Current Trends in

Food and Nutrition

Volume - 3

Chief Editor
Dr. Latika Yadav
Assistant Professor, Department of Home Science, Government Degree
College, Puwarka, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Co-Editor
Dr. Upasana
Assistant Professor, Mahila College Dalmianagar, Dehri-on-Sone, Rohtas,
Bihar, India

Integrated Publications TM
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Published By: Integrated Publications

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Chief Editor: Dr. Latika Yadav

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Publication Year: 2022
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ISBN: 978-93-95118-02-6
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 Contents

Chapters Page No.

1. Food Fortification and Biofortification to Combat
Micronutrients Deficiency 01-25
(Latha Rani R, Pooja Kolar and Jamuna KV)

2. The Future of Zero Waste Begins With Edible Utensils 27-38

(Aishwarya R)

3. Organic Meat Production 39-51

(Dr. Awlesh Kumar Vidyarthi)

4. Food Additive 53-66

(Dr. P. Sheela and S. Chandraprabha)

5. Essential Oils: Extraction Techniques and Applications 67-81

(Soumya Hiregoudar, M.L. Revanna and Mamatha H.S)
 Chapter - 1
Food Fortification and Biofortification to
Combat Micronutrients Deficiency

Authors
Latha Rani R
Research Scholar, Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India
Pooja Kolar
Research Scholar, Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India
Jamuna KV
Professor, Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India

Page | 1
Page | 2
 Chapter - 1
Food Fortification and Biofortification to Combat
Micronutrients Deficiency
Latha Rani R, Pooja Kolar and Jamuna KV

Abstract
Micronutrient deficiency or hidden huger is the major deficiency in
India mainly in vulnerable group which includes children, pregnant and
lactating women. Major micronutrient deficiencies are Iron deficiency
anemia, Vitamin A deficiency and iodine deficiency. These deficiencies can
be reduced by using many factors among that important factors are food
fortification and biofortification. Fortification is the practice of deliberately
increasing the content of one or more micronutrients (i.e., vitamins and
minerals) in a food or condiment to improve the nutritional quality of the
food supply and provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health.
Biofortification is the process of increasing nutritional value of food crops
by increasing the density of vitamins and minerals in a crop through either
conventional plant breeding, agronomic practices or biotechnology.
Fortification process is simple, economical and easily carried out by every
individual. It is having many health benefits especially in the management of
micronutrient deficiency and also non communicable diseases.
Keywords: Fortification, Biofortification, Micronutrients deficiency
Introduction
Fortification is defined as the practice of adding one or more
micronutrients (i.e., vitamins and minerals) to commonly consumed foods
during processing to increase their nutritional value and provide a public
health benefit with minimal risk to health. Fortification therefore differs
from enrichment, which is the process of restoring the nutrients to a food
removed during refinement or production. Fortified foods are those that have
nutrients added to them that does not naturally occur in the food. These
foods are meant to improve nutrition and add health benefits.
Fortification commonly uses staple foods as vehicles to deliver
micronutrients generally lacking or not contained in sufficient concentration

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in the diet of a population and has been practiced since the 1930s to target
specific health conditions such as iodine deficiency through the iodisation of
salt, anaemia through the fortification of cereals with iron and vitamins, and
neural tube defects through the fortification of wheat flour with folic acid.
Food fortification has the dual advantage of being able to deliver nutrients to
large segments of the population without requiring radical changes in food
consumption patterns.
In October 2016, FSSAI operationalized the Food Safety and Standards
(Fortification of Foods) Regulations, 2016 for fortifying staples namely
Wheat Flour and Rice (with Iron, Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid), Milk and
Edible Oil (with Vitamins A and D) and Double Fortified Salt (with Iodine
and Iron) to reduce the high burden of micronutrient malnutrition in India.
Micronutrient Deficiencies
The prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies (MND) or “hidden hunger”
is still high in developing countries particularly Sub-Saharan Africa and
South East Asia. These deficiencies are caused by lack of vital vitamins and
minerals (ANONYMOUS, 2014). The three critical micronutrients that have
been recognized to be lacking in the diets of developing countries are
Vitamin A, Zinc and Iron
Micronutrient deficiency data in India
 Anaemia is widespread in India-58.6% of children, 53.2% of non-
pregnant women and 50.4% of pregnant women were found to be
anemic
 Zinc deficiency in India-43.8% with the highest in Orissa (51.3%),
followed by Uttar Pradesh (48.1%), Gujarat (44.2%), Madhya
Pradesh (38.9%), and Karnataka (36.2%).
 Vitamin A deficiency in India-62% of preschool children was
reported to be deficient in vitamin A.
Consequence of micronutrients deficiency

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Difference between fortification and biofortification
Biofortification differs from ordinary fortification because it focuses on
making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are growing, rather than
having nutrients added to the foods when they are being processed.

