 billion tons in 2022. Coal consumption has reached 8.4 billion tons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
(Bt), of which 5.68 Bt is required for electricity production, while the rest is destined for
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
non-electric uses [2]. Figure 1 summarizes the International Energy Agency (IEA)’s analysis
4.0/).

Resources 2024, 13, 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13100140 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/resources

Resources 2024, 13, 140 2 of 38

and prediction of global coal consumption between 2002 and 2026. The IEA estimated a
1.4% increase in coal demand by 2023. China, India, and the ASEAN countries accounted
for three-quarters of the global demand. Moreover, coal consumption in China accounts
for more than half of the global demand, which is still rising [2]. High dependence on
coal for power generation and industrial activities, combined with the country’s vast coal
reserves, justifies this trend and makes China the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse
gas emissions [3]. Significant declines are expected in the European Union and the United
States between 2024 and 2026 due to the rapid transition to renewable electricity, as well as
a reduction in industrial activity.

Figure 1. Global coal consumption, 2002–2026. Source: [2].

Natural gas and oil are two other irreversible energy sources concentrated in certain
regions of the world and used for electricity generation, heating, transport, and as primary
materials in some industrial sectors. Variations in natural gas and oil consumption from
2019 to 2023 for various regions of the world are illustrated in Figure 2 [4]. This figure
indicates that the total average annual consumption grew by 1.3% in 2023 compared with
2.2% in 2022, marking a slowdown for the second year running after the recovery in 2021.
This trend is explained by the slowdown in the global economy and volatile energy prices
observed after the COVID-19 pandemic and the energy crisis. Additionally, volatile fuel
costs could lead to economic uncertainty and imbalances in global energy markets. In light
of these effects, it is imperative to diversify the energy mix, encourage the adoption of
alternative and sustainable energy sources, and accelerate the electrification process world-
wide [4]. Investments in RE, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, are necessary to
reduce the dependency on fossil fuels and mitigate the effects of climate change. Effective
supply- and demand-side energy management, as well as energy-efficiency measures,
will also contribute to reducing the overall energy demand. These align closely with one
of the goals of the United Nations General Assembly, which adopted a global develop-
ment program for the period 2015–2030, raising major challenges on a number of fronts
(e.g., clean water and sanitation, quality education, and poverty reduction). In particular,
strong emphasis was placed on achieving universal access to reliable, sustainable, modern,
and affordable energy services for all. Increasing the share of RE in the global energy mix is
one of the key aspects of the program. In addition, diversifying green energy sources aims
to increase energy security and resilience while also reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Indeed, the shift to renewable energy is necessary to support sustainable economic growth,
enhance public health, and facilitate environmental protection [5].
Resources 2024, 13, 140 3 of 38

Figure 2. (a) Natural gas and (b) oil consumption by regions, 2019–2023. From the Economist
Intelligence Unit, International Energy Agency. https://www.rivistaenergia.it/2023/01/6-tendenz
e-dellenergia-nel-2023-secondo-economist-intelligence/ Accessed on: 5 August 2024.

The world’s attention is currently focused on the energy transition, characterized by

the rise in the share of RE for electricity production with an additional emphasis on energy
efficiency. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the world’s
average renewable electricity capacity rose to 3865 GW at the end of 2023, an increase
of almost 14% compared with the end of 2022 [6]. In 2023, a significant increase in the
installed capacity was recorded. This is attributable to the adoption of new systems and
technologies [6]. The solar and wind power sectors have enjoyed increased growth, driven
by high energy prices and favorable government policies. In addition, carbon capture and
storage (CCS) technologies have gained interest in recent years, thanks to the commitment
of several companies and the political support of governments. In particular, several
decarbonization projects will be commissioned, thus increasing carbon capture and storage
by 2.3 million tons per year [4,7]. At the same time, the production of green hydrogen has
gained strength, particularly in Europe following the REPOWEREU strategy, as well as in
developing countries such as Morocco [4], and will certainly boost the share of renewables
in the energy mix.
At a continental level, Africa remains the least electrified region globally, with cer-
tain areas still grappling with electrification challenges compounded by the effects of
climate change. According to IRENA, the total RE capacity in Africa reached 62.1 GW in
2023, marking a 4.6% increase from 2022. This capacity accounts for a mere 1.6% of the
world’s installed renewable electricity generation capacity [6]. Despite these challenges,
the efforts of African nations in energy development show promise and perseverance
amidst increasing demographic pressures, the urgency of climate change, and the need for
substantial investment.
According to the African Union Commissioner for Infrastructure and Energy, Morocco is
positioned as the African leader in RE and as an increasingly important player on the world
stage [7]. Taking advantage of its vast potential in sustainable resources, particularly solar
and wind, Morocco initiated RE projects as early as 2009 and 2010, with the launch of two
national programs aimed at integrating solar (2 GW) and wind (2 GW) electricity by 2020.
The country heavily invested in RE infrastructure, such as the Noor Ouarzazate complex,
with a capacity of 580 MW, representing one of the world’s largest CSP power plants. REs
have increasingly become the focal point of strategic and policy discussions in Morocco. The
country reinforced these efforts by accelerating the energy transition with various reliable and
competitive technologies to address energy security and environmental protection. Overall,
since the adoption of the Moroccan Energy Strategy (MES) in 2009, the installed electrical
power capacity has grown at a global growth rate of 74.2%, increasing from 6.34 GW in
Resources 2024, 13, 140 4 of 38

2010 to 11.05 GW in 2022 (Figure 3). This growth is partly attributable to the share of RE,
accounting for 37.6% of the total installed capacity in 2022, which is equivalent to 4154 MW
(including wind, solar, hydro, and pumped hydro storage technologies) [8]. The wind and
solar capacity installed in 2022 represented 37.4% and 20%, respectively, in the RE mix [8].
By 2030, Morocco aims to raise the share of RE to 52% of the installed capacity, with a
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 18% [9,10]. In parallel, the gradual liberalization
strategy of the electricity sector (since 1994) and the establishment of a favorable regulatory
and institutional framework for RE development encourage public–private investment at
both national and international levels. The country also launched the National Investment
Pact, aimed at enhancing private-sector involvement in investment and reaching MAD
550 billion (equivalent to approximately to USD 53.9 billion) by 2026 [8]. This initiative will
undoubtedly intensify and accelerate the energy transition by supporting RE development
projects, seawater desalination, and the emerging green hydrogen sectors, which are
promising sectors requiring substantial investments. However, the large-scale integration
and development of solar energy in Morocco faces a number of challenges. Indeed, massive
deployment of intermittent RE sources into the electricity grid requires investment in
power-system flexibility, including energy storage, grid management, and eventually
cross-sector coupling through the development of power-to-X in order to mitigate the
effects of uncertainty in supply (intermittence) and demand (absence of demand-side
management). Financing solar energy projects is also still a challenge, particularly for
developing countries [11].

Figure 3. Installed capacity by energy source in MW and maximum power demand in MW

(2010–2023) in Morocco. Data from: http://www.one.org.ma/ Accessed on: 5 August 2024.

The wide exploitation of RE and solar in particular represents a significant opportunity

for Morocco to reduce its reliance on fossil fuels, contribute to combating climate change,
and foster sustainable economic development. Since the launch of renewable energies in
Morocco, several articles have delved into the country’s energy potential, emphasizing the
development of the national energy strategy as well as the future outlooks and barriers to be
addressed [12,13]. A more recent analysis of energy sources (including solar, hydroelectric,
tidal, wave, and geothermal) and their potential in Morocco was presented by Nakach
et al. [14]. Additionally, Boulakhbar et al. [15] examined a scenario for 2030 regarding
the Moroccan electrical system and identified challenges to accelerate the integration of
renewable energies into the Moroccan energy mix. Kettani et al. [16] highlighted ambitious
Resources 2024, 13, 140 5 of 38

prospects in solar energy that will enable the country to become a regional leader and
proposed a typology of possible trajectories.
The present work provides a comprehensive analysis of the renewable energy situ-
ation, particularly solar energy, in Morocco. It evaluates the developments in renewable
energies within the framework of the national energy strategies, as well as the barriers to
achieving the objectives outlined, especially after the delays caused by the global health
and energy crises. By demonstrating Morocco’s solar energy potential, we have detailed
the development of large- and medium-scale solar projects. In parallel, the document
outlines the policies and regulations involved in the development of RE sources, as well as
the challenges facing it and the promising prospects ahead. The remainder of this paper
is organized as follows. Section 2 presents an overview of Morocco’s energy landscape.
Section 3 presents the solar resource potential in Morocco. Section 4 gives the current state
of solar energy in Morocco, including the policies and regulations, the installed capacity, the
investments, and the challenges. Section 5 presents an outlook on solar energy in Morocco.

2. Overview of Morocco’s Energy Landscape

In the absence of yet-to-be-exploited major fossil-fuel reserves in the country, Mo-
rocco’s energy sector heavily depends on imported fuels. As such, the Moroccan govern-
ment endeavors to increase the security of supply by reducing its dependency on energy
imports, primarily through increasing the use of renewables for electricity generation, as
stressed in the MES put forward in 2009.

2.1. Moroccan Energy Sector in Numbers

With limited domestic oil and natural gas resources, Morocco is energy-poor in terms
of fossil fuels, a situation that poses a significant threat to the country’s energy security and
independence. According to the World Bank and the High Commission in Planning (HCP),
approximately 90% of Morocco’s primary energy relies heavily on imported fossil fuels
(refined oil, gas, and coal). The total primary energy consumption has been increasing at a
rate of approximately 5% per year since 2004 [17]. The total primary energy demand in 2022
was 23.37 million tons of oil equivalents (Mtoe), a significant increase of 35.3% compared
with 2009 (15.1 Mtoe). Oil products dominated with 51% of the demand (12,237 Mtoe),
closely followed by coal with 38% (9031 Mtoe), while primary energy from renewable
sources accounted for 8.8% of the total. The total energy produced was 41.41 TWh, of
which 22% was generated from renewable sources. The distribution of national primary
energy demand and the total energy consumption of electricity is shown in Figure 4a,b,
respectively. A detailed analysis of the total energy consumption in Morocco for 2021/2022,
as well as forecasts for 2023, is provided by [18–20]. Recent figures can be found in the
annual reports of the National Office of Electricity and Drinking Water (ONEE) and the
High Commission in Planning [21].
To meet growing electricity demand and address the challenges posed by expanding
RE, Morocco aims to diversify its energy sources by increasing the use of liquefied natural
gas (LNG). In May 2021, the Moroccan Office of Hydrocarbons and Mines (ONHYM)
started plans for an integrated floating storage regasification unit (FSRU) terminal. The
ONHYM intends to issue tenders or explore public–private partnership (PPP) options
in the future. The initial goal of the FSRU project in Morocco was to meet an annual
natural gas requirement of 1.1 billion cubic meters (bcm) by 2025, rising to 1.7 bcm in
2030 and 3 bcm in 2040. Additionally, a roadmap for natural gas development (2021–2050)
unveiled by the Moroccan Ministry of Energy, Mines, and the Environment in August 2021
prioritized industrial needs while gradually integrating domestic and electricity generation
requirements. As a net energy importer, Morocco seeks to reduce reliance on foreign oil
and coal by attracting investment in oil and gas exploration [22]. The government has
proactively embarked on a series of long-term and medium-term strategic plans. These
plans prioritize exploring all available RE sources to enhance energy security by reducing
dependence on imported fuels and safeguarding the environment.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 6 of 38

Figure 4. (a) Distribution of primary energy demand in 2022. (b) Total energy consumption in
Morocco in 2022. Data from: [20].

