International Journal of Sport Communication, 2022, 15, 284-292

https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2022-0108
© 2022 Human Kinetics, Inc. SCHOLARLY COMMENTARY

Theory and Social Media in Sport Studies

Gashaw Abeza1 and Jimmy Sanderson2
1 2
Towson University, Towson, MD, USA; Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University System, Lubbock, TX, USA

A key feature of a robust academic discipline is that its homegrown theories and investing in theory contribute to building good
research. In the field of sport and social media research, the rigorous utilization of theory is one of the areas where the field is still
facing “disciplinary pain.” In fact, the unique features of social media provide researchers in the sport research community with a
valuable opportunity for proposing, testing, applying, critiquing, comparing, integrating, and expanding theories. In this
commentary, the authors, based on their own experience (as researchers, readers, and reviewers of social media in sport), contend
that reference resources are lacking on this topic to help young (or existing) researchers locate appropriate theories for their
research. Hence, this work identifies, documents, and discusses the theories used, advanced, and developed in social media
research for sport studies. Furthermore, a compilation is brought together of different theories from various disciplines that
researchers in this community may consider for their future work.

Keywords: robust academic discipline, homegrown theories, investing in theory, building scholarship, utilization of theory

Over the past 2 decades, the use of social media has expanded appropriate research procedures and methods for analysis, and
rapidly in the sport industry. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, frame suitable approaches to interpret findings. Theory also enables
Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube are an integral part of today’s researchers to build and produce impactful applied and scholarly
sporting culture. The reach and scope of social media has particu- contributions from their work (Cunningham et al., 2018). Accord-
larly impacted various aspects of the sport industry and its different ingly, the question of how theories are used (or not used) in research
stakeholder groups, such as athletes, coaches, managers, teams, is important as researchers try to ascertain their role in understand-
leagues, events, governing bodies, and fans. Today, the use of ing, explaining, and predicting, various topic areas, such as social
social media has gone beyond simple social communication, and in media. Corley and Gioia (2011) stated that theory is “the currency of
the sport industry, practitioners are using social media platforms to our scholarly realm” (p. 2) and upon which scholarly advancement
implement a variety of purposes such as such as live coverage, rests. Thus, researchers will benefit by investing academic resources
news updates, public relations, risk management, activism, promo- into developing and advancing theory (Doherty, 2013).
tions, sales, and relationship marketing (Abeza et al., 2021). In light Importantly, an articulation of the use and development of
of the expansion of social media and its multidimensional impact, theory in sport and social media research will help inform this
researchers have become increasingly interested in studying the research community on the most prominent theories found in the
dynamic interrelationship between sport and social media. literature and highlight areas in need of future development and
Social media has been examined in a variety of sport settings direction. To that end, this commentary identifies, documents, and
and extensive research has been pursued to gain insights into social discusses the theories used, advanced, and developed in social
media’s impact on the sport industry and its implications for society media research in sport studies. In doing so, the commentary serves
at large. Such a research focus emerged in 2008 along with the first as a resource for researchers as they attempt to locate appropriate
publication of articles in the International Journal of Sport Com- theories for their research, and highlights areas that need attention
munication. Academics who have critically examined sport and from others who share a research interest in social media. This
social media research have called for the development of more commentary is a basic review and introduction that aims to draw
sophisticated research questions, the application of innovative the scholarly community’s attention to the issue. Our own experi-
research methods, and the advancement of theories (Abeza ences as researchers, readers, and reviewers on the topic of social
et al., 2021). In this respect, while published research is growing media in sport have also highlighted the lack of relevant reference
significantly on the subject of social media and sport, a formal resources on the topic.
articulation on the utilization and development of theories is
lacking in the literature.