Categories of food fortification

Food fortification (FF) includes biofortification, microbial
biofortification, commercial and industrial fortification, and home
fortification.
1. Biofortification involves creating micronutrient-dense staple crops
using traditional breeding techniques and/or biotechnology. Using
biotechnology (genetic engineering) to biofortify staple crops is
more modern and has gained much attention in recent years. The
most popular example of this approach is the transgenic ‘Golden
Rice’containing twice the normal levels of iron and significant
amounts of beta-carotene.
Biofortification techniques

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Biofortified crops

Research studies on biofortification to combat MND

Authors, Population
Methodology Results and conclusion
country description
A significant improvement in
Cercamondi Feeding on biofortified serum ferritin, total body iron
Secondary
et al.2013 pearl millet flat bread in iron deficient adolescent
school
Western twice a day (midday Children who were iron
children-males
Maharashtra, and evening) for 4 deficient at baseline
and females
India months significantly improved their
iron status by 64%.
The experimental group
significantly improved their
Iron biofortified pearl
Finkelstein Male and iron status at 4th month.
millet snack as Bhakri
et al. 2015 female The effects of Fe-PM on IDA
at midday and evening
Pathar, India adolescents were greater among children
for 6 months
who were deficient at the
baseline
Each of the treatment
meals contained 100 g
of cassava
Treatment 1: Biofortified cassava increased
10 healthy
Biofortified cassava the β-carotene and retinyl
well-
La Frano et porridge with added oil plamitate.
nourished
al. 2012 Treatment 2: It was concluded that
adult
America Biofortified cassava biofortified cassava is a viable
American
porridge without added intervention for preventing
women
oil VAD
Treatment 3:
Unfortified cassava
porridge with added oil
90 days of feeding
The total body pool of vitamin
orange maize
A before and after the
Retinol isotope dilution
Tanumihardj 5- to 7-year intervention in the same
test was used to
et al. 2016 old children community produced
measure the total body
promising results in combating
pool of Vit A before
VAD in children
and after the

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 intervention
The subjects were
randomly divided into
two groups Feeding the high zinc bean
Donangelo
Group 1 (n=12) containing almost twice the
et al. 2003 23 women of
received a meal of concentration of the common
United ages 20-28 of
typical common beans bean (CB) resulted in 40%
States of mixed races
(CB), more total zinc absorbed by the
America
Group 2 received a test women.
meal of high iron/Zinc
beans (HFEZnB)

2. Microbial biofortification involves using probiotic bacteria

(mostly lactic acid bacteria), which ferment to produce -carotene
either in the foods we eat or directly in the human intestine.
3. Commercial and industrial fortification involves fortifying
commercially available products such as flour, rice, cooking oils,
sauces, butter etc. with micronutrients and the process occurs during
manufacturing.
4. Home fortification consists of supplying deficient populations with
micronutrients in packages or tablets that can be added when
cooking/ consuming meals at home (basically a merger of
supplements and fortification) example: vitamin D drops
Home (point of use) fortification represents a novel and innovative
approach for fortifying foods at the household level using three types of food
supplements:
1) Foodlets which are crushable or water-soluble micronutrient tablets
2) Sprinkles which are single-dose packets containing multiple
vitamins and minerals in powder form (MNP) that can be sprinkled
onto any semisolid food
3) Lipid-based nutrient supplements which micronutrient-fortified
lipid-based spreads/pastes are providing energy, protein and
essential fatty acids in addition to vitamins and minerals.
Fortified Foods

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Wheat Fortification
As per National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) survey (2012),
the average intake of cereals and millets was 375g/CU/day providing >=70%
of Recommended Dietary Intake (RDI). Wheat is the staple food for most
Indians in the wheat growing areas (North, West and Central India) and is
consumed in the form of homemade chapattis or rotis (unleavened flat
bread) using custom milled atta (whole wheat flour). For the year 2018-19[2],
wheat consumption is forecasted at 93 MMT. Therefore, wheat flour is
selected as a suitable vehicle for fortification to improve the nutritional
status of the mass population.
Fortification of wheat flour is a cost-effective public health intervention
that can reduce Micro Nutrient Deficiencies (MNDs) and prevent birth
defects such as Neural Tube Defects (NTDs) due to folic acid deficiency.
Wheat flour fortification can potentially reduce iron deficiency and iron
deficiency anaemia. Iron helps children develop physically and mentally,
and improves the health of pregnant women. Adequate intake of vitamin B12
through fortified flour can improve mental growth and development of
children. Therefore, the health impact of fortifying wheat flour with iron,
folic acid and vitamin B12 is immense. Wheat flour fortified as per the
recommendations from FSSAI will provide one third of the recommended
dietary allowance (RDA) of various essential vitamins and minerals. The
technology for fortifying wheat flour is simple and cost effective. This would

Page | 8
require a premix feeder to add vitamins and minerals into flour and a blender
to ensure uniform mixing of the micronutrients.