2.2. Moroccan Energy Strategy

The Moroccan Energy Strategy launched in 2009 is one of the main sectorial strategies
based on the development of RE as a national priority, the improvement of energy efficiency,
and regional integration. It is a roadmap toward energy independence based largely
on RE. The strategy’s four principal objectives are to strengthen the security of supply,
generalize access to energy at competitive prices, control demand, and, lastly, preserve
the environment. One of the strategy’s orientations toward large-scale development of RE
is the ambition to achieve a share of 42% by 2020, 52% by 2030, and 70% by 2040 in the
national electrical capacity mix [23].
The first objective has not yet been achieved, as the share of RE capacity installed and
connected to the grid by the end of 2021 stood at 37.08% of the country’s total electricity
mix, which is 5% below the target set [24]. This was due to the impact of COVID-19 on
Morocco’s energy sector, as well as on the rest of the world. Confinement and curtailment
of industrial and tourist activities led to disruption of supply chains. Rising prices of fossil
fuels and energy equipment contributed to inflation and the stagnation in investments
and RE project deployment. As a consequence, the demand for electricity in 2020 fell by
8.5% compared with 2019. However, the installed capacity remained almost the same
(10.6 GW), distributed as follows: 1430 MW of wind capacity, 751 MW of solar capacity,
464 MW of pumped hydro capacity, 6974 MW of thermal capacity, and 1306 MW of
hydroelectric capacity. In addition to the pandemic, the geopolitical crisis (the war in
Ukraine) has highlighted the risk of fossil-fuel supply, which underlined the importance of
accelerating the transition to RE [25].
The Moroccan energy sector began to show signs of recovery in 2021, with electricity
production increasing by 6.5% after a 3.9% decline in 2020. Moreover, there was a 19.6%
decrease in the volume of imports alongside a 36.5% increase in exported volume [24].
Additionally, it should be noted that the share of RE in the national electricity mix reached
38% in 2022 and surpassed 40% in 2023. By the end of 2023, the total installed capacity
reached 11.47 GW, representing an increase of approximately 400 MW compared with
2022 [26]. This increase included the commissioning of 500 MW of wind energy, of which
300 MW was from the Boujdour wind farm (as part of the integrated wind energy program
of 850 MW) and 200 MW from the “Aftissat 2” project (under Law 13-09).
Overall, it can be observed that the MES led to an 80.9% increase in the total installed
capacity in 2023, compared with 2010, and a 7.97% increase compared with 2020. The maxi-
Resources 2024, 13, 140 7 of 38

mum power demand reached 7400 MW in 2023, marking a 2% increase over the year. The
total electricity production amounted to 42.409 TWh, with 9.2 TWh originating from ONEE
facilities. RE accounted for 20.9% of the national demand satisfaction, which is equivalent
to nearly 8863 GWh. Figure 5 summarizes the development of the Moroccan electricity
sector in terms of installed capacity in GW, total electricity production in TWh, and the
share of RE in the total installed capacity, spanning from 2010 to the last three years after
the global energy crisis. In addition, this figure illustrates the main projects contributing to
the progress of each year.

Figure 5. Evolution of the installed energy capacity by source between 2011 and 2023.

The National Electricity Regulatory Authority (ANRE) has examined the evolution of
the national production by energy sources between 2010 and 2022, as depicted in Figure 6.
The use of coal has experienced a continuous rise, with an annual growth rate of 8.5%.
Conversely, electricity production from natural gas has seen a decline of 11.5% on average
annually over the same period, with a sharp and significant drop of 80.3% noted between
2021 and 2022. This is attributed to the end of the Maghreb Europe gas pipeline contract
at the end of 2021 and the global crisis that affected the natural gas sector. To address
the resulting security of supply in the electricity sector, the use of fuel oil and diesel in
electricity production was intensified.

Figure 6. Evolution of national electricity production by energy source in GWh (2010–2022). Data from [8].
Resources 2024, 13, 140 8 of 38

Figure 6 demonstrates that Morocco’s dependence on coal for electricity production

increased by approximately 6.5% between 2010 and 2022. The use of fuel oil and natural
gas showed a gradual decline, while renewable energy sources gradually took a larger
share. Wind power contributed 5.3 MW in 2022, followed by solar energy with 1.45 MW,
and hydroelectric power with around 0.7 MW. According to the ANRE report [8], solar
energy achieved an impressive compound annual growth rate (CAGR or TCAM, taux de
croissance annuel moyen) of 63.4% in terms of the amount of solar electricity injected into
the grid between 2010 and 2022. Similarly, wind energy registered a CAGR of 19.1%, while
pumped storage (STEP) recorded a growth rate of 6% during the same period. This is
attributed to the success of the MES in harnessing the country’s solar and wind potential
through the development of many projects (detailed in Section 3). The country hosts one
of the largest solar complexes, NOOR, spanning an area of 6000 hectares, which required
investments exceeding MAD 24 billion (equivalent to approximately USD 2.4 billion). It
is divided into four stations where large-scale photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar
power (CSP) technologies are used, with a total installed capacity of 580 MW. The first
plant of this series (NOOR 1) was launched in 2016, followed by the others two years
later. Regarding wind energy, several projects were implemented, particularly in the
southern regions, where the largest wind farm in Africa (300 MW) is located in Tarfaya
and became operational in 2014. Currently, wind power is considered the champion in
RE, surpassing solar energy. Both sectors foresee continuous advancements, particularly
with the development of other scheduled projects such as the 1600 MW Nour Midelt solar
project with storage, the six plants under the Noor Atlas solar program (300 MW), and the
completion of the Nassim Koudia Al Baida wind farm (100 MW). With these considerations,
significant efforts have yet to be deployed to achieve the government’s target of raising the
share of RE to 52% by 2030. It is noteworthy that solar and wind projects are distributed
across various regions of the country. This ensures sustainable regional development,
leading to increased electrification rates and a fair distribution of socio-economic impacts.
The report from ONEE indicates the success of the overall Rural Electrification Program
(PERG), which electrified 99.88% of rural areas by the end of 2023 [26]. The program used
individual photovoltaic kits to electrify approximately 51,599 households in villages far
from the electrical grid.
Furthermore, the building sector stands out as the largest consumer of energy, followed
by the industrial sector and then agriculture. It consumes approximately 36% of the
total energy, with the residential sector alone accounting for 25% [27]. Consequently,
Morocco has shown its commitment to energy efficiency as a cornerstone of its adopted
energy strategy. It targets a 20% energy saving by 2030, including action plans to reduce
energy consumption in the transportation (−24%), building (−14%), industrial (−22%),
agricultural, and public lighting (−13%) sectors [28].
The electricity sector is the leading emitter of greenhouse gases in Morocco [29]. These
emissions are primarily due to the significant dependence of the electricity sector on
thermal power plants (coal, natural gas, fuel oil, and diesel). However, the rapid transition
from fossil fuels to RE is an imperative that Morocco has already begun, along with the
development of de-carbonization strategies for its industry. As a result, the kingdom has
secured first place in Africa and ninth in the European Union countries in the 19th Climate
Change Performance Index 2024 (CCPI). This report allows for the visualization and
comparison of the climate protection efforts and progress made by the countries. It is based
on scores in greenhouse gas emissions, RE, energy consumption, and climate policy [30].
The country’s determination to ensure its energy security by promoting the develop-
ment of RE and energy efficiency is reflected in the implementation of several energy plans
and strategies [31]. Alongside this, the government is pursuing a continuous evolution
of the regulatory and institutional framework of the energy sector (particularly laws and
regulations related to RE integration) in order to facilitate the integration into the national
grid and improve private-sector investments in RE projects in a secure and viable manner
(the main RE laws and amendments are detailed in Section 4.1) [32]. Morocco has stepped
Resources 2024, 13, 140 9 of 38

up its efforts as part of its national energy strategy by planning to invest MAD 54 billion
(≈USD 5.4 billion) in RE projects by 2030 [11]. Furthermore, the launch of the National
Investment Pact, aimed at boosting the private sector’s contribution to investment to MAD
550 billion (≈USD 55 billion) by 2026 was also launched [8].

2.3. Moroccan Green Hydrogen Strategy

Due to its strategic geographical position and abundant resources in RE, Morocco
also has the potential to become a regional key player in the development of the green
hydrogen sector and could capture up to 4% of the global demand for green molecules [33].
The objective is to position Morocco as a green hydrogen technological hub. The establish-
ment of economic and industrial sectors around green molecules, particularly hydrogen,
ammonia, and methanol, will contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions (up to 20%)
and support the de-carbonization efforts of the country and other partner countries. In the
reference scenario, domestic demand for green hydrogen and its derivatives is estimated to
reach 4 TWh in 2030, 22 TWh in 2040, and 40 TWh in 2050 [34]. Export demand is estimated
at 10 TWh in 2030, 46 TWh in 2040, and 115 TWh in 2050 [35]. The RE capacity required
to meet these demands is estimated at 8 GW for 2030, 36.7 for 2040, and 78.2 for 2050.
This will require a cumulative investment of MAD 90 billion (USD 9 billion) by 2030 and
MAD 762 billion (USD 76.2 billion) by 2050. This roadmap presents significant prospects
for industrialization across the entire value chain, including desalination, RE (photovoltaic
and wind), electrolysis, and green chemistry. A National Hydrogen Commission involving
all stakeholders will coordinate the implementation of this roadmap through technological
development, investments, infrastructure, and markets. The Commission will also con-
tribute to structuring the optimal deployment of the hydrogen sector within the country by
facilitating investment inflows and the development of PtX (power-to-X) projects through
the establishment of favorable regulatory, legislative, and fiscal measures.
As Morocco is one of the largest importers of ammonia, the country also endeavors
to become a leader in the production of green ammonia to fulfill the long-term demands
of its domestic and foreign fertilizer markets. To this end, OCP (Office Chérifienne des
Phosphates), which is in charge of the phosphate industry, has set up the new green
investment plan with two targets: (a) green ammonia, aiming for the production of
1 million tons by 2027 and 3 million tons by 2032; (b) green energy, targeting 5 GW of clean
energy by 2027 and no less than 13 GW by 2032.
Furthermore, exporting methanol and other synthetic fuels will meet the demand of
several European partner countries. In the long term, sectors such as heavy and maritime
transportation and aviation can also be decarbonized through the utilization of green
hydrogen. Other applications such as urban mobility, industrial heat, energy storage, and
methane substitution for cooking can be decarbonized in the medium term through the use
of synthetic fuels. A capacity-building program, research, and innovation in the field of
green hydrogen will accompany industrial integration and enhance the competitiveness of
national enterprises through the formation of qualified human capital, the preparation of
local subcontracting, and the development of national champions. Power-to-X and cross-
sector coupling will, therefore, play a major role in the massive deployment of intermittent
RE sources into the electricity grid.
The action plan of the hydrogen roadmap includes the following eight measures:
(a) cost reduction throughout the value chain of green hydrogen and its derivatives;
(b) creation of a Moroccan and regional research and innovation hub; (c) promoting mea-
sures to ensure local industrial integration; (d) establishment of an industrial cluster and
development of a master plan for corresponding infrastructure; (e) ensuring financing for
the hydrogen sector; (f) creation of favorable conditions for the export of green molecules;
(g) development of a storage plan; (h) development of domestic markets [MEM].
Resources 2024, 13, 140 10 of 38