Theory utilization and development are critical elements in the Social Media Research in Sport Studies
advancement of an academic discipline (Cunningham, 2013;
Doherty, 2013). These elements help a scholarship body to legiti- The past two decades have welcomed a variety of social media
mize itself, build an identity, and increase self-reliance (Abeza et al., platforms (e.g., Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest,
2018). Doherty (2013) argues that good theory is the foundation for Snapchat, TikTok) that have been adopted by various entities
strong research, teaching, and practice, and by extension, helps (e.g., athletes, teams, event organizers, fans) for different purposes
advance a field of study. In research, the use of theory helps (e.g., news updates, live coverage, sales). Over these two decades,
researchers craft meaningful research questions, identify social media companies have developed platforms features and
presence (e.g., Facebook live in 2016; Live Audio Rooms in 2021;
release of Facebook/Instagram Reels globally in 2022) and stream-
Abeza ([email protected]) is corresponding author. lined their business operations and revenue generation
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 THEORY AND SOCIAL MEDIA IN SPORT 285

(e.g., Facebook’s “Sponsored Stories” in 2011). At the same time, interrelationships that show how and why a phenomenon occurs”
they have revolutionized the ways in which the world creates, (Corley & Gioia, 2011, p. 12). While this is a working definition,
shares, and consumes content. The unique features of social media seminal articles written around the topic (e.g., Bacharach, 1989;
such as ease of networking, instant global reach, absence of Corley & Gioia, 2011; Kaplan, 1998; Weick, 1989, 1995; Whetten,
gatekeeping, and ease of collaboration have made the different 1989) identified three basic features of a theory. A theory:
platforms remarkably powerful multipurpose tools. At this junc- (a) comprises elements (concepts and constructs) that serve to
ture, it is appropriate to introduce the definition of social media identify the key components of a phenomenon under investigation,
used in this commentary. Social media is defined as, “online (b) offers an explanation of the relationship between those ele-
resources open to the public (e.g., blogs, social networks, content ments, and (c) the temporal and contextual boundaries affect the
communities, and discussion sites) that people use primarily generalizability of a theory (Ridder, 2017). For instance, Whetten
to share content (e.g., text, photos, audio files, and videos) and (1989) noted, it is essential for a theory be able to effectively
engage in multi-way conversations on Internet applications explain and describe a phenomenon (what, how, and why), and also
(e.g., Facebook, Twitter, YouTube)” (Abeza et al., 2021). represent contextual and temporal conditions as to where, when,
With the rapid expansion of social media, researchers utilizing and to whom relationships are relevant. Accordingly, theories serve
diverse methods and perspectives have developed an interest in as a roadmap for organizing ideas and knowledge (Neuman &
studying the role of social media in sport. The field of sport studies Robson, 2009). A good theory draws order out of chaos (Griffin,
is relatively broad and comprises a diverse set of disciplines such as 2012) and makes sense out of disturbing situations (Kaplan, 1998).
sport law, sport economics, sport marketing, sport finance, sport It focuses on key variables and stays away from irrelevant data,
sociology, sport governance, sport tourism, sport facilities and explaining what is happening and why, and elaborates on both the
events management, sport communication, sport organizational process and results (Griffin, 2012).
behavior and theory, and sport for development (Abeza et al., Of course, scientific knowledge still emerges from different
2015). As a medium that crosses and touches each of these philosophical orientations or worldviews (which are “a set of
subfields, social media has typically been studied through the beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be under-
lens of these subareas (Abeza et al., 2018). Past studies are diverse stood and studied”; Guba, 1990, p. 17). A researcher’s philosophi-
in terms of the research streams covered, the theoretical frame- cal worldview assumptions or the question of “who am I?” (e.g., a
works used, and the research methods employed. positivist or constructivist) influences (implicitly or explicitly)
In terms of the research streams employed, the social media utilization and development of a theory. For instance, one may
research community has shown increasing interest in the use and concentrate on testing theories (e.g., a quantitative researcher),
place of social media in the sport industry. According to Abeza while another researcher may invest in developing theory using
et al. (2015), early (2008–2014) studies have covered the nature of grounded theory (e.g., a qualitative researcher). As Griffin (2012)
social media (use of and users of social media, and its adoption, stated, theories are lenses, nets, and maps of reality, some of which
e.g., how social media has been used by fans; Sanderson, 2013), depict subjective meanings inside our heads and others depict
defined constructs (dimensions of use and attributes of different objective facts “out there.” Regardless of the implicit or explicit
platforms, e.g., motivations underpinning the desire of fans to influence of a researcher’s philosophical assumptions on theory
communicate on Facebook; Stavros et al., 2014), as a marketing utilization and development, the purpose of a theory should not
and communication tool, legal and ethical considerations only be for scholar-to-scholar consumption but should also serve
(e.g., student-athletes social media use policy, potential legal issues current and future real-world practice (Whetten, 1989). Doherty
related to social media use; Cornish & Larkin, 2014), industry (2013) further remarked that theory should be the foundation of
applications (best practices, practical guidelines, and marketing research as it guides research questions. It should also be the
agencies, e.g., social media marketing strategies of the Los Angeles foundation of practice, as it aids in explanation, prediction, and
Kings; Armstrong et al., 2016), and issues and impacts (e.g., on control. Moreover, the foundation of teaching as it utilizes theory to
journalism practices, what citizen journalism meant for profes- advance students’ learning and understanding, and subsequent
sional sport journalists; McEnnis, 2013). research and practice.