Advantages of Fortifying Wheat Flour

1) Wheat flour fortification is a safe and effective means of improving
public health.
2) Fortified wheat flour is an excellent vehicle for adding nutrients to
the diet as wheat flour is commonly consumed by all people.
3) Cost effective method to prevent nutritional deficiencies.
4) During milling of wheat, nutrient losses take place. Fortification
helps in adding back these nutrients.
5) Iron, Folic acid and Vitamin B12 when added to wheat flour is
important for fighting anaemia and blood formation.

Page | 9
Standards

Page | 10
Rice Fortification
Rice fortification is a cost effective, culturally appropriate strategy to
address micronutrient deficiency in countries with high per capita rice
consumption. The cost of fortification is determined by a multitude of
context specific variables such as the structure and capacity of the rice
industry, the complexity of the supply chain, the policy and regulatory
environment and the scale of the relevant programme.
As per Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare,
India's rice production has increased at Compound Annual Growth Rate
(CAGR) of 1.43 percent during 2005-06 and 2016-17. India was the second
leading rice producer followed by Indonesia and Bangladesh in 2015-16.
Fortifying rice makes it more nutritious by adding vitamins and minerals
in the post - harvest phase; many of which are lost during the milling and
polishing process. Rice fortification may be considered as having the highest
potential to fill the gap in current staple food fortification programs as it is
the staple food of 65 percent of the Indian population and reaches the most
vulnerable and poorer section - with the highest uptake in the government
safety net programmes .The food and civil supplies department of each state
empanels a number of rice millers in each district for regular supply of rice
to the FCI, from which it is distributed to the social safety net schemes.

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 Rice fortified with the fortificant mix by dusting; or coated or extruded
fortified kernels mixed with non-fortified rice in a ratio varying between
0.5%-2% is fortified rice.
Rice fortification is a cost effective, culturally appropriate strategy to
address micronutrient deficiency in countries with high per capita rice
consumption. India is a leading rice producing country, with 22% of the total
global rice production and 65% of India's population consumes rice on a
daily basis. The per capita rice consumption in India is 6.8 kilogram per
month. Fortification of rice makes it more nutritious by adding vitamins and
minerals, many of which are lost during the milling and polishing process.
Rice can be fortified using dusting, coating or extrusion technology.
Extrusion is the preferred technology for rice fortification given the stability
of micronutrients in the rice kernels across processing, storage, washing and
cooking, also in view of cost considerations.
In extrusion technology, milled rice is pulverized and mixed with a
premix containing vitamins and minerals. Fortified rice kernels (FRK) are
produced from this mixture using an extruder machine. The kernels resemble
rice grains. FRK is added to non-fortified rice in ratio ranging from 1:50 to
1: 200 (ideal being 1:100) resulting in fortified rice nearly identical to
traditional rice in aroma, taste, and texture. It is then distributed for regular
consumption.
The cost of fortification is determined by a multitude of context specific
variables such as the structure and capacity of the rice industry, the
complexity of the supply chain, the policy and regulatory environment and
the scale of the relevant programme.

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Standards

Page | 13
Salt Fortification
Iron and iodine fortified salt - the next breakthrough for tackling iodine
and iron deficiency in the country.
Double Fortified Salt (DFS) is an innovative new fortified food product
- delivering small but crucial amounts of iodine and iron to human beings
through their diet. In general, DFS formulations are intended to provide
100% of daily dietary iodine requirement, and ~30 to 60% of daily dietary
iron requirement. Dual fortification of salt with iodine and iron could be a
sustainable approach to combat iodine and iron deficiencies. India's National
Institute of Nutrition (NIN) has pioneered the development of double
fortified salt (DFS). NIN has also taken the initiative to transfer the
technology to iodized salt manufacturers in the country and provides
continuous quality control support. The Micronutrient Initiative has
developed DFS with encapsulated iron. In 2009, the Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare has endorsed the addition of iron in double fortified salt at
0.8-1.1 mg/g of salt.
Fortification of Salt with Iodine
Every year nine million pregnant women and eight million newborns are
at risk of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) in India. IDDs are linked to
iodine deficient soil. Due to glaciations, flooding, rivers changing course and
deforestation the iodine present in the top soil is constantly leached. This, in
turn, leads to deficiency of iodine in crops grown on iodine deficient soil
with consequently low iodine in the diet for livestock and humans. This
deficiency of iodine in the diet can be addressed by fortification of salt i.e.
adding iodine to salt. Salt has been identified as an effective vehicle for
iodine because it is consumed almost daily and universally.
Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) comprise of a range of disorders
including goitre, hypothyroidism, cretinism, brain damage, intellectual
disability, psychomotor defects, hearing and speech impairment, abortion
and stillbirths.