2.4. Electricity Sector Organization

Morocco’s electricity sector has been progressively liberalized since the 1990s. This
liberalization laid the foundations for investment by independent power producers in accor-
dance with Decree-Law 2-94-503. Subsequently, Law 16-03 introduced self-generation, thus
enabling large industrial users to generate their own electricity for internal consumption,
notably for power plants with a capacity of less than 50 MW, and to sell a limited surplus
of electricity to the National Office of Electricity and Drinking Water (ONEE). In 2009, the
government launched the process of creating a competitive market for RE, now open to
private investors under Law 13-09. This law authorizes electricity transactions between
private individuals for RE projects and requires third-party access to ONEE’s transmission
network. In addition, the self-generation was extended with the removal of the 50 MW limit,
thus integrating this sector into the new open market. Law 13-09 also allows small-scale
renewable projects to sell their surplus electricity to ONEE and large industrial customers,
Resources 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 39
either through a consortium of consumers with access to extra-high voltage (EHV) and
high voltage (HV) transmission lines, or through public distribution utilities [36].
The Moroccan government has prioritized the growth of the RE sector by strengthening
ONEE
the role is the
of the central player
Moroccan in Morocco’s
National Agency for electricity sector.(MASEN)
Solar Energy It is the only
(now authorized
the National
Agency for Sustainable Energy) in developing and implementing RE projects, is
wholesale buyer and the only authorized reseller to distribution companies. ONEE asalso
well as
responsible for grid management, planning, and maintenance of the Moroccan
streamlining the authorization process for these projects. MASEN, created under Law 57-09 electricity
system,
in 2010, ensuring
operates that
as aelectrical energycompany
public limited is transported
with from production
a Board plants
of Directors to consump-
and a Supervisory
tion centers under the best conditions of safety and efficiency.
Board and is placed under the administrative and technical supervision of the Ministry of
Independent power producers (IPPs) can also sell RE electricity to a consumer or
Energy Transition and Sustainable Development. It provides a “one-stop shop” for private
consortium of consumers through access to extra-high voltage (EHV), high voltage (HV),
project developers, covering all aspects of permitting, land acquisition, and financing, as
and, under certain conditions, medium voltage (MV). IPPs are linked to ONEE through
well as a state guarantee for the investment [37].
long-term power-purchase agreements. The concessionary power producers include Jorf
Nowadays, Morocco’s electricity market has a hybrid structure, combining a regulated
Lasfar Energy Company (JLEC) with a capacity of 2080 MW, Compagnie Eolienne du
market dominated by ONEE, independent power producers (IPPs), and MASEN’s public–
Détroit (CED) with 54 MW, and SAFI Energy Company (SAFIEC) with 1386 MW.
private partnerships, with an open market welcoming RE producers and self-generators.
A list of the various players in the development of the energy sector in Morocco is
The various public and private players are involved in activities such as generation, trans-
presented in Appendix A.
mission, and distribution to meet electricity needs, as illustrated in Figure 7 [36].

Figure
Figure 7. Currentorganization
7. Current organization of of Morocco’s
Morocco’s electricity
electricity sector,
sector, divided
divided into ainto a regulated
regulated sectorsector
and a and
aliberalized
liberalized sector.
sector. Arrows
Arrows indicate
indicate the flow
the flow of electricity
of electricity and responsibilities.
and responsibilities. Red show
Red arrows arrowstheshow
pathpath
the of electricity received
of electricity or output
received directly
or output (to distributors
directly or consumers)
(to distributors or consumers)by ONEE as a single
by ONEE as a single
transport system.
transport system.Green
Greenarrows
arrows:: Indicate the
Indicate thepaths forfor
paths distributing electricity
distributing to customers
electricity in thein the
to customers
medium-voltage (MV) and high-voltage (HV) segments, highlighting the distinction between pri-
medium-voltage (MV) and high-voltage (HV) segments, highlighting the distinction between private
vate and public companies. Blue arrows: Represent the flow of electricity between the private pro-
and
ducerpublic
and the companies. Blue arrows:
various receivers. Source:Represent
[36]. the flow of electricity between the private producer
and the various receivers. Source: [36].
3. Solar Resources Potential in Morocco
The performance of a solar system is closely linked to the characteristics of solar ra-
diation in a specific location. These are obtained from the solar resources, which are influ-
enced by factors such as latitude, climatic conditions, topography, season, and time of day
[38]. Typically, a horizontal surface will receive two main components of solar irradiance:
Resources 2024, 13, 140 11 of 38

ONEE is the central player in Morocco’s electricity sector. It is the only authorized
wholesale buyer and the only authorized reseller to distribution companies. ONEE is
also responsible for grid management, planning, and maintenance of the Moroccan elec-
tricity system, ensuring that electrical energy is transported from production plants to
consumption centers under the best conditions of safety and efficiency.
Independent power producers (IPPs) can also sell RE electricity to a consumer or
consortium of consumers through access to extra-high voltage (EHV), high voltage (HV),
and, under certain conditions, medium voltage (MV). IPPs are linked to ONEE through
long-term power-purchase agreements. The concessionary power producers include Jorf
Lasfar Energy Company (JLEC) with a capacity of 2080 MW, Compagnie Eolienne du
Détroit (CED) with 54 MW, and SAFI Energy Company (SAFIEC) with 1386 MW.
A list of the various players in the development of the energy sector in Morocco is
presented in Appendix A.

3. Solar Resources Potential in Morocco

The performance of a solar system is closely linked to the characteristics of solar radia-
tion in a specific location. These are obtained from the solar resources, which are influenced
by factors such as latitude, climatic conditions, topography, season, and time of day [38].
Typically, a horizontal surface will receive two main components of solar irradiance: the
direct component and the diffuse component. The direct component, particularly the DNI
(direct normal irradiance), comes directly from the sun. This component is particularly
useful in concentrated solar power (CSP) or concentrated photovoltaic systems, where it
can be focused to maximize energy production. The diffuse component, known
Resources 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of as
39 DHI
(diffuse horizontal irradiance), corresponds to the irradiance received on the horizontal
plane from all other directions in the sky. Global horizontal irradiance (GHI) is the sum of
the direct
Morocco andis diffuse
located components of solar radiation.
in a high-solar-potential A thorough
region. Its understanding
territory benefits of these
from an av-
erage of 3000 h of sunshine per year, with up to 3600 h in the desert. The daily sunshine [38].
components is crucial to the efficient design and optimal management of solar systems
Morocco
duration rangesisbetween
located in5 aand
high-solar-potential
6 h in winter andregion.
11 andIts12territory benefitsItfrom
h in summer. an average
should be
of 3000
noted h of
that sunshine
sunrise andper year,times
sunset withvary
up tofrom
3600one
h incity
the to
desert. Thedepending
another, daily sunshine duration
on their
ranges between
distance from the5equator.
and 6 h in winter
Figure and 11the
8 shows andsunrise
12 h intimes
summer. It should
and the be noted
monthly that
average du-sunrise
and sunset times vary from one city to another, depending on their distance from
ration of sunshine for Marrakech, Morocco [39]. This city is located at a latitude of 31.63 the equator.
Figure 8north
degrees shows thehas
and sunrise times and
a semi-arid the monthly climate
Mediterranean averagecharacterized
duration of sunshine for Marrakech,
by hot, dry sum-
Morocco [39]. This
mers and mild winters. city is located at a latitude of 31.63 degrees north and has a semi-arid
Mediterranean climate characterized by hot, dry summers and mild winters.

Approximateaverage
Figure8.8.Approximate
Figure averagemonthly
monthlysunshine
sunshine duration
duration and
and sunrise
sunrise times
times inin the
the case
case ofof Marrakech,
Marra-
Morocco.
kech, Source:
Morocco. [39].[39].
Source:

The global horizontal irradiance (GHI) shows a daily average of 5.8 kWh/m2/day,
with an annual global irradiance between 1800 and 2500 kWh/m2 [40] (Figure 9). The low-
est values are found in some coastal areas, while the highest values are found in the south
of the country. From Figure 8, seven zones can be distinguished; each zone is character-
ized by approximately the same amount of irradiation, the same altitude, and other per-
Resources 2024, 13, 140 12 of 38

The global horizontal irradiance (GHI) shows a daily average of 5.8 kWh/m2 /day,
with an annual global irradiance between 1800 and 2500 kWh/m2 [40] (Figure 9). The lowest
values are found in some coastal areas, while the highest values are found in the south of
the country. From Figure 8, seven zones can be distinguished; each zone is characterized by
approximately the same amount of irradiation, the same altitude, and other performance
indicators [41]. Bouhal el al. [41] mapped Morocco in accordance with climate zoning
in order to compare the energy generated by concentrated solar power (CSP) systems,
particularly parabolic trough systems. The results confirmed the cost-effectiveness of this
technology on a large scale (less expensive and more productive). The best results were
obtained in the zone with GHI levels of over 5.57 kWh/m2 /day, which includes Errachidia,
Taroudant, Ouarzazate, Smara, and Bouarfa [41]. In addition, these regions offer a high
direct solar irradiation (DNI), making them attractive for concentrated solar power (CSP)
technologies, such as those employed in Ouarzazate. Figure 10 shows the DNI solar map
of Morocco. The values range from 1800 to 3000 kWh/m2 /year [42], while commercially
viable CSP plants should maintain a DNI of at least 2000–2800 kWh/m2 /year [15]. Morocco
ranks among the top countries in the world in terms of the highest DNI.

Figure 9. Map of yearly global horizontal irradiation in Morocco (kWh/m2 /day). Source: [43]
https://solaratlas.masen.ma/.

Figure 11 shows the potential for photovoltaic energy in most regions of Morocco.
PVOUT (photovoltaic Output) is an indicator (kWh/kWp/year) that evaluates the potential
solar energy production per unit of solar panel capacity installed over a long period. The
average annual PVOUT in Morocco ranges from 1600 to 1900 kWh/kWp/yr depending on
the location.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 13 of 38

Figure 10. Map of yearly direct normal irradiation in Morocco (kWh/m2 /year) Source: [43] https:
//solaratlas.masen.ma/.

Figure 11. Map of yearly photovoltaic output in Morocco (kWh/kWp/year). Source: [43] https:
//solaratlas.masen.ma/.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 14 of 38

Other factors can influence the productivity of photovoltaic (PV) systems. Global
tilted irradiation (GTI), which refers to the amount of solar energy available on an inclined
surface, plays a significant role in determining the potential productivity of a PV system.
Similar to the previously mentioned parameters, GTI varies across different regions, with
maximum values observed in arid and desert areas (1800 to 2600 kWh/m2 /year) [43].
Additionally, the performance ratio (PR) represents the ratio between the actual energy
output and the theoretical maximum energy that a PV system could generate. This metric
is crucial for assessing the overall efficiency of the PV system by accounting for various
losses (capture losses, cable losses, and inverter inefficiencies). Figure 12 illustrates the
monthly average variation of PVOUT, GTI, and PR for the case of Marrakech, Morocco.
Resources 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 39
Consequently, an annual average of 1779 kWh/kWp, 2276 kWh/m2 , and 78% is recorded
for PVOUT, GTI, and PR, respectively.