The literature produced by early studies introduced the starting While theory development and theory testing are the most
point for the continued development of the field, laid a substantial referenced use of a theory, there are other types of theory utiliza-
foundation for future advancements, and provided future research tions. In this regard, Bryant and Miron (2004) articulated 11
directions. The early work of Leonard (2009) identified the need for different types of theory utilization in research for the field of
an emerging research field to progress from categorizing and communication. These types are used: (a) as mere references, (b) as
understanding the use, characteristics, and adoption of social theoretical frameworks, (c) to compare two or more theories, (d) to
media, to examining its impacts and significance to the sport critique a theory or theories, (e) to propose a theory, (f) to support a
industry and the implications to society at large. This progression theory, (g) to test a new theory, (h) to integrate theories, (i) to
can be reinforced through the use of advanced methodologies, expand a theory, (j) for new application, and (k) to praise a theory
sophisticated research questions, and ardent utilization and devel- or theories. Cunningham (2013) and Doherty (2013) argued that
opment of theory. In order to articulate the use of theory and its proposing, testing, critiquing, and comparing theories is essential.
development in social media and sport studies, this commentary Taking the uniqueness of sport and its dynamic interrelationship
will first discuss the place and value of theory in research. with social media, it is necessary to develop homegrown theories
(i.e., in sport and social media research). As Chalip (2006), Fink
(2013), and Slack (1998) emphasized that researchers need to find
Theory and Its Utilization
ways not only to use existing theories to study sport, but also to use
There is little agreement on a universal definition of theory (Ridder, sport to test and extend existing theories. By proposing a new
2017). For the purpose of this work, we use a general definition of theoretical position, a researcher needs to develop researchable
theory, described as, “a statement of concepts and their propositions, which facilitates thinking about concrete applications
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286 ABEZA AND SANDERSON

of new thinking and increases the chance of the core arguments media, and to begin developing new theories. To partly address this
being tested by future research (Whetten, 1989). gap, the most prominent theories utilized so far are profiled below.
In the process of developing a theory, a first step is to Subsequently, a number of relevant theories from other disciplines
structurally present relationships among the concepts (ideas or are also presented.
notions). Doherty (2013) refers to this as one step toward building a The use of the theories listed below in the context of social
theoretical framework or model. Bacharach (1989) and Whetten media is meaningful in several ways. Most of the theories are
(1989) emphasized the primary difference between propositions developed in the context of traditional media formats, which are
(relationships among constructs) and hypotheses (relations among one-way (unidirectional, noninteractive, and nonpersonal) forms of
variables), stating that “. . . propositions involve concepts, whereas mass communication that are not tailored to multidirectional
hypotheses require measures” (p. 491). Similarly, the new appli- communications. Meanwhile, the unique features of social media,
cation of theory is a common practice to advance theory develop- such as networking, instant global reach, absence of gatekeeping,
ment. This can be undertaken in new settings and its applicability ease of collaboration, and multiway conversation provide research-
can be assessed under different conditions (Whetten, 1989). In ers with a valuable opportunity to propose, test, apply, critique,
doing so, Whetten noted, the application should not be about compare, integrate, and expand theories.
reaffirming its utility, but on improving it as a tool. In social media
sport studies, a rigorous utilization of theory is one area in which A Profile of Theories in Social Media Research
the research is facing “disciplinary pain” (Abeza et al., 2015; Filo
et al., 2015).
in Sport Studies
In their early work assessing the state of social media research This section reviews 10 prominent theories (in terms of frequency
in sport management research, Abeza et al. (2015) identified 26 of use and depth of application) used by researchers in the
theories and theoretical models used in 96 articles published community to study the dynamic interrelationship between sport
between January 2008 (earliest found) and June 2014. The authors and social media. These theories are agenda-setting theory, com-
found that theories and theoretical models originated from a variety munication privacy management theory, disposition theory, fram-
of disciplines such as sociology, marketing, psychology, informa- ing theory, PSI theory, relationship marketing theoretical
tion technology, mass media, and crisis communication. In a framework, self-categorization theory, self-presentation, social
similar study, Filo et al. (2015) examined 70 social media in sport identity theory, and uses and gratifications theory. Each theory
studies and reported that over half of the articles reviewed (52%) is briefly discussed along with two examples: one early study and
did not explicitly state the theory they used. The authors under- one more recent study.