Page | 14
 Intelligent Quotient (IQ) Children born in iodine deficient areas have
13.5 IQ points less than those in Iodine sufficient areas A majority of the
consequences of IDD are invisible and irreversible, but at the same time, are
totally preventable. IDD constitute the single largest cause of preventable
brain damage worldwide.

In India, due to lack of iodine in the soil and therefore in the diet, 2
billion people are at risk of IDD and around 264 million people are at high
risk. India has the largest number of children born vulnerable to IDD.
Currently, 92% of the population consumes iodized salt in India. Adequate
salt iodisation in India has saved 4 billion IQ points in the last two decades.
Double Fortified Salt (DFS) is an innovative new fortified food product
- delivering small but crucial amounts of iodine and iron to human beings
through their diet. In general, DFS formulations are intended to provide
100% of daily dietary iodine requirement, and 30 to 60% of daily dietary
iron requirement.
DFS is produced by mixing iodized salt with either/or ferrous sulphate/
encapsulated ferrous fumarate. While producing DFS with ferrous sulphate,
sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) is used as a stabilizer, ferrous fumarate
has been encapsulated with soya stearin to prevent interaction between
iodine and iron. DFS as a product is stable in both formulations, is
indistinguishable in taste, color, and smell from regular salt and has been
proved efficacious in addressing IDA (Iron Deficiency Anemia) and IDD
(Iodine Deficiency Disorder).

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 The salt iodization process involves very little technology of using drip
feed equipment to dose potassium iodate (KIO3) solution to the raw salt to a
very sophisticated dewatering, drying and packing system. DFS technology
can be easily integrated with little modifications in existing iodized salt
processing facilities by adding a ribbon blender to blend the iron compound
to iodized salt to produce DFS.
Given limited commercialization of the product, the incremental cost per
kilogram of salt on account of addition of iron remains unclear. However it
is anticipated that the increase in cost of DFS could be 20-50% higher than
iodized salt per kilogram.

Standards
Level of Nutrients per liter of
Source of
S. No Nutrients tonned/double tonned/skimmed
Nutrients
milk/Standardized Milk
Iodine Content
a. Manufacture level. 20-30 parts per million (on dry Potassium Iodide
1. b. Distribution channel weight basis).
including retail level. 15-30 parts per million (on dry
weight basis).
Iron Content (as Fe) 850-1100 parts per million. Ferrous Sulphate
2. or Ferrous
Fumarate.

Edible oil forification

Multiple micronutrient deficiencies are rampant in India, and continue to
be significant public health problems, which adversely impact the health and
productivity of all the population groups. More than 57% of children suffer
from vitamin A deficiency, which may be symptomatic or present at the sub-

Page | 16
clinical level. In addition, a high proportion of pregnant women and their
new-borns suffer from Vitamin D deficiency.
Vitamin D is also considered to play an important role in decreasing the
risk of many chronic illnesses, including common cancers, autoimmune
diseases, infectious diseases, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Thus
public health problems warrant public health intervention. As per Household
Consumer Expenditure (HCE) Survey in India, NSSO report 2011,
consumption of oil is reasonably high, about 20-30g / person / day and is
consumed by all population groups. Since vitamin A and D are fat-soluble
vitamins, fortification of edible oils and fats with vitamin A and D is a good
strategy to address micronutrient malnutrition and fortified oil is known to
provide 25%-30% of the recommended dietary allowances for vitamins
A&D.

Oil fortification technology is simple and the equipment and premixes

for fortification are readily available, within India. Fortification of edible oil
usually takes place just before packaging of oil. Both the vitamin pre-mix
and the processed oil are added to a churn to ensure uniform blending. The
concept, technology and quality control procedures for oil fortification are
well established for sustained production across the country. Fortification of
oil is relatively inexpensive and affordable.