Figure 12. Average monthly variations in PVOUT, GTI, and PR in the case of Marrakech, Morocco.
Figure 12. Average monthly variations in PVOUT, GTI, and PR in the case of Marrakech, Morocco.
Therefore, it can be seen that Morocco has the resources for sustainable energy options
that can address the two challenging issues that the country faces: electricity availability
and global warming mitigation. Indeed, the country has a huge technical capacity in
sustainable resources, primarily solar and wind, with generation potential varying from
20 to 25 GW. On a worldwide scale, MASEN indicated that the country ranks ninth in
terms of solar radiation and 31st in terms of wind energy potential [44]. The 3500-km
Atlantic coastline records wind speeds between 7.5 and 11 m/s, representing an estimated
technical potential of 25,000 MW [44]. Figure 13 illustrates the wind-power potential in
Morocco [45]. Jordan, on the other hand, boasts a strong solar potential, closely rivaling
that of Morocco, with an average solar irradiation of 2000 to 2300 kWh/m2 /year in its most
favorable regions and approximately 3200 h of sunshine per year. However, the geographic
and climatic variations between the two countries result in differences in solar intensity and
utilization. Morocco, particularly in its southern desert regions, enjoys even higher solar
radiation, giving it a slight edge in terms of overall solar potential and exploitation [46].
Resources 2024, 13, 140 15 of 38

Figure 13. Map of yearly wind potential in Morocco. Source: [45] https://solaratlas.masen.ma/.

4. Current State of Solar Energy in Morocco

4.1. Policies and Regulations
The electricity sector in Morocco has undergone a remarkable transformation, tran-
sitioning from a vertically integrated monopoly to a more open and competitive market.
During the first phase of the monopoly from 1963 to 1994, the National Office of Electricity
(ONE), which was established in 1963, was in charge of electricity production, transmission,
and distribution, thereby laying a solid foundation for the country’s electricity system [47].
The second phase, which started in 1994, marked a shift toward liberalization by encourag-
ing private operators to take part in electricity production as independent power producers
(IPPs). Since then, there have been consistent efforts to foster private-sector involvement in
electricity generation and distribution while promoting investment in the energy sector
and ensuring the stability of the electricity grid [47].
Institutional and legislative measures have continuously evolved since the inception
of the energy strategy in 2009, aiming to create an environment conducive to sustainable
growth and innovation in the energy sector. These are based mainly on three framework
laws: Law 13-09 on RE (amended and supplemented by Law 58-15); Law 47-09 on energy
efficiency; and Law 54-14 on producers to supply medium voltage to end-users. Table 1
summarizes the main laws related to the RE sector, as well as the texts defining the dedicated
institutions, in particular AMEE, MASEN, and ANRE.
For further details, the laws and regulation texts are available for download from the
website of the Ministry for Energy Transition and Sustainable Development, and on the
AMEE Website.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 16 of 38

Table 1. Main laws related to the RE sector in Morocco and the texts creating the dedicated institutions.

Law Main Points

- Promotion of RE by exploiting renewable sources.

- Enhancing the competitiveness of the national economy and developing a
clean national industry capable of seizing the opportunities offered by the
energy transition, both nationally and internationally.
Law 13-09 relating to RE. Promulgated by Dahir (Royal - Outlines implementation procedures such as providing licenses for RE
Decree) 1-10-16, dated on 26 Safar AH 1431, corresponding production facilities and granting private investors the right to generate
to 11 February 2010 (B.O. No. 5822 of 18 March 2010) electricity from renewable energy sources and sell it to consumers connected
to the national electricity grid.
- Defines the general principles and legal system required to implement and
operate power plants from RE sources by individual or legal entities, whether
public or private.

- Defines and establishes the regulations and overall procedures governing the
application of Articles 5, 8, 17, 18, 28, and 29 of Law 13.09 on RE, such as:
- Application files/forms submitted to request licenses.
- Rules for extending the validity of the final license.
Decree 2-10-578 of 7 Jumada I, 1432 (11 April 2011), - Conditions of access and grid connection for renewable electricity production
adopted in the application of Law 13-09 on RE facilities.
- Technical and financial details of grid connection and execution of commercial
supply contracts.
- Determination and review of annual exploitation rights, and schedules, rates
and rules of annual operating rights for RE production plants.

- Creation of the Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy (MASEN), responsible for
Law 57-09 implementing the Moroccan solar plan.
(14 January 2010) - Realization and setting out a specific framework for solar energy projects.

- The extension of MASEN’s competencies in the field of RE (except

hydropower).
Law 37-16, modifying and completing Law 57-09, - Transformation of MASEN into a limited company with a supervisory board,
creating MASEN granting exclusive rights to develop RE projects and reinforcing its
financial autonomy.

- Law 16-09: Creation of the National Agency for the Promotion of Renewable
Energies and Energy Efficiency (ADEREE) (mainly active in the
Law 16-09 (13 January 2010) and its amended Law 39-16 energy-efficiency program).
(25 August 2016). - Law 39-16: Strengthens ADEREE’s mandate, and increases its powers to
promote and regulate RE and EE initiatives.

- Lays out measures to increase energy efficiency in the industrial,

Law 47-09 on energy efficiency transportation, and building sectors
(29 September 2011) - Sets thresholds for mandatory energy audits.
- Sets minimum energy performance standards for appliances.

- Regulation of the electricity sector and creation of ANRE (the National

Electricity Regulatory Authority).
Law 48-15 relative to regulation of the electricity sector - Missions and obligations of transmission system operators and distribution
(24 May 2015) system operators.
- Accords ANRE the power and procedures to carry out its regulatory missions
in the national electricity sector.

- Increases the threshold for operators from 12 (upper limit imposed by Law
13-09) to 30 MW for hydropower.
- Access to the high-voltage grid and the sale of excess energy up to a limit of
Law 58-15 amending and supplementing Law 13-09 20% of the production.
relating to RE (published in Official Bulletin 6436 of - Access to the low voltage, which was not provided by the RE Law 13-09.
4 February 2016) - Mandates the opinions of basin agencies for granting authorization to
hydroelectric projects. In Law 13-09, authorization was granted based only on
the technical opinion of the electricity transmission agency (ONEE).
Resources 2024, 13, 140 17 of 38

Table 1. Cont.

Law Main Points

“Dahir” (Royal Decree) 1-16-60 of 17 Shaaban 1437 - Enacting Law 48-15 related to regulation of the electricity sector and creation
(24 May 2016) of the national electricity regulation authority.

- Photovoltaic products and solar thermal systems must be regulated by

Moroccan norms, officially published in the Official Bulletin in April, 2020.
Order 927-20 of Official Bulletin 6870 (2 April 2020) - The standardized framework for products makes it easier to regulate and
monitor their compliance with quality and safety standards, thereby
guaranteeing consumer protection.

- Adopted in May 2022.

Act 40-19 supplementing and amending Act 13-09 on RE - Amendments and additions to remedy the difficulties encountered by private
sources and Act 48-15 on regulation of the electricity sector sector operators and the adoption of solutions aimed at boosting the return on
RE projects and accelerating the energy transition.

- This law aims to expedite the energy transition and foster sustainable
development by governing the self-generation of electrical energy
(particularly from RE) for self-consumption, regardless of the production
Law 82.21 on the auto production of electrical energy source, network characteristics, voltage level, or installation capacity used.
(December 2022) - It prioritizes the safety and reliability of the national electricity grid while
upholding the principles of transparency and nondiscrimination among
all stakeholders.

- Establishes the trajectory for the next decade (2022–2031), made up of

By-Law 3851-21, published in January 2022 allocations for injecting electrical energy produced from RE sources into the
medium-voltage electrical grid.

- Defining the areas in which private developers can carry out solar projects to
serve private customers under Law 13-09.
- Texts will help to secure national supply and energy sovereignty, facilitate
By-Law 2138-22, published in September 2022 management of the balance between supply and demand, and make the RE
sector more attractive to investment, as well as enhancing the country’s
entrepreneurial infrastructure.

4.2. Installed Capacity

Solar energy can be harvested through three main technologies. Firstly, photovoltaic
(PV) systems directly convert solar radiation into electricity through solar cells made of
semiconductor materials. These systems are widely used due to their simplicity of operation
and efficiency, especially for small- and medium-scale applications. Their continued
advancement has led to reasonable costs in the market. The second technology involves
solar thermal systems, where solar energy is used to heat water or air for residential,
commercial, or industrial applications. The third technology is concentrated solar power
(CSP) systems. They employ mirrors to reflect solar rays toward a focal point (solar towers
and Dish–Stirling systems) or focal line (as in the case of Fresnel mirrors or parabolic trough
systems), thereby heating a heat-transfer fluid to elevated temperatures. This fluid is
subsequently used in the power block of the power plant to produce steam, which powers
turbines that generate electricity. CSP systems allow the storage of heat by passing part of
the heated fluid into a large tank filled with molten salts or other storage media. This is
one of the major advantages of this technology since it has a storage capacity greater than
that of batteries. Storage allows the stabilization of electricity production, thus limiting
the intermittency of solar energy and facilitating its integration into the grid. However,
the levelized cost of CSP-derived electricity is generally higher than that of PV systems.
Despite this, their higher efficiency, ease of storage of heat, and reduced intermittency make
them well-suited for large-scale power generation.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 18 of 38

Development of manufacturing and technologies has led to a significant drop in

the LCOE of solar electricity. Over the 2010 to 2022 period, the LCOE dropped from
0.445 to 0.049 USD/kWh for PV and from 0.380 to 0.118 USD/kWh for CSP [48]. At the
national scale, a lower LCOE of 0.05 USD/kWh was obtained for the photovoltaic plant
NOOR IV, while an LCOE of 0.14 USD/kWh was obtained for CSP plant NOOR I [36].
We should highlight that the cost of PV electricity becomes higher than that of CSP when
batteries are used for energy storage (discussed in Section 5). For international and national
scales, detailed analyses of the cost of electricity production, installation, and maintenance
for different renewable energy sources (solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower, etc.), are
available in the IRENA reports [48–50] and another reference [14,36,51].
All these technologies are making a major contribution to the exploitation of solar
energy and the development of RE on various scales in Morocco’s private and public
sectors. Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) offers a conventionally higher efficiency than
any other technology (around 39%) [52]. Its operating principle involves the use of optical
devices (mirrors or Fresnel lenses) to concentrate radiation on PV cells. This makes it
possible to reduce the surface area occupied by a project, as well as the number of cells and
thereby the quantity of semiconductor materials used, which is one of the most expensive
elements in a photovoltaic cell. Due to the significant intensity of direct normal irradiation
(DNI) in Morocco, CPV is potentially attractive as it offers higher efficiency compared with
other PV technologies [53]. However, this technology presents additional investments for
optical devices, solar tracking systems, and cooling systems to evacuate the heat that could
affect solar-cell efficiency [54]. These constraints explain the limitations of this technology
to an experimental scale, with a few pilot projects led primarily by research institutions
and technology companies such as IRESEN, MASEN, and AMEE. For example, MASEN
adopted the world’s first CPV pilot plant (Sumitomo Electric) in 2016, with an installed
capacity of 1 MWe and the ability to generate over 1 GWh of electricity, enabling large-scale
testing of CPV systems [36]. In addition, pilot systems were installed at various universities,
such as the AL Akhawayn University in Ifrane, which has installed a 30-kW CPV system
(with three two-axis sun trackers) [52], and the Mohamed V University in Rabat, which
installed a CPV system (Beghelli HCPV technology) with state-of-the-art, two-axis tracking
systems with azimuthal rotation and zenithal elevation [53].
The Moroccan solar energy plan (MSP), which is one of the pillars in the implementa-
tion of the MES, aims to increase the share of solar energy in electricity production [54,55].
The main expected outcomes of the MES are as follows.
• RE will account for 52% of total installed electrical capacity before 2030, and 70%
by 2040.
• By 2030, solar, wind, and hydro power are expected to account for 20%, 20%, and 12%,
respectively, in the energy mix. Accordingly, 10 GW of RE must be added between
2018 and 2030, 4560 MW of solar, 4200 MW of wind, and 1330 MW of hydro power [36],
including those to be carried by the private sector within the framework of Law 13-09.
• Investment: USD 9 billion for solar projects.
• Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 42% in 2030.
• Creation of an industrial base for solar technologies.
• Promotion of capacity building and applied research in PV and CSP technologies
(particularly parabolic trough and solar tower) and related disciplines.
In addition, for the year 2030, energy savings by sector would be 17% for industry,
24.5% for transport, 14% for buildings, and 13.5% for agriculture and sea fishing, which
will amount to 1 million toe.
In the framework of the MSP, Morocco has completed one of the largest solar com-
plexes in the world, aiming to contribute to meeting domestic and European green energy
demands. The Noor Ouarzazate complex extends over 6000 acres and consists of four
power plants, each using different technologies. Noor I (160 MW) and Noor II (200 MW)
use parabolic trough mirrors, while Noor III (150 MW) uses heliostat technology, which
directs the sun to a tower. Each of these power plants uses a thermal storage system to store
Resources 2024, 13, 140 19 of 38