scored that even among those that mentioned their theoretical or
conceptual framework in the “Literature Review or Discussions” Agenda-Setting Theory
section, they failed to articulate the application and contribution of
Agenda setting (McCombs & Shaw, 1972) suggests that the media
their theory in a detailed and meaningful manner. Filo et al. (2015)
does not tell people what to think, but that they shape what
suggested that social media researchers in sport studies could
audiences think about. In other words, the media have the power
advance theory by moving toward a more integrated application
to define and shape the discussion of public events through frequent
of theory where researchers articulate how their results and findings
coverage of an event. In sport social media studies, agenda setting
contribute to existing theory or development of a new theory.
is used to explain how the content communicated through different
Abeza et al. (2015) identified 26 theories and theoretical
platforms affects fans’ attitudes, and how different entities (ath-
models used in social media research in sport studies between
letes, teams, and events) use the platforms to advance their agenda.
2008 and 2014, 69.8% of the identified articles used their theories
For example, in an early study, Zimmerman et al. (2011) used
as a framework for their research, and 9.4% of the articles expanded
agenda setting theory to guide their examination of the North
the theories or models referenced (e.g., Stavros et al., 2014). The
American professional soccer league’s Major League Soccer’s use
breakdown of other reported uses of theory are: 7.5% as mere
of YouTube to disseminate messages to fans. While the authors
references to the theories (e.g., Pronschinske et al., 2012), 3.8% as
observed agenda setting on a small scale, they emphasized the
supporting theories (e.g., Brown et al., 2015), and 3.8% which have
greater potential of YouTube to advance agendas on a larger scale.
a new application (e.g., Frederick et al., 2015) to social media
In a recent study, Woo et al. (2020) examined Twitter content of a
studies. The integration of theories also accounted for 3.8%
conversation recorded in a TMZ video in which then National
(e.g., Frederick et al., 2012, integrated/combined uses and gratifi-
cation and parasocial interaction [PSI] in their study), and discus- Football League player Ray Rice attacked his then fiancée. In their
sion of a theory or praising it (e.g., Williams & Chinn, 2010: analysis of the users’ exchanges, the authors observed that users
relationship marketing) accounted for 1.9%. The primary compo- debated with and challenged one another, deviating from the main
nents of theory construction such as proposing a theory, testing a reported agenda.
new theory, critiquing a theory, and comparing theories are absent
in social media research in sport management. Communication Privacy Management Theory
While a systematic review of the recent literature (after the Communication privacy management theory (Petronio, 1991)
work of Abeza et al., 2015 and Filo et al., 2015) is highly deals with the decision-making process people go through to
recommended, the need to enhance the use of theory in the sport manage disclosure and privacy. It focuses on why and how people
and social media research is strongly encouraged. This observation manage private disclosures. The theory posits that privacy and
comes from the authors experience as researchers conducting disclosure work together, and that privacy is the basis for self-
studies on the topic, as readers of academic articles published understanding. According to the theory, as people share informa-
on the subject, and as reviewers of many manuscripts on the tion, enforce regulations on that information, and navigate rules
subject. There is a need to compare, critique, integrate theories, about the entrusted information with those they have shared it with,
test, and apply theories from other fields to the context of social the intended outcomes impact their communicative preferences
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 THEORY AND SOCIAL MEDIA IN SPORT 287

(Sanderson, 2011). In one of the earliest social media in sport and Sanderson (2009) and Sanderson (2008) used PSI theory in
studies, Sanderson (2011) used this theory to explore Division I early works on fan messaging and interaction via social media in
athletic departments’ policies governing student-athletes’ social sport settings. In a recent study, Sanderson et al. (2020) explored
media use. Sanderson reported that the policies heavily emphasized maladaptive PSI expressed toward Chicago Bears kicker Cody
content restrictions and external monitoring, and positioned social Parkey after he missed a potential game-winning field goal in the
media as being burdened with negative consequences. In a recent 2019 National Football League playoffs. The author’s study illus-
study, Hayes et al. (2021) used this theory to examine the aspects of trated the nature of virtual abuse and maltreatment of athletes,
social media that Australian national sport organizations adminis- which is increasing on social media. The authors specifically
trators perceive to be distracting to athletes, along with the support identified maladaptive PSI appearing as criticism, threats, anger,
and management mechanisms used to address such concerns and support.