Page | 17
Standards
Minimum level of
S. No Nutrients Source of Nutrients
Nutrients
6µg RE- 9.9 µg RE per Retinyl Acetate or Retinyl
1. Vitamin A
gm of oil Palmitate
*Cholecalciferol or
0.11 µg- 0.16 µg per gm
2. Vitamin D Ergocalciferol (* only from
of oil
plant source)
Note Vitamin A (retinol): 1 IU = 0.3 µg RE (Retinol Equivalent); Vitamin D
(Cholecalciferol or Ergocalciferol): 1 IU 0.025 µg

Milk Fortification
Milk is a rich source of high quality protein, calcium and of fat-soluble
vitamins A and D. Vitamins A and D are lost when milk fat is removed
during processing. Many countries have a mandatory provision to add back
the vitamins removed as it is easily doable. It is called replenishment as the
nutrients lost during processing are added back.
Fortification of milk with Vitamin A and Vitamin D is required in India
because of the widespread deficiencies present in the population. A Recent
National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) survey and a Report of the
expert group of ICMR in 2012 has stated that India has very high burden of
Vitamin A and D deficiencies, amongst both young children and adults
particularly in urban areas are physically less active and have a very limited
exposure to sunlight.
Since milk is consumed by all population groups, fortification of milk
with certain micronutrients is a good strategy to address micronutrient
malnutrition. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 146.3
million tonnes of production and per capita availability of 322 grams per day
. The dairy industry in India has progressed from a situation of scarcity to
that of plenty.

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 Milk is one of the most nutritious foods. Vitamins A and D though
important for various bodily functions and naturally present in milk are
removed along with fat when the milk is processed to produce toned, double-
toned and skimmed milk.
At the processing level, four types of fluid milk are commonly produced
in India: Fortifying standardized (Fat - 4.5%), toned (Fat - 3%), double toned
(Fat - 1.5%) and skimmed milk (Fat < 0.5%) with vitamin A and vitamin D
will ensure that these will also reach consumers who purchase low-fat milk
and provide them with significant amounts of their daily needs of these
vitamins.
The technology to fortify milk is simple. All the vitamins and minerals
that can be added to milk are available in dry powder form as well as in the
liquid form. The fat-soluble vitamins are also available in an oily form as
well as in the water soluble form. The fortification process does not require
any sophisticated equipment.
Liquid milk fortification: Liquid milk is fortified just prior to
pasteurization or ultra-heat treatment, and it is essential to ensure a good
distribution of the nutrients in milk prior to any heat treatment.

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Standards
Level of Nutrients per liter of
S. No Nutrients tonned/double tonned/skimmed Source of Nutrients
milk/Standardized Milk
Retinyl Acetate or
1. Vitamin A 270 µg RE- 450 µg RE
Retinyl Palmitate
*Cholecalciferol or
2. Vitamin D 5 µg- 7.5 µg Ergocalciferol (* only
from plant source)
Note Vitamin A (retinol): 1 IU = 0.3 µg RE (Retinol Equivalent); Vitamin D
(Cholecalciferol or Ergocalciferol): 1 IU 0.025 µg

Fortified Thali

Page | 20
Fortification value chain

Technical considerations in planning a food fortification program

 The food used as a vehicle should be consumed in fairly constant
amounts so that fortification levels can be accurately calculated. To
do this, it is important to understand the consumption patterns of the
food vehicle across the country. If it is for targeted fortification, the
consumption pattern of the specific target group is needed. .
 The chosen food should be processed centrally in large enough
units to permit controlled fortification. .
 The addition of the micronutrients should be compatible within
existing food production and distribution systems. There should be
minimum loss of the nutrient during processing, storage, and final
preparation of the food. . There should be no change in taste,
appearance, or color of the final product.
 The food should be affordable so that the low-income groups,
which are more vulnerable to malnutrition, consume it.
 Depending on the food processing methods, the addition of the
micronutrients can be facilitated using different approaches to
maximize the nutrient retention: Dry mixing for cereal flours,
powder milk, powder beverages. This is one of the common
mechanisms used for the addition of the nutrient premix to the food.
 Dissolution in water for liquid milk, drinks, fruit juices, and in the
water used for making bread, pasta, and cookies.
 Dissolution in oil for the lipid-soluble vitamins for enrichment of
oily products like margarine. Spraying, as in iodization of salt and
in corn flakes in which the nutrients do not withstand the cooking or
extrusion step.
 Adhesion, as in sugar fortification in which vitamin A in powder
form is adhered to the surface of the sugar crystal by vegetable oil.