the heat obtained by the concentrated radiation in a large tank filled with molten salt. The
storage capacities in the three plants are different: Noor I has a three-hour storage capacity,
while Noor II and Noor III each have a seven-hour storage capacity [56]. Meanwhile, the
Noor IV plant (72 MW) employs polycrystalline photovoltaic modules with a tracking
system. Noor I was commissioned in 2016, and the other plants in 2018 [36]. MASEN is
leading the complex, while construction, operation, and maintenance were awarded to a
consortium led by the Saudi company ACWA Power. The project was co-financed by the
World Bank and the European Investment Bank.
At the present date, CSP technology is predominant in Morocco, with 510 MWe
installed at the Nour Ouarzazate complex and 20 MWe (parabolic trough) at the Ain
Beni Mathar plant. Ain Beni Mathar consists of a 470 MWe hybrid plant-integrated solar
combined-cycle (ISCC) [57].
Other utility-scale solar projects are still in the pipeline or under testing, such as Noor
Midelt (800 MWe) and Noor Tata (800 MWe), in addition to the ONEE Noor projects (Noor
Atlas, Noor Tafilalt, Noor Argana) totaling 400 MW. The Noor Midelt project involves a
hybrid technology combining CSP (600 MWe) and PV (1000 MWe), which will be realized
in two phases (Noor Midelt I and Noor Midelt II). Midelt I combines 300 MWe of parabolic
trough CSP and 500 MWe of PV systems, taking advantage of a storage option offered by
CSP technology with a much lower cost per kWh for photovoltaic technology. As a result,
this project will supply electricity 5 h after sunset, with a cost of 0.068 USD/kWh. Morocco
is among the first countries to adopt such a hybrid solution.
According to IRENA’s “Renewable Capacity Statistics” report, the global installed ca-
pacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) systems by the end of 2023 reached approximately
6876 MW, with Morocco accounting for nearly 20% of this total. Morocco is the leading
country in Africa in terms of CSP capacity, followed by South Africa with 500 MW. Notable
CSP installations are also present in other regions, including China (570 MW), the United
States (1480 MW), the European Union (2321 MW), and Spain (2304 MW). However, CSP
technology remains concentrated in a limited number of countries, whereas photovoltaic
(PV) technology is far more widespread globally. This disparity is reflected in the total
global PV capacity reported by IRENA, which stands at an impressive 1412 GW. Of this,
12.4 GW is installed across Africa, underscoring the dominant role of PV technology in
global renewable energy development compared with CSP [49].
Table 2 summarizes all solar projects in operation and under construction as part of
Morocco’s large-scale solar strategy. In addition, other solar projects are implanted by self-
producers and according to Law 13-09 and Law 16-08 related to auto production (Table 3).
Several other small-scale solar energy projects and/or sub-projects were implemented
in the framework of the MSP by ONEE:
• Small PV plant in Tit Mellil: 46 kW.
• Small PV plant in Ouarzazate: 120 kW.
• PV plant in Assa: 800 kW.
• PV plant in Kénitra: 2 MW.
Two photovoltaic solar power plants are being built under Law 13-09 related to RE.
“Maroc Photovoltaïque”, which consists of implementing a PV system with a capacity of
10 MW in the province of Jerada, is scheduled for commissioning in 2024. In addition,
“Green Power Morocco”, with a capacity of 30 MW, is being developed by the company
Green Power. The electricity generated will be used exclusively by the delegated operator
Amendis-Tanger to meet its ancillary service needs. Furthermore, other projects are being
developed within the framework of Law 16-08, where the electrical energy produced by
the power stations is intended entirely for the producer’s own use.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 20 of 38

Table 2. Characteristic of solar projects in operation and under construction as part of Morocco’s large-scale solar strategy [http://www.mem.gov.ma/] accessed on
5 May 2024.

Installed Capacity/Annual Technology/ CO2 Avoided Investment Cost

Project Name Location Project Framework Planned Start-Up Date
Production/LCOE Storage Technology TCO2 /Year (Million MAD)
20 MW/55 GWh/yr/2.4
Ain Beni Mathar Beni Mathar ISCC + parabolic trough - ONEE - 2018
MAD/kWh
CSP (parabolic trough)
160 MW/618 GWh/yr/1.62
Noor Ouarzazate I Ouarzazate 3 h of storage 280,000 7000 2016
MAD/kWh
molten salt with two tanks
200 MW/ parabolic trough + dry cooling
Noor Ouarzazate II 600 GWh/yr Ouarzazate 7 h of storage 300,000 9218 2018
1.36 MAD/kWh molten salt with two tanks
150 MW/ CSP power tower + dry cooling
Noor Ouarzazate III 500 GWh/yr Ouarzazate 7 h of storage 222,000 Managed by MASEN, and the 7180 2018
1.42 MAD/kWh molten salt with two tanks construction, operation, and maintenance
have been awarded to the consortium led
72 MW/120 GWh/yr polycrystalline PV with tracking by ACWA Power
Noor Ouarzazate IV Ouarzazate 86,539 775 2018
0.46 MAD/kWh -
85 MW/200 GWh/yr
Noor Laayoune I Laayoune polycrystalline PV with tracking 104,300 968 2018
0.46 MAD/kWh
20 MW/45 GWh/yr
Noor Boujdour I polycrystalline PV with tracking 23,855 302 2018
0.46 MAD/kWh Boujdour
Noor Boujdour II 350 MW polycrystalline PV - - Will be operational by 2027)
Erfoud Late 2020
polycrystalline PV 102,045 ONEE, developed within the concessional
Noor Tafilalt 120 MW/220 GWh/yr Missour 1200 2021
and contractual framework
Zagora 2021
800 MW
Noor Midelt I hybrid system CSP parabolic 675,360 Consortium 7572 Planned for 2024
≈0.68 MAD/kWh
Midelt trough (300 MW)/PV (500 MW) EDF/MASDAR(EAU)/Green of
5 h of storage Africa (Morocco) Plan on the horizon for
Noor Midelt II 400 to 800 MW -
2030
200 MW distributed over
Boudnib, Bouanane, Outat
eight power plants of 30 to ONEE, developed within the concessional Constructed in 2021
Noor Atlas El Haj, Enjil, Ain Beni polycrystalline PV 204,090 2000
40 MW. and contractual framework Planned for 2024
Mathar, Tata, and Tan Tan.
320 GWh/yr.
Ain Beni Mathar, El Hajeb,
750 MW (distributed over Bajaad, Sidi Bennour, Kalaa 400 MW will be developed within the
Solar Program Noor PV II polycrystalline PV - - From 2023
seven power plants) Sraghna, Taroudant, framework of Law 13-09
Guersif
Resources 2024, 13, 140 21 of 38

Table 3. Photovoltaic power plants are implemented by self-producers, [http://www.mem.gov.ma/]

accessed on 5 May 2024.

Solar Energy Power Plant: Sub-Projects

Solar photovoltaic plant (10 MW): “Maroc Photovoltaïque”
Solar photovoltaic plant (30 MW): “Green Power Morocco”
Photovoltaic solar power plant in self-production (1 MW): “Golden Logistics”
Photovoltaic solar power plant in self-production (1 MW): “OCP Holding”
Photovoltaic solar power plant in self-production (1 MW)
Photovoltaic solar power plant in self-production (1.69 MW): “Safran Nacelles”
Photovoltaic solar power plant in self-production (2.5 MW): “Nexans Maroc”
Photovoltaic solar power plant in self-production (18 MW)

The geographical locations of the installed and planned solar energy plants are shown
in Figure 14 (source MASEN).

Figure 14. Geographical locations of the installed and planned solar plants (Source MASEN, https:
//www.masen.ma/en).

These projects, combined with other planned wind and hydro projects, will greatly
contribute to the attainment of the national RE target of 52% of installed capacity by 2030.
In addition, there has been a significant increase in the use of PV in solar water
pumping (SWP), either for the supply of drinking water or for irrigation. These systems
are widely used in the agricultural sector as a means to promote RE and energy efficiency
in this vital sector. The first program, “The Moroccan National Solar Pumping program”,
was launched in 2013 under the responsibility of The Ministry of Energy, Mines, Water,
Resources 2024, 13, 140 22 of 38