during major sport events. They found that sport administrators
reported several aspects of social media that are perceived to Relationship Marketing Theoretical Framework
distract athletes, including personal and performance criticism The basic perspective of relationship marketing is based on the idea
along with athletes’ fixation with their social media profiles. that a relationship between two parties creates additional value for
those involved. That additional value exists on top of the value of
Disposition Theory products and/or services that are exchanged. For a relationship to
This theory (Zillmann & Cantor, 1972) posits that sport enjoyment develop (according to the Nordic school of thought), three com-
is largely a function of the viewer’s disposition toward the com- ponents must work well together: communication, interaction, and
petitors and the outcome of the contest. Specifically, the more the value. Communication by creating and sharing knowledge between
viewers like the winning team, the more enjoyment they experi- businesses and customers must then evolve into a value-enhancing
ence, and the more that they dislike the losing team, the more interaction. In the interaction process, dialogue facilitates the co-
enjoyable the sporting event. In sport communication studies, Zhou creation of value with customers and ultimately the transfer of the
et al. (2013) used disposition theory to investigate whether com- value to the customers. Hence, the central purpose of relationship
plimentary or conflicting commentary, as well as game knowledge, marketing is to establish, maintain, and enhance long-term mutu-
and playing experience contributed to game enjoyment, perceived ally rewarding relationships between two parties. One of the early
liking of the commentary, and perceived action in the game. In a works in social media research in sport studies was by Williams and
recent social media study, Smith et al. (2019) surveyed sports fans Chinn (2010), who discussed social media and relationship mar-
to measure how Twitter potentially influenced their enjoyment of keting in sport. In their conceptual paper, the authors articulated
viewing live and mediated sporting events. Respondents primarily Grönroos’s (2004) framework and encouraged its application in the
used Twitter to augment their consumption of sports, and heavy context of social media in sport. Following this call, Abeza
Twitter users reported higher enjoyment levels when using the conducted a number of studies on the topic. In a recently published
social networking site while watching sports. work Abeza et al. (2020) investigated the use of social media as a
relationship marketing tool by adopting a multidomain qualitative
Framing Theory research approach (i.e., social media platform domain, organization
Framing, sometimes referred to as second-level agenda setting, domain, and consumer domain). Based on their findings, the
posits that not only does increased media coverage determine issue authors extended Grönroos’s relationship–marketing framework
salience, but also the media—through the process of selecting in the context of social media in sport.
particular themes, phrases, images, and sources to present a particu-
lar story—frame the salience of specific attributes attached to an Self-Categorization Theory
issue and thus determine how the issue is perceived (Entman, 1993). Self-categorization theory (Turner et al., 1987) explains the dual nature
Examples include Sanderson (2010), who in one of the earliest of individualism, when people at times view themselves as individuals
studies of framing and sport social media, investigated the framing of and at other times believe they are part of a group. Ultimately, the
Tiger Woods’s marital infidelity by traditional press outlets and by authors claim, self-categorization theory can shape a person’s sense of
fans’ postings on the athlete’s official Facebook page. Sanderson self, cognitively allowing a person to form casual and formal associa-
uncovered how press accounts framed Woods’s actions as a tragic tions with in-groups and out-groups based on demographics, person-
flaw, but that the fans framed the infidelity as a private matter that alities, and beliefs. In their 2018 sport-focused social media study,
demonstrated Woods’s human nature. In a recent study, Romney and Burch, Billings, and Zimmerman adopted the theory to examine social
Johnson (2019) used framing to guide their examination of Insta- media commentary surrounding the 2014 U.S. Men’s and 2015 U.S.
gram images from the primary accounts of the four major American Women’s World Cup Teams. The study found that U.S. teams were
sports networks to understand the visual framing of female athletes more likely to be described in terms of success and failure, while
on these sports networks’ Instagram accounts. The authors found opposition teams were more likely to receive personal and physical
that, similar to the mainstream media, the coverage of women’s attributions. Conversely, no differences were found between U.S.
athletics lags significantly behind coverage of men’s athletics. men’s and women’s teams with regard to characterizations of success
and failure, but the women’s team was more likely to receive personal
PSI Theory and physical characterizations.