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  Coating, as in rice fortification, in which the vitamins are sprayed
over the grain as a coating.
 Extrusion and dry mixing, as in rice fortification, in which
simulated, rice-shaped premix of micronutrients is produced
through an extrusion process and dry mixed with regular rice.
 Encapsulation, as in double fortification of salt in which iron
compound is encapsulated to prevent interaction with iodine and the
food matrix.
 Micronization, as in salt fortification, in which the particle size of
an iron compound is reduced to increase its bioavailability.
Advantages of food fortification
Food fortification is a cost-effective intervention with the potential to
address malnutrition globally. Studies on the fortification of foods have
shown positive results not only in the control and prevention of
micronutrient deficiencies among vulnerable populations, especially women
and children, but also along social, economic and environmental
dimensions.
 Does not require behavior change
Fortification can make frequently consumed foods or daily staples more
nutritious without any change in the dietary habits of the consumers. The
demand and consumption of staples like wheat flour, rice, milk, oil, and salt
usually remains uninterrupted in every scenario and they are consumed
across the population – from low to high income groups. This makes food
staples a great vehicle to add micronutrients to improve the nutritional status
of the general population
 Provides nutrition without any change in characteristics of food
Though micronutrients are added, fortification does not cause any
change in the taste, aroma, texture, or appearance of the food. For example,
for the fortification of rice, Fortified Rice Kernels (FRK) are manufactured
by combining rice flour with required nutrients. FRK resemble the sheen,
transparency, consistency and flavour of rice. These kernels are simply
mixed with ordinary rice.
 Maintain body stores of nutrients
Fortified foods are also better at lowering the risk of the multiple
deficiencies that can result from seasonal deficits in the food supply or a
poor quality diet. This is an important advantage to growing children who

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need a sustained supply of micronutrients for growth and development and
to women of fertile age who need to enter periods of pregnancy and lactation
with adequate nutrient stores. Fortification can be an excellent way of
increasing the content of vitamins in breast milk and thus reducing the need
for supplementation in postpartum women and infants
 Cost-effective intervention
The overall costs of fortification are extremely low, the price increase is
approximately 1 to 2 per cent of the total food value.
Nutrition International and University of Toronto have developed the
Encapsulated Ferrous Fumarate-Double Fortified Salt (EFF-DFS) which has
both iron and iodine. According to Ms Varghese, the DFS comes with a
minimal incremental cost of Rs. 0.02 per person per day.
 Contain natural or near natural levels of micronutrients
According to the WHO, fortification generally aims to supply
micronutrients in amounts that approximate to those provided by a good,
well-balanced diet. Consequently, fortified staple foods will contain natural
or near natural levels of micronutrients, which may not necessarily be the
case with supplements.
Disadvantages of food fortification
 Not a substitute of good nutrition
While fortified foods contain increased amounts of selected
micronutrients, they are not a substitute for a good quality diet that supplies
adequate amounts of energy, protein, essential fats and other food
constituents required for optimal health.
 Might not benefit infants and children
For the first six months of the life, exclusive breastfeeding is
recommended. A child will get nutrition only if the lactating mother will be
healthy and consumes adequate nutrition. After the six months,
complementary feeding is initiated, wherein infants and children consume
relatively small amounts of food.
 Fails to cater to the poorest segment of the population
Poorest segments of the general population have restricted access to
fortified foods in the open markets due to low purchasing power and an
underdeveloped distribution channel.

Page | 23
 Not a long term solution
Basanta Kumar Kar recipient of the Global Nutrition Leadership Award
believes that food fortification is a short and medium term measure. For long
term sustainability, dietary diversity is the key to address micronutrient
malnutrition.
 Can have detrimental effects
The old proverb ‘Excess of anything is bad’ is a guide for doing
anything in moderation. Fortified foods as a public health measure should be
promoted after analyzing the efficacies and micronutrient status of the
population. Excess dosages of vitamins and minerals in some cases can have
harmful effects.
Conclusion
Advantages and limitations of food fortification Being a food based
approach FF has several advantages over other interventions as it does not
necessitate a change in dietary patterns of the population, can deliver a
significant proportion of the recommended dietary allowances for a number
of micronutrients on a continuous basis, and does not call for individual
compliance. It could often be dovetailed into the existing food production
and distribution system, and therefore, can be sustained over a long period of
time. If consumed on a regular and frequent basis, fortified foods will
maintain body stores of nutrients more efficiently and more effectively than
will intermittent supplements. Fortified foods are also better at lowering the
risk of the multiple deficiencies, an important advantage to growing children
who need a sustained supply of micronutrients for growth and development,
and to women of fertile age who need to enter periods of pregnancy and
lactation with adequate nutrient stores. The limitations of FF are also well
known: FF alone cannot correct micronutrient deficiencies when large
numbers of the targeted population, either because of poverty or locality,
have little or no access to the fortified food, when the level of micronutrient
deficiency is too severe, or when the concurrent presence of infections
increases the metabolic demand for micronutrients. In addition, various
safety, technological and cost considerations can also place constraints on FF
interventions. Thus proper FF programme planning not only requires
assessment of its potential impact on the nutritional status of the population
but also of its feasibility in a given context. Food fortification programs
continue to face structural hurdles, as they require political support and long-
term commercial commitment. Fortification strategies further require
appropriate technical capacity, social marketing, community mobilization,