and Environment and the Ministry of Agriculture. The government aimed to install
3000 SWPs with an approximate capacity of 15 MW [58]. Given the limited results achieved
by this program, an additional one was launched in 2016 under the title “The United
Nations Development Program: Promotion of the development of photovoltaic pumping
systems for irrigation” [59]. In collaboration with the Agricultural Development Fund
(FDA), an envelope of MAD 2.5 billion was divided between subsidizing photovoltaic
systems and subsidizing irrigation and is intended to support 4450 SWPs for small- and
medium-scale farmers. Statistically, 10,000 SWP systems were installed in the agricultural
sector between 2019 and 2020. SWP led to a competitive cost of pumped water of 0.44
MAD/m3 compared with 0.76 and MAD 1.67 for butane and diesel, respectively [60].
The use of solar water-heating systems (SWHs) has also noticeably increased. Morocco
promotes the use of these systems in administrative and tourist buildings, schools, and
collective and individual housing. To this end, it has developed various programs such
as the PROMOSOL (programme de développement du marché marocain des chauffe-eau
solaires) program carried out by the Ministry of Energy, Mines, and the Environment
(MEMEE) in two phases (2000–2008), with the aim of promoting the use of solar water
heaters and improving their quality. In addition, the SHEMSI program set up by AMEE
was designed to encourage the development of SWHs. It aimed to install 1.7 million m2 of
SWHs by 2020 and 3 million m2 by 2030, which will save 920,000 tons of CO2 per year [61].
The first launched project aimed at promoting the Moroccan solar thermal market, although
it failed to produce a significant result. The second one was launched to present a new
Moroccan SWH with an accessible price and a technology adapted to the economic and
climatic conditions of the country [62].
The Moroccan SWH market is based on imports of over 120,000 solar water heaters
annually. In addition, 40,000 units of solar water heaters are expected to be produced locally,
thanks to the construction of a large unit in Tafilalet, “MySol CES”, scheduled to come on
stream in the second half of 2023. In addition, a scientific and technological partnership with
universities was included to support process development, ensure continuous innovation in
solar water heaters, and guarantee better quality and competitiveness in the long term [63].
Furthermore, the private sector is also increasingly using PV technologies to offset
some of its conventional electricity consumption. However, the official statistics of the
overall installed power in these cases are yet to be determined, as mentioned in Section 2,
and the installed capacity of RE connected to the grid in 2023 increased by 500 MW, reaching
a total capacity of 4672 MW by the end of 2023, compared with 4154 MW at the end of 2022.
This increase is attributed to the commissioning of the 300 MW Boujdour wind farm (as
part of the 850 MW wind farm project) and 200 MW of the “Aftissat2” wind farm under
the provisions of Law 13-09. The share of RE in the electrical capacity mix rose from 4% in
2010 to 41% in 2023. The remarkable achievements during this period are attributed to the
development of solar and wind energies, as illustrated in Figure 15. The installed capacity
of hydroelectric and pumped hydro storage plants connected to the transmission grid has
remained stagnant over the past two years at 1306 MW and 464 MW, respectively [26]. The
pumped hydro storage (PHS or STEP) power plants consist of a pump–turbine system
for energy storage and generation and two water reservoirs located at different altitudes.
Energy is stored by pumping water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir when
demand is low, which is then released from the upper reservoir through the hydraulic
turbines to supply the electricity grid when demand is high. This process allows for storage
and regulation of energy production while preserving the environment (no CO2 emissions
and no pollution). The first PHS plant commissioned in Morocco in 2011 was the Afourer
plant, with an installed capacity of 464 MWe [64]. STEP plants have become a strategic
priority for Morocco to achieve its ambitious renewable energy (RE) targets. As such,
several other STEP plants (El Menzel 300 MW, Abdelmoumen 350 MW, IFAHSA 300 MW)
and many small hydroelectric power plant projects [65] are under construction, with the
aim of adding 1330 MW of installed capacity by 2030 [64]. Benefiting from a 3500 km
coastline, Morocco is also exploring solutions for marine PSH plants, with an artificial
Resources 2024, 13, 140 23 of 38

waterfall between an elevated reservoir and sea level. This approach, combined with wind
power, would represent a promising solution to smooth load curves and make the national
power system independent of fossil-fuel plants [56].

Figure 15. Evolution of installed RE capacity (2010–2023). Data From http://www.one.org.ma/ and [8].

Solar energy has transitioned from an installed capacity of 20 MW originating from the
Ain Beni Mathar CSP project in 2010 to 831 MW from both solar thermal and photovoltaic
sources. According to statistics from 2022 and 2023, the installed capacity of solar energy
was 7.5% and 7.2% of the total national capacity, respectively, and 20% and 18% of the
installed capacity in the RE mix. In addition, it contributed 3.5% to national electrical
energy production. This breakdown includes 13.3% from concentrated solar power and
7.2% from photovoltaic sources, with 85% supplied by MASEN production and 15% by
ONEE plants. However, no solar projects connected to the grid were developed under Law
13.09 due to delays in the publication of the decree specifying the areas suitable for hosting
solar power plants. This decree was published in the Official Gazette on 25 September 2022.
Figures 16 and 17 illustrate the evolution of installed solar capacity and solar energy fed
into the grid in Morocco between 2010 and 2023, respectively.

Figure 16. Evolution of the installed capacity of solar energy plants by technology (CSP and PV) in
Morocco between 2010 and 2023. Source: (ANRE Annual Report 2021) https://anre.ma/en/publicati
ondocs/rapport-annuel-2021-version-anglaise/ (Accessed on 5 August 2024).
Resources 2024, 13, 140 24 of 38

Figure 17. Evolution of the solar energy fed to the grid by plant in Morocco between 2010 and 2021
(ANRE Annual Report 2021. https://anre.ma/en/publicationdocs/rapport-annuel-2021-version-a
nglaise/ (Accessed on 5 August 2024)).

In addition, the installed wind-energy capacity increased significantly during this period,
from 222 MW in 2010 to an installed capacity of 2071 MW in 2023. Figure 18 illustrates the
evolution of installed wind-energy capacity in the country between 2010 and 2023.

Figure 18. Evolution of installed wind-energy capacity by framework (2010–2023). Data from
https://www.mem.gov.ma/.

In terms of energy, electricity generated from RE sources and fed into the national
transmission grid in 2022 amounted to 7421 GWh compared with 7972.8 GWh in 2021
(Figure 19). This represents a −7.8% annual variation compared with 2021. This decrease
can be attributed to a reduction in hydroelectric, pumped hydro storage, and solar produc-
tion, which account for −57.2%, −16.5%, and −20.3% of the decrease, respectively [8].
Resources 2024, 13, 140 25 of 38

Figure 19. Evolution of the total energy generated and the energy generated from renewable sources
(2010–2022). Data from: http://www.one.org.ma/.

To assess the status of renewable energy in Morocco, it is crucial to consider its impact
on CO2 emissions. As in all countries, CO2 emissions are steadily increasing despite
all efforts. The vast majority of CO2 emissions in the energy sector originate from the
combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. In 2022, 66.665 Mt of CO2
was emitted from fuel combustion, reflecting a 126% increase compared with emissions
22 years ago. As a result, Morocco is considered the fifth-largest emitter of CO2 from fuel
combustion in Africa. According to Figure 20, the electricity and heat sectors are the largest
contributors to CO2 emissions (45%), followed by transportation (28%) and industrial fuel
consumption. Furthermore, using RE may have a significant impact on reducing CO2
emissions in the electricity and heat sectors, as presented in the IRENA report [66].

Figure 20. CO2 emissions by sector and energy source in Morocco (2010–2022). Data from: IRENA [65]
and https://www.iea.org/countries/morocco/electricity (Accessed on 5 August 2024).
Resources 2024, 13, 140 26 of 38

4.3. Investment and Funding

Morocco stands out among the MENA countries for its steadfast commitment to
developing RE, aimed at enhancing energy security through the reduction of its dependency
on imported fossil fuels and curbing greenhouse gas emissions. Leveraging its abundant
solar and wind energy potential, Morocco has successfully implemented many projects.
Furthermore, the country’s enhanced regulatory and institutional framework concerning
RE makes it an attractive destination for both national and international investments.
To meet the objectives outlined in its energy plan and programs, the Moroccan gov-
ernment estimated a minimum investment of USD 8 and 6 billion for the implementation
of solar and wind energy projects, respectively. Moreover, it anticipated a total investment
of USD 45 billion to implement strategies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions
by 32% from 2015 to 2030 [31]. Additionally, an investment of USD 2.3 billion is planned
between 2023 and 2027 for the green hydrogen project [67]. Consequently, the funding
and realization of RE projects rely on various factors, including government political and
financial backing, involvement of national public–private institutions, collaboration with
international organizations and foreign governments, and engagement of the private sector.
MASEN was established specifically to implement RE projects, particularly solar
energy initiatives. Its mandate encompasses the entire project lifecycle, including coordi-
nation and supervision of related activities. Members of the agency include the Hassan
II Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Energy Investment Company, and the
National Office of Electricity (ONEE). The solar plan received support from Germany, with
funding provided by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment (BMU) and KfW
Development Bank, while GIZ was engaged in enhancing industry skills and capabilities.
For instance, the first project executed under the Moroccan solar plan, the Noor Ouarzazate
Complex, required an investment of USD 3.9 billion, including USD 1 billion from the
German investment bank KfW, USD 596 million from the European Investment Bank, and
USD 400 million from the World Bank [68].
Furthermore, the acceleration of MES orientations and the encouragement of Mo-
roccan companies can be further promoted through the mobilization of funds within the
framework of the green financing concept. This concept gained momentum in Morocco
in 2016 during the COP22 held in Marrakech [69]. Green finance relies on various instru-
ments and mechanisms, such as green bonds, ISR labels, green or environmental funds,
regulations, and monetary and financial policies. In collaboration with the Solar Cluster,
AMEE (the Moroccan Agency for Energy Efficiency) developed a financing and support
guide for Moroccan businesses [70]. These financing instruments revolve around two main
axes. The first axis focuses on financing and supporting green investments by businesses,
including financial support from national organizations (such as Tatwir Croissance Vert
and subsidies for resource protection in agriculture), co-financing offers like Green Invest
in partnership with Moroccan banks, and offers in partnership with international financial
institutions (such as Cap Blue, Green Economy Financing Facility (GEFF), Green Value
Chain, and Istidama). The second axis concerns investment funds (such as AZUR, Maroc
Numeric Fund II, and SEAF) and programs for the development of green entrepreneurship.
On the other hand, there are other financing options available to businesses, including
the following:
- MORSEFF, a financing line for energy-efficiency and RE projects, which allows Mo-
roccan companies to access loans (or leasing) for the acquisition of equipment or the
realization of major sustainable energy projects of up to EUR 4.5 million in finance, an
investment subsidy of 10% of the credit, and a free energy audit for the evaluation,
implementation, and verification of the project. MORSEFF’s services are accessible lo-
cally thanks to distribution through partner banks such as Banque Populaire with Eco
Energy Invest credit, BMCE with Cap Énergie, or Maghrebail with Energy Lease. For
example, a loan of MAD 75 million was granted to Moroccan companies to improve
their energy efficiency, thanks to the BMCE and BCP banks.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 27 of 38

- Standard credits from local banks such as BMCI’s Green Credit or Attijariwafa
Bank’s Effinergie.
- Imtiaz-Croissance aims to strengthen the support system for SMEs, VSEs, and auto-
entrepreneurs. It targets SMEs operating in industry and activities integrated into
industry that meet the following criteria. (i) Turnover in the last financial year between
MAD 10 million and MAD 200 million. (ii) Having a development project promoting
growth, creation of added value, and creation of jobs likely to accelerate the change in
scale and emergence of new business models.
- The Moussanada program aims to support 700 companies per year in the process of
modernization and improvement of their productivity to (i) strengthen their competi-
tiveness in terms of reducing costs and lead times and improving quality; (ii) improve
their performance and productivity; and (iii) support them to access new markets.
- FODEP aims to encourage industries to invest in depollution or save resources and
introduce an environmental dimension into their activities to deal with the regulatory
framework in preparation for the globalization of trade.
- The Small Business Support (SBS) program was launched by the European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and financed by a grant from the European
Union and other donors to support Moroccan SMEs through appropriate advice and
international industrial expertise coupled with grant mechanisms.
- The establishment of energy performance contracts with an Energy Service Company
(ESCO), which allows the financing of investment and maintenance costs, and the
guarantee of savings. An explanatory brochure of a typical green electricity supply
and energy-efficiency improvement project can be downloaded.
- Companies can also finance their green energy projects through funds dedicated
to improving the competitiveness of companies in general as part of Morocco SME
programs, for example.