The PSI is a theory that explains how media audiences relate to and
develop relationships with media persona. In their original concep- Self-Presentation
tualization, Horton and Wohl (1956) argued that viewers develop Self-presentation theory (Goffman, 1959) posits that individuals in
bonds of intimacy over time as they continue to view media their interpersonal interactions perform in a certain way to project a
personalities. This intimacy resembles interpersonal social interac- desirable image that reflects how they wish to be seen in the public
tion but is different because it is one-sided and mediated. Kassing eye, just as actors’ creation of a stage impression may differ from
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288 ABEZA AND SANDERSON

their private persona. In theaters, for instance, actors change their smaller leagues suffered from the presence of bigger leagues. The
role between, “front stage” and “backstage” performances. Being study reported that interest in a league which remained active
watched by their audience, actors at the “front stage” perform a role increased during COVID but went back to almost where it was
the audience expects of them in a particular situation. In their previously after the revitalization of worldwide professional foot-
private life, “backstage,” actors show their authentic, private self. ball leagues.
While Goffman introduced self-presentation in the context of face-
to-face interactions, researchers have used it in the context of social Uses and Gratifications Theory
media (e.g., Hull, 2014; Lebel & Danylchuk, 2012; Xu & Uses and gratifications (of Katz et al., 1973) is a media con-
Armstrong, 2019). In the earliest studies, Lebel and Danylchuk sumption theory that posits users select media based on satisfying
(2012) explored gender differences in professional tennis players’ a need. Katz et al. state that the uses and gratifications approach
self-presentation on Twitter and reported that athlete image con- “represents an attempt to explain something of the way in which
struction between female and male athletes was largely similar, individuals use communications, among other resources in their
highlighting the use of Twitter by athletes as a self-marketing tool. environment, to satisfy their needs and to achieve their goals”
Similarly, Hull (2014), in a study that examined PGA Tour golfers’ (p. 510). In the early days of social media, uses and gratification
Twitter use during the Masters tournament, found professional theory was one of the most utilized theory in the social media
golfers using Twitter to give insight into their lives and, most research (Abeza, et al., 2015), with a presence in 10 different
importantly, to interact with fans. As Hull (2014) pointed out, published works from 2008 to 2014. In one of the earliest studies,
social media users have greater control over their presentation of Hambrick et al. (2010) explored professional athletes’ use of
self and their public image than during a face-to-face communica- Twitter around the categories of interactivity, diversion, infor-
tion. On social media, users have the opportunity to take their time mation sharing, content, promotion, and fanship. The authors
and strategically manage their presentation of an idealized version reported that the majority (close to one-third) of the communi-
of the self through carefully selected photos, well thought-out cation leaned toward interactivity and diversion. In a recent
text messages, audio files, or videos. In a recent study, Xu and study, Billings et al. (2019) contrasted the uses sought and
Armstrong (2019) explored the gendered differences between the gratifications obtained between United States and China within
self-representations of U.S. and Chinese athletes at the 2016 Rio four different social media platforms, namely Facebook and
Olympics. The authors’ findings suggested that Chinese male Twitter (in the United States) and WeChat and Weibo (in China).
athletes were dominant in self-disclosure, whereas minimal differ- The authors learned that each of the platforms functioned in a
ences (in self-disclosure) were observed between male and female starkly contrasting manner.
U.S. athletes.

Social Identity Theory Additional Theories and Theoretical Frameworks

Social-identity theory by Tajfel and Turner (2004) asserts that While the above theories and theoretical frameworks are among the
individuals classify themselves and others into various categories most prominent in the field, one may argue that their use has not been
to make sense of the social world and their place in it. Social rigorous and sufficiently diverse in social media research. Putting the
identity is the portion of an individual’s self-perception that arises argument aside, we find a number of other communication-related
from membership in a particular group or groups, as well as the theories from different disciplines that researchers in our community
emotional significance and value attached to the membership, thus may consider for their studies. A summary of some sample theories
dealing primarily with group memberships (Smith & Smith, 2012). is presented below. As can be observed from the list, there are
Identity can be described as a set of socially distinguishing traits theories that can guide studies on social media message production
comprising personal characteristics and attributes (Fearon, 1999). (e.g., action assembly theory), message processing (e.g., inoculation
The social aspect of identity is how individuals define themselves theory), discourse and interaction (e.g., communication accommo-
by those with whom they interact and affiliate, and while indivi- dation theory), relationships (e.g., theory of relational dialectics),
duals may seek to define their perceived individual identities, they and organizational communication (e.g., structuration theory). Some
only gain validity if the identity attributes are recognized and adoptable theories from the work of Griffin (2012) and Miller (2002)
confirmed by others (Buckingham, 2008). In today’s world, iden- are presented below. For a list of other relevant theories that can be
tities can be shaped by interactions between physical experiences used in social media studies, readers are encouraged to consult these
(the “offline” world) and digital experiences (the “online” world). two useful web resources: First Look (www.afirstlook.com/theory-
Social identity theory has been used in social media studies list) and Communication Theory (www.communicationtheory.org/
(e.g., Sanderson, 2013) to investigate the factors that serve as list-of-theories/).