Page | 24
private-sector awareness, partnerships, coordination and continued
monitoring.
References
1. Anonymous. Biofortified crops can alleviate micronutrient deficiencies,
2014. http://www.who.int/health-topics/micronutrients.
2. Bouis HE, Hotz C, Mcclafferty B, Meenkashi JV, Pfeiifer WH. Bio
fortification: A new tool to reduce micronutrient malnutrition. Food
Nutri. Bulletin. 2015;32(2):31-40.
3. Gannon B, Kaliwile C, Arscott SA, Schmaelzle S, Chileshe J,
Kalungwana N, et al., Bio fortified orange maize is as efficacious as a
vitamin A supplement in Zambian children. American J. Clinical Nutri.
2019;100(10):1541–50.
4. Haas JD, Beard JL, Murray-Kolb LE, Del Mundo AM, Felix A,
Gregorio GB, et al. Iron-bio fortified rice improves the iron stores of
non-anemic Filipino women. J. Nutri. 2017;135(12):2823-2830.
5. Kodkany BS, Bellad RM, Mahantshetti NS, Westcott JE, Krebs NF,
Kemp JF, et al. Biofortification of pearl millet with iron and zinc in a
randomized controlled trial in young children. J. Clinical Nutri.
2013;143(9):1489-1493.
6. Palmer AC, Healy K, Barffour MA, Siamusantu W, Chileshe J, Schulze
KJ, et al. Provitamin A carotenoid–bio fortified maize consumption
increases pupillary responsiveness among Zambian children in a
randomized controlled trial. J. Nutri. 2018;146(12):2551-2558.
7. Sazawal S, Dhingra U, Dhingra P, Dutta A, Deb S, Kumar J, et al.
Efficacy of high zinc bio fortified wheat in improvement of
micronutrient status, and prevention of morbidity among preschool
children and women-a double masked, randomized, controlled trial.
Nutri. J. 2018;17(1):1-10.
8. Scott SP, Murray-Kolb LE, Wenger MJ, Udipi SA, Ghugre PS, Boy E,
et al. Cognitive performance in Indian school-going adolescents is
positively affected by consumption of iron-bio fortified pearl millet: a 6-
month randomized controlled efficacy trial. J Clinical Nutri.
2018;148(9):1462-1471.

Page | 25
Page | 26
 Chapter - 2
The Future of Zero Waste Begins With Edible
Utensils

Author
Aishwarya R
Ph.D. Research Scholar in Food and Nutrition, Govt. College
for Women, Vazhuthacaud, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Page | 27
Page | 28
 Chapter - 2
The Future of Zero Waste Begins With Edible Utensils
Aishwarya R

Abstract
One of the most common single-use plastics to end up in landfills or
water bodies is plastic cutlery. When they end up in the environment or
water bodies, they can cause significant harm. Plastic is dangerous to the
environment and the environment's health, so edible cutlery was developed
as an alternative. These products are natural and biodegradable and claim to
be a great alternative to the plastics crisis. Wheat stalks, sugar cane, and
other plant waste are used to make these products. Instead of using
disposable plastic cutlery, consumers and restaurants should opt for edible
cutlery. So, there will be no plastic cutlery used, and the health of the human
being will be protected.
Keywords: Plastics-edible cutlery-environment-water bodies-health
A brief background on edible utensils
Plastic cutlery has been around for a long time and is usually seen as the
only option for inexpensive, disposable tableware. Several plastic cutlery
manufacturing units in the country don’t have proper guidelines and the way
it is manufactured is not suitable for use with food. The process of cleaning
cutlery by manufacturing units in India just involve simply wiping the final
products that came out of the mould with a rag of cloth which was injected
with molten plastic.
According to various medical reports, eating from plastic spoons and
plates can cause cancer because the chemicals in the plastics may leach into
the food. A small takeaway serving from a small counter only uses 4000
spoons per month on average. Similarly, desichat joints use over 2000
spoons per week. Every year, approximately 120 billion items of disposable
plastic cutlery are discarded in India [1].
Even though plastic is recycled. Initial plastic segregation is inadequate,
100 per cent recycling is nearly impossible. Due to the dangers of plastic to
the environment and health, edible cutlery was developed as an