4.4. Challenges and Barriers

The urgent need to mitigate the impacts of climate change, ensure energy security,
and comply with international objectives highlights the pressing demand to accelerate the
energy transition in Morocco and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region in
general. These include financial, technological, institutional, and legal barriers. M. Wael
et al. [71] highlighted several barriers, among which the complex interaction between
formal institutions, legal and policy frameworks, and informal institutions is the most
significant. In addition, the gap between national and international goals and the practical
implementation of projects and regulations, as well as resistance to changing governance
structures and adopting new technologies, restrict the development and transition to
renewable energy. G. Vidican et al. [58] suggested that the deployment of RE in the MENA
region faces difficulties due to reluctance to invest in such projects, primarily because of
lower profitability and higher risks. RE projects are often more costly and involve longer
payback periods than traditional energy sources [57]. Additionally, low electricity prices
and high subsidies for fossil fuels in the region exacerbate profitability issues. Furthermore,
RE projects require significant initial investments and are subject to various risks, including
political and regulatory uncertainties. As a result, commercial banks and private investors
hesitate to finance these projects. Despite these challenges, Morocco has implemented
measures to attract private investments and ensure adequate financing for RE projects [58].
However, investors still express concerns, especially regarding the uncertainty surrounding
investments in solar energy. Similarly, A. Šimelytė [11] conducted detailed research on
persistent obstacles in the Moroccan energy sector in 2019, highlighting the challenges in
terms of financing, institutional coordination, technical capacity, and social acceptance. She
identified various barriers influencing decision-making to invest in the renewable energy
sector. For example, the uncertainty of regional or country-level market development and
prospects and the lack of international financial resources for new financing are some of
Resources 2024, 13, 140 28 of 38

the factors. The unclear energy policy and the high level of taxation were also mentioned
among these barriers.
Moreover, the 2020 diagnostic of the Moroccan economic model carried out by the
government states that the challenges facing the Moroccan energy sector are key factors
that could accelerate the Moroccan energy transition. Resolving these issues could provide
pathways that will stimulate the resilient and sustainable growth of the country. One of
the challenges is that in the electricity sector, Morocco still relies heavily on coal despite
the increase in the installed RE capacity. Indeed, in 2020, about 68% of electricity was
generated using imported coal. RE sources only represented 19% of the overall electricity
production. The barriers to the development of solar energy in Morocco can be overcome by
improving institutional and regulatory frameworks, including those related to low-voltage
grid access, and completing the liberalization of the renewable electricity sector. In addition,
enacting the National Electricity Regulatory Authority and effective coordination between
the different players in this field (ONEE, MASEN, and the Ministry of Energy and Mines)
will accelerate the implementation of the transition. Furthermore, a recent study showed
that the de-carbonization pathways of Morocco call for an attractive policy framework
to encourage private investments and promote private–public partnerships to scale up
investments in this sector [72].
Given the country’s efforts and the progress mentioned above, Table 4 below groups
together the main barriers to accelerating the energy transition.

Table 4. Barriers that may influence the acceleration of promotion of the renewable energy sector.

Financial barriers
• High capital of the systems (PV or water heaters) especially for public. The initial cost of
purchasing a solar system is still fairly high, especially with the existence of subsidies for
butane (water heating, pumping, etc.)
Technological and Industrial barriers
• Weak industrial base in Morocco for solar energy systems (PV modules, BOS, solar water
heaters, concentrators, monitoring systems, etc.)
• Energy storage, especially for PV electricity. Development of large-scale storage (pumped
hydro) and/or fast-response-time power plants (e.g., natural gas) is required for the
large-scale integration of solar energy.
• Absence of additional sources of flexibility in the national electric power system: supply-
and demand-side management, smart grids, cross-sector coupling through the development
of power-to-X.
• Grid instability, especially when low-voltage (LV) grid access is granted.
• Absence of national standards and certified installers and OM operators (for small
scale systems)
• Land usage, which is required to further increase the efficiency of the systems
(promote R&D).
Political barriers
• Lack of government incentives and subsidies for RE systems (PV, water heating, etc.)
• Slow implementation of regulations.
• Absence of regulations for small/medium-scale RE, particularly solar energy (e.g., access to
low-voltage public grids).

These challenges require concerted action to accelerate the energy transition toward
renewable sources, in particular solar, to meet the growing energy demand. M. Said Hidane
et al. [39] proposed several recommendations regarding the photovoltaic (PV) and wind
sectors to address challenges and strengthen the emergence of a competitive industrial
ecosystem. In addition to being eco-friendly, solar energy and its applications (electricity
generation, water pumping, desalination, green hydrogen, green fuel production, and
integration in buildings) can stimulate economic growth, create new jobs, and become a
pillar for the growth of manufacturing and service industries.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 29 of 38

5. Future Outlook of Solar Energy in Morocco

Morocco is steadily working on increasing the share of renewables in its electricity
mix and has set up very ambitious targets of reaching an RE share in the installed capacity
of 52% by 2030, 70% by 2040, and 80% by 2050 (Figures 21 and 22). These targets will
be achieved thanks to the technological advances in energy storage and green hydrogen
production, as well as the decreasing costs. The country is actively engaged in its 2030
renewable capacity target and will reduce its dependence on fossil-fuel-based power plants
(oil and coal). The share of coal in the installed capacity is expected to decrease from 38.8%
in 2020 to 22% by 2030, and that of oil will drop to 9.2% by 2030 from 16.2% in 2020.

Figure 21. Morocco’s 2020–2050 RE capacity targets (%). Source: Global Data https://w3.w
indfair.net/wind- energy/news/39797- globaldata- morocco- renewable- energy- renewab
les- wind- wind- power- solar- tender- target- aim- progress- energy- transtion (Accessed on:
5 August 2024).

Morocco’s renewable installed capacity is expected to increase at an average rate of

9.3% between 2020 and 2030. Wind power is expected to surpass hydroelectricity. The
installed capacity for wind will increase from 1.4 GW in 2020 to 4.3 GW in 2030 at an
average growth rate of 11.5%. On the other hand, solar power capacity (both PV and CSP)
will increase from 734 MW in 2020 to 2.1 GW in 2030 at a rate of 11%, while hydropower
capacity (including PHS) will go from 1.8 GW in 2020 to 3.3 GW in 2030 [48]. An actionable
plan determining the share of various sources in the energy mix was proposed by MASEN,
as illustrated in Figure 23. Compared with the initial orientations of the National Energy
Strategy (NES), which focused on large-scale projects considering CSP systems as the first
choice, the new forecasts express the kingdom’s orientation toward more PV (15% by 2030)
against CSP (9% by 2030) through projects at various scales.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 30 of 38

Figure 22. Cumulative capacity of Morocco’s renewable power market in 2010–2030. Source: Global
Data https://w3.windfair.net/wind-energy/pr/40252-globaldata-morocco-capacity-installatio
n-investment-thermal-power-renewable-power-wind-energy-program-wind-farm (Accessed on:
5 August 2024).

Figure 23. MASEN’s plan to reach 52% by 2030. Source: [56].

The choice to develop PV technology can be explained by its continuous advancement

in terms of efficiency and durability, alongside low installation costs and a low levelized
cost of energy (LCOE). PV module prices have dropped by over 80% globally or less since
2010 [73]. It is worth noting that PV technology requires the use of storage systems (often
batteries), which significantly increase the LCOE. Conversely, CSP technology allows for
storage (latent or sensible), justifying its efficiency in large-scale projects connected to the
national electrical grid. Estimates conducted by NREL suggest that a PV system with
six hours of storage will produce a projected LCOE lower than CSP by 2030 (Figure 24). Ad-
Resources 2024, 13, 140 31 of 38

ditionally, MASEN has demonstrated through a comparative study of various technologies

that a CSP/PV hybrid system is the optimal solution for a predefined production profile.

Figure 24. Variation of the LCOE cost projection of CSP versus PV (six hours of storage), 2015–2030.
Source: [74].

Furthermore, the solar sector has seen considerable development. Table 2 summarizes
the various projects constructed and scheduled for commissioning by 2030. Particularly,
the Noor ATLAS project led by ONEE involves installing 200 MW of PV distributed across
eight plants. MASEN has launched various projects, including the multi-site solar program
“Noor PV II” with a capacity of 800 MW, the Noor Midelt I project (800 MW) using a hybrid
system (CSP/PV), and the Noor Midelt II project designed to provide a total grid-fed power
of around 230 MW (190 MW during peak hours) by allowing private developers to propose
optimal configurations combining PV, CSP, thermal storage, or battery storage. Moreover,
other projects are programmed under the framework of private very-high-voltage (VHV)
and high-voltage (HV) production, as well as projects of photovoltaic solar power plants
intended for consumers connected to medium voltage (Table 3). However, self-production
projects can only contribute 20% of their annual production to the grid.
Alongside the development of these projects, solar energy will contribute to several of
the country’s sustainable strategies to strengthen the energy transition, reduce electricity
consumption by improving energy efficiency, and preserve the environment.
Indeed, the residential sector is a major consumer of energy. Projections indicate an
interesting increase in the next decade, surpassing 30% to 70% by 2030 [16]. This trend
presents a compelling opportunity for self-production using photovoltaic (PV) systems
to supply households. Studies suggest that the residential sector could reach capacities
ranging from 100 MW to 250 MW by 2030 [75]. This translates to a potential generation of
0.2 to 0.4 TWh of solar energy. In a high-case scenario, this would equip 160,000 households
with an average system size of 1.5 kWp, representing roughly 2% of all households by
2030. Looking toward 2040, the high-case scenario suggests installations could even
surpass 1 GW. However, the adoption of PV systems in the residential sector is facing some
challenges. These include variations in household energy consumption and equipment
Resources 2024, 13, 140 32 of 38