identifiers for individuals forming casual and formal associations Action Assembly Theory (of John Greene) is a theory about
with in-groups and out-groups based on demographics, personal- message production. It aims to examine and describe the links
ities, and beliefs. between cognition and behavior—how an individual’s thoughts get
In an early study, Sanderson (2013) explored how University transformed into action.
of Cincinnati football fans used Facebook to manage a social Constructivist Theory (of Fritz Heider) is a theory about
identity threat arising from head football coach Brian Kelly leaving message production. It deals with the ways in which social
the school to become head coach at the University of Notre Dame. observers use information to arrive at causal explanations for
The authors’ findings implied that social media enabled fans to occurrences. It examines what information is gathered and how
perpetuate messages that elevate group distinctiveness, minimize it is combined to form a causal judgment.
in-group issues, and derogate out-group members. More recently, Elaboration Likelihood Model (of Richard Petty and John
Weimar et al. (2021) guided by social identity theory and using 3 Cacioppo) is a theory about message processing. It explains how,
months of social media data before, during, and 3 months after the and under what circumstances, a message will affect the recipient.
COVID-19 lockdown, investigated whether fan interest toward It posits that there are two routes in persuasion: central (high
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personal relevance of a message to a recipient) and peripheral (a one’s location in society on one’s ability to know. Different
message with little or no relevance to its recipient). The greater the locations within the social hierarchy affect what is seen. The
relevance and the more interest the individual shows in the subject standpoints of marginalized people provide less false views of
of the message, the higher the chances the recipient will elaborate the world than do the privileged perspectives of the powerful.
on the message. Diffusion of Innovation Theory (of Everett Rogers) is a
Inoculation Theory (of William J. McGuire) is a theory about communication theory that helps to explain how new ideas,
message processing. It deals with a process through which attitude practices, or objects are communicated and adopted by members
change can be resisted in the face of counter-attitudinal communi- of a social system. Oelrichs (2020) applied the theory to study why
cation intended to convert or shift existing attitudes. The goal is to social media was, or was not, adopted by journalists in Germany.
persuade someone not to be persuaded by another. In other words, Technology Acceptance Model (of Fred Davis) is an informa-
the intention is to influence others to avoid persuasion. It offers tion systems theory that models how users come to accept and use a
mechanisms by which communication is used to help people technology. The model suggests that when users are presented with
defend their beliefs. a new technology, several factors influence their decision about
Attribution Theory (of Fritz Heider) is a theory about message how and when they will use it, notably perceived usefulness, and
processing. It deals with how social observers use information to ease-of-use. The Technology Acceptance Model has been contin-
arrive at causal explanations about an occurrence. The theory uously studied and expanded—the two major upgrades being
discusses what information observers gather and how the informa- Technology Acceptance Model 2 and the Unified Theory of
tion is combined to form a causal judgment. Acceptance and Use of Technology. A Technology Acceptance
Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory (of W. Barnett Model 3 has also been proposed.
Pearce and Vernon Cronen) is a theory about discourse and
interaction. It describes how people make sense of our world or
create meaning in their communication. It posits that in conversa- Summary: Suggested Theoretical
tion people co-construct their own social realities and are shaped by
the worlds they create. The theory considers communication as a
Directions
process that allows individual communicators to make and manage If social media as it applies to sport research is to progress and
meaning and coordinate their actions. advance, its needs to advance its theory utilization. Currently, a
Communication Accommodation Theory (of Howard Giles) is rigorous utilization of theory is one of the areas where this field is
a theory about discourse and interaction. It states that people in facing “disciplinary pain.” Contemporary research in this field
intercultural encounters who see themselves as unique individuals predominantly derives applications from theories and theoretical
will adjust their speech style and content to mesh with others whose models originating in other disciplines such as sociology, market-
approval they seek. People who want to reinforce strong group ing, psychology, information technology, mass media, and crisis
identification will interact with those outside the group in a way that communication. There is nothing wrong with this, however,
accentuates their differences. within-field development, critique, and comparing of theories is
Social Penetration Theory (of Irwin Altman and Dalmas lacking. These efforts alongside the application of theories from
Taylor) is a theory about communication in developing relation- other areas of study and the integration of different theories in a
ships. It posits that relationships begin and deepen through self- social media setting need to be encouraged.