Page | 29
alternative. The spoons are made from rice and wheat flours combined with
jowar (sorghum) flours and contain no chemicals, preservatives, oil,
emulsifiers, artificial colours, or milk products. They're made entirely of
natural ingredients and are available in a variety of flavours, including plain,
sweet, and spicy, as well as a variety of tastes, including ginger-cinnamon,
ginger-garlic, celery, black pepper, cumin, mint-ginger, and carrot-beetroot.
The USP of edible cutleries is that they have a three-year shelf life and decay
in about 4-5 days after usage. The shelf life and decomposition duration are
impressive in and of themselves, given an average plastic bottle takes more
than 450 years to decompose completely in the environment. They are
natural and are biodegradable too.
Plastic waste and its effects
Plastic cutlery is one of the most commonly discarded single-use
plastics in landfills and water bodies. They can cause significant damage to
the environment and water bodies. It contributes considerably to the growing
plastic waste crisis. In addition to lasting for hundreds of years, plastics can
affect health in several ways. They have cancerous properties that can end up
in small amounts in people's food. Excessive exposure to plastic in the form
of food packaging (e.g., milk pouches) and plastic disposable cutlery before
use is causing an increase in cancer rates around the world.
According to the United Nations Environmental Program, the world
consumes roughly 110 million tonnes of plastic each year, most of which
ends up in landfills. The majority of plastic utensils are not recyclable or
biodegradable. This means that after 10 minutes of usage, a plastic fork will
end up in a landfill, where it will sit for up to 1,000 years. If it doesn't end up
in a landfill, it enters the ocean - according to a 2015 research, India ranks
12th among the top countries that dump plastic into the ocean [2].
Food laws around the world are silent on how safe utensils should be.
These are covered under the law on industrial production. Even after
repeated use, the character of plastic does not alter. As a result, dishonest
food vendors have a good chance of making more money by reusing in an
unsanitary manner. This time, the user would be vulnerable to bacterial
infection through licking. Please keep in mind that there is no law
prohibiting the reuse of cutlery, and the law is also quiet on the cleanliness
standards for serving utensils.
Edible utensils in India
Bakeys was founded by Narayaana Peespaty in 2010. Bakeys makes
spoons out of jowar, millet flour, as well as rice and wheat flour, in three
different flavours: savoury, sweet and plain [3].

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 Gajamukha Foods, a startup based in Bengaluru, is bringing this vision
to reality. Under the brand name Edible PRO, the company produces eco-
friendly, zero-waste edible cutlery. Edible PRO products were developed to
replace single-use plastics like spoons, cups, and bowls with a nutritious
alternative that can be disposed of in a composting pit. Unlike plastic, which
takes nearly 500 years to biodegrade, it will be biodegradable in a week [4].
Kruvil Patel from Gujarat has launched ‘Trishula’ and has not only
developed a way to reduce plastic waste through edible spoons but also
discovered that these can be relished in eight unique flavours [5].
On August 15, 2019, Puneet Dutta, the Founder and Director of
Attaware Biodegradable Private Limited, founded Attaware edible cutlery.
They are created by heating grains with sugarcane juice to create jaggery.
Adding jaggery chunks in moulds as raw material. Cutlery pieces are ready
once they have cooled. They are available in the form of plates, spoons,
forks, bowls, straws, glasses, and lidded containers for storing food for 5-6
hours [6].
According to Prasanth Menon, owner of Radhakrishna Sweets in
Thrissur, Kerala, which launched teacups made of biscuits in November
2020, a guilt-free cuppa started at the tea shop [7].
In Madurai, RS Pathy Naturo by Vivek Sabapathy opened a tea kiosk in
2020, serving tea in flavour-infused wafer cups and can hold hot beverages
for at least 15 minutes before they turn soggy [7].
In 2021, Vinayakumar Balakrishnan established his edible tableware
company ‘Thooshan’, embracing India's slowly growing edible cutlery trend.
Cutlery, including spoons, forks, and knives, is produced from wheat bran.
The microwaveable dinner plates can withstand temperatures ranging from -
10 to 140 degrees. It has a longer shelf life and is resistant to fungus and
bacteria [8].
Efficacy and sustainability of eco-friendly products in India
Paper plates and bowls that are compostable and biodegradable have