levels and the complexity of adapting the current tariff structure implemented by ONEE
and other utilities [15]
Furthermore, PV systems are recommended to ensure self-production for public
administrations and companies while maximizing energy-efficiency measures. With the
support of the AMEE and the investment company (SIE), the total installed capacity on
residential, public, and industrial rooftops is estimated at 210 MW. Thus, PV technology
development has been addressed in the national public lighting program (2020–2040), with
the aim of reducing electricity consumption in the public lighting network [56].
According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), Morocco is facing a major water
deficit, with an extremely high level estimated by 2040 [76]. According to 2022 statistics,
irrigation consumes 89.26% of the available water volume [77]. In this regard, the country
has prepared a National Program for Drinking Water Supply and Irrigation 2020–2027
(PNAEPI 2020–2027) presenting various solutions aimed at irrigation water management,
wastewater reuse, and desalination. In particular, PV and CSP technologies hold promising
potential in the desalination strategy. The cost of desalinated water as a function of different
energy sources between 2017 and 2030 has been studied by [78]. This analysis demonstrates
that solar energy is a competitive option for large-scale reverse osmosis desalination plants.
Prospective results until 2030 suggest that CSP + storage + grid and PV + storage + grid
solutions offer potential benefits, but PV + grid remains the most competitive solution.
This research demonstrated the capacity of photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power
(CSP) technologies to be rapidly integrated into the reverse osmosis desalination process.
Moreover, the capacity of CSP to store heat at low cost offers significant flexibility, thereby
considerably reducing dependence on the electrical grid, if necessary. Consequently, this
work advocates for the integration of PV and CSP technologies to meet the energy needs
of desalination. Within 10 years, desalination in Morocco could require between 40 MW
and 200 MW of installed solar capacity. By 2040, this demand could significantly increase,
surpassing 500 MW, to meet government objectives of desalinating several million cubic
meters per day. Achieving this goal would require energy production on the order of
terawatt hours (TWh) [16].
Building experience from the last two decades, Morocco is committed to giving
new impetus to the energy transition and playing a vital role in the fight against global
warming and the resulting climate changes in Africa. The country revised and submitted its
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change in June 2021. In its new NDC, Morocco revised its emissions reduction
targets to 45.5% from a value of 42% by 2030 in the business-as-usual scenario [35].
Morocco has the potential to be a role model in decarbonized energy production and,
as such, expand its experience to neighboring markets. In addition, Morocco aspires to
become a world leader in new clean technologies, including green hydrogen. Despite
encouraging prospects and ambitious roadmaps being developed, technical limitations
such as production technologies, transport/storage infrastructures, loss of ecological value,
and cost reduction need to be overcome before Morocco will be able to export green
hydrogen. Further, the large-scale integration of intermittent RE energies required for
the decarbonization of the economy is compounded by uncertainty in the demand for
greater flexibility in the power system. Supply-side flexibility, transmission/distribution
reinforcement, energy storage at both large and small scales (e.g., Electric vehicles), demand-
side management, advanced grid management (smart grid), and sector coupling through
power-to-X should be promoted for proper balancing of the grid at different timescales.
A strong focus should also be put on improving existing laws relative to the de-
velopment of small-scale grid-connected renewable systems. Legislation and incentive
mechanisms promoting investments in rooftop PV and small-scale grid-connected renew-
able systems other than those for self-generation should be developed. These distributed
systems will play a significant role in future grids as they reduce transmission and distribu-
tion losses, improve grid stability and security, and reduce GHG emissions.
Resources 2024, 13, 140 33 of 38

6. Conclusions
The development of RE in Morocco is a national priority to ensure energy security
and preserve the environment by reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Consequently, the
energy sector has made significant progress since 2009, following the implementation of
the Moroccan Energy Strategy. This strategy aims to strengthen supply security and energy
availability by promoting the participation of RE in the national electricity mix to reach
42% by 2020 and 52% by 2030. Despite missing the first target because of the pandemic and
the energy crisis, Morocco has accelerated its progress to achieve subsequent aims.
Positive trends are observed, as the share of RE in the electricity mix increased from
24% in 2009 to 41% in 2023 as of 2022, wind energy reached an installed capacity of 1553 MW,
representing 12.9% of the total national electricity production capacity. Solar energy ranks
second with a capacity of 831 MW, contributing 3.5% to the national production capacity.
Overall, Morocco has successfully overcome the challenges of the pandemic and the energy
crisis and continues to pursue its energy strategy goals. It can even be said that the country’s
RE development is in line with international objectives. The array of planned RE projects,
energy-efficiency strategy, and development efforts are improving Morocco’s standing in
terms of renewable energy (especially solar) within the MENA region and globally. By
maintaining this trend, Morocco will contribute to international objectives. Recent IRENA
data indicate that 2023 set a new benchmark in renewable energy deployment, adding 473
GW to the global energy mix, with solar energy accounting for 73% of this growth.
Morocco has fully invested in concentrated solar power (CSP) systems, which require
substantial investment for large-scale project realization. Consequently, Morocco hosts
the largest solar complex in the world, Noor Ouarzazate, which was fully commissioned
in 2018. A new hybrid project (CSP/PV) is planned for 2024, while the government is
increasingly inclined toward photovoltaic solutions in other projects. PV technologies have
been instrumental in rural electrification efforts, achieving a 99.87% electrification rate, and
are commonly employed in residences for power supply, as well as in pumping systems.
The continued development of this sector remains dependent on the formulation of
guiding policies and government decisions to strengthen the sector, facilitate investment,
and integrate companies and research centers. The liberalization of the electricity sector
and the continuous improvement of the regulatory framework for RE encourage private-
sector participation and financing in various projects. Legally, Morocco has established a
robust framework through Law 13-09, which facilitates private-sector involvement in the
renewable energy sector. Regulatory bodies such as MASEN and the National Electricity
Regulatory Authority play a crucial role in implementing these policies. Given Morocco’s
abundant solar and wind potential, remarkable geographical position, and expertise in
multi-technology solar projects, the country offers a favorable environment for national
and international investments.
Recently, Morocco has emphasized accelerating the energy transition toward RE
through the development of green hydrogen production, desalination, and the decar-
bonization of the economy. Consequently, Morocco has attracted increased attention for
international investments and collaborations. Notably, Morocco signed a memorandum
of understanding with France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain to facilitate cross-border
electricity sales during the COP27 climate conference in Sharm El-Sheikh.
RE development has faced certain obstacles and barriers, particularly in terms of
financing, institutional coordination, technical capacity, and social acceptance. There is
enormous global potential for using solar energy to meet the rising critical demands
(electricity generation, water pumping, desalination, green hydrogen production). This
can stimulate economic growth, create new jobs, and become a pillar for the growth
of manufacturing and service industries. More efforts should be directed toward the
ease and speed of implementing regulations. In addition, the development of scientific
research and cooperation with various RE stakeholders will be beneficial to improve the
energy sector by opening up to other technologies and developing expertise. In this
regard, INNOMED (Boosting Innovative Solar Energy Technologies and Applications
Resources 2024, 13, 140 34 of 38

in Mediterranean Countries Education), an Erasmus Plus project, is exemplary since it

conjugates the efforts of universities from Jordan, Cyprus, Morocco, Austria, Greece, and
Italy to promote innovation, capacity building, networking, and stakeholder involvements
in the field of solar energy.

Author Contributions: Formal analysis, N.E.H. and A.O.; investigation, R.B., M.B., G.M., M.P.R.,
A.A.-S. and A.O.; writing—original draft preparation, R.B., M.B., G.M., M.P.R., A.B., A.A.-S. and A.O.;
writing—review and editing R.B., A.F., G.M., M.P.R., N.E.H., A.B., A.A.-S. and A.O.; visualization,
R.B., M.B., A.F. and A.B.; supervision, A.F., N.E.H. and A.O.; project administration, A.F. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is financially supported by the Boosting Innovative Solar Energy Technologies
and Applications in Mediterranean Countries Education project (INNOMED) (EU ERASMUS+ Grant
Agreement 101092041).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funded
by the European Union. The views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author(s) only
and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Education and Culture
Executive Agency (EACEA). Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held
responsible for them.

Appendix A. Main Actors Involved in the Development of the Energy Sector in Morocco

• Ministry for Energy Transition and Sustainable Development (MTEDD), Rabat, Mo-
rocco, Site Web: www.mem.gov.ma
• Direction Générale des Collectivités Territoriales (Directorate-General for Local Au-
thorities), Rabat, Morocco, Site Web: https://www.collectivites-territoriales.gov.ma/
• Moroccan Agency for Energy Efficiency (AMEE),Rabat, Morocco, Site Web: http:
//www.amee.ma/index.php/en/ (Accessed on: 5 August 2024).
• Office National de l’électricité et de l’Eau Potable (Water Branch/Electricity Branch),
Morocco, Site Web: http://www.one.org.ma
• National Office for Hydrocarbons and Mines (ONHYM), Rabat, Morocco, Site Web:
https://www.onhym.com/en
• ANRE—l’Autorité Nationale de Régulation de l’Électricité, Rabat, Morocco, Site Web:
https://anre.ma/en/
• Moroccan National Agency for Sustainable Energy (MASEN), Rabat, Morocco, Site
Web: http://www.masen.ma/fr/masen/ (Accessed on: 5 August 2024).
• National Inventory Commission (CNI), a Moroccan government agency responsible
for overseeing the preparation and updating of Morocco’s national greenhouse gas
inventory. CC National Data | 4C Maroc. https://www.4c.ma/donnees-nationales-c
c?lang=en (accessed on: 5 August 2024)
• Moroccan Energy Observatory (OME), a Moroccan government agency responsible
for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating data on Morocco’s energy sector. Mise
en service du Portail de l’Observatoire Marocain de l’Energie (mem.gov.ma). https:
//www.mem.gov.ma/Pages/actualite.aspx?act=25 (accessed on 5 August 2024)
• Moroccan Agency for Nuclear and Radiological Safety and Security (AMSSNur),
https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/moroccan-agency-for-nuclear-and-radio
logical-safety-and-security-designated-as-first-iaea-collaborating-centre-in-the-fie
ld-of-nuclear-security-in-africa (accessed on: 5 August 2024)
• National Centre for Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology (CNESTEN), Rabat,
Morocco, Site Web: https://www.cnesten.org.ma/
• Energy Investment Company (SIE), Rabat, Morocco, Site Web: https://www.siem.ma/.
It offers consultancy services and assists in project development (energy efficiency,
RE) through several actions such as identification of needs, choice of appropriate
Resources 2024, 13, 140 35 of 38

technologies, financing options, project implementation arrangements, and assessment

of project profitability.
• Société Chérifienne des Pétroles (SCP), Morocco.
• Institute for Research in Solar Energy and New Energies (IRESEN), for research and
innovation, Rabat, Morocco, Site Web: http://www.iresen.org/. The missions
of IRESEN include the development and financing of nationwide research projects
(fundraising agency) and the development of international collaborations in the sector
of solar energy and new energies. Since its creation, IRESEN has financed hundreds of
projects and established other research instances (e.g., Green Energy Park, Green and
Smart Building Institute) in Morocco and Africa.
• Rabat School of Mines National (‘École nationale supérieure des mines de Rabat—ENSMR),
Morocco, site web: https://www.enim.ac.ma/.
• Moroccan Institute for Standardization (IMANOR), Rabat, Morocco, site web: https:
//www.imanor.gov.ma/.
• Public Testing and Research Laboratory (LPEE), Morocco, site web: http://www.lpee.m
a/en.
• Economic, Social, and Environmental Council (CESE), Rabat, Morocco, site web:
https://www.cese.ma/en/.
• 4C Morocco (Platform for dialogue and capacity building on climate issues).
• Concessionary electricity producers. Since 1994, private companies have been autho-
rized to produce electricity solely to meet ONEE’s needs. They are connected to ONEE
through long-term power-purchase agreements (PPAs). At present, the concessionary
electricity producers are Jorf Lasfar Energy Company, JLEC (2080 MW); Compagnie
Éolienne du Détroit, CED (54 MW); Société Energie Électrique de Tahaddart, EET
(384 MW); Tarfaya Energy Company, TEC (300 MW); and SAFI Energy Company,
SAFIEC (1386 MW).
• Auto-producers. Self-generators may produce electrical energy in one of the following
cases, mainly for their own use, and the surplus is sold exclusively to ONEE: the gener-
ating capacity to be installed by the producer must not exceed 50 MW; the generating
capacity must exceed 300 MW, with a right of access to the national electricity grid to
ensure transmission of the electrical energy.
• Société d’Investissement Énergétique (SIE), Rabat, Morocco, site web: https://www.si
em.ma/.
• SIE, founded in 2009, is the government’s financial arm for achieving the planned
energy mix. The organization develops projects in the energy sector with the help of
partners, investors, and developers. SIE has a capacity of MAD 1 billion (around EUR
100 million) available through the Fonds de Développement de l’Électrification (FDE).
A quarter of their capacity is allocated to energy efficiency and three quarters to RE.

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