disclosure. Interpersonal closeness proceeds in a gradual and As Cunningham (2013) and Doherty (2013) argued, theory is a
orderly fashion from superficial to intimate levels of exchange critical element in the advancement of an academic discipline and
as a function of anticipated present and future outcomes. Lasting as social media and sport research advances, it will be essential to
intimacy requires continual and mutual vulnerability through propose, test, critique, and compare theories. In fact, theory
breadth and depth of self-disclosure. Intimate self-disclosure al- development can be one of the most challenging, but also intellec-
lows others to penetrate a person’s public image and inner self. tually stimulating ventures in academia (Abeza et al., 2014).
Social Exchange Theory (of John Thibaut and Harold Kelley) Considering the unique qualities of sport and its dynamic interre-
is a theory about communication in ongoing relationships. It posits lationship with social media, the development of homegrown
that all human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective theories is essential for advancing social media research in sport
cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. People studies. Hence, researchers should be encouraged to compare,
interact to maximize gains and minimize losses. critique, and integrate theories in the context of social media.
Spiral of Silence Theory (of Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann) is a Furthermore, they should test and apply theories from other fields
theory about media and society. It posits that a group’s readiness to within the context of social media, and eventually develop new
express its opinions on controversial public issues is influenced by theories. As Chalip (2006), Fink (2013), and Slack (1998) stated,
its unconscious perception of those opinions as being either researchers need to use existing theories to study sport and also use
popular in the public scene or not. sport as a testing ground to extend existing theory.
Cultivation Theory (of George Gerbner) is a theory about Such efforts to develop the field can be facilitated using the
media and society. It proposes that our views of reality are theories briefly discussed in this work (i.e., 10 prominent theories
cultivated by television, which serves to create basic sets of belief. and suggested theoretical directions). Some examples from the
Cultivation is the consequence of cumulative long-term exposure literature have extended and applied theories in the context of
to messages repetitively rather than by exposure to a particular social media in sport studies. These include the work of Sanderson
content. The theory focuses on the influence of our construction of (2008) who extended PSI theory by suggesting that the theory must
belief by television viewership. account for and encompass negative relational behaviors. Study by
Standpoint Theory (of Sandra Harding and Julia T. Wood) is a Frederick et al. (2015) who applied agenda setting in a social media
theory about culture and communication. It deals with the various context by examining the presence of agenda-setting on Twitter
levels of people’s perceptions. It is concerned with the impact of during the 2012 London Olympics. Work by Abeza et al. (2020)
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290 ABEZA AND SANDERSON

extended Grönroos’s relationship marketing process model Abeza, G., O’Reilly, N., Séguin, B., & Nzindukiyimana, O. (2015). Social
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The theories briefly discussed in this work were primarily social media: An analysis of the social media marketing strategies of
developed in the context of traditional media, which are one-way the Los Angeles Kings. Communication & Sport, 4(2), 145–165.
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Therefore, the unique features of social media provide researchers a ation. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 496–515. https://doi.
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comparing, integrating, and expanding theories. These unique Billings, A.C., Broussard, R.M., Xu, Q., & Xu, M. (2019). Untangling
features include ease of networking and connectedness, instant international sport social media use: Contrasting US and Chinese uses
global reach, absence of gatekeeping, and ease of collaboration and and gratifications across four platforms. Communication & Sport,
community building, and multidirection conversation and open- 7(5), 630–652. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479518790014
ness. Accordingly, there is great potential to develop homegrown Brown, N.A., Brown, K.A., & Billings, A.C. (2015). “May no act of ours
theories that will build a foundation in this field that captures the bring shame” fan-enacted crisis communication surrounding the Penn
distinctiveness of this area and shape future directions. Conse- State sex abuse scandal. Communication & Sport, 3(3), 288–311.
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Cunningham (2013) identifies four approaches for the develop- of Sport Management, 20(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.20.1.1
ment of testable, valid, and topic relevant theories. These Clavio, G., Burch, L.M., & Frederick, E.L. (2012). Networked fandom:
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of oneself on social media vs. off-social media), (b) a desire to 10.1123/ijsc.5.4.522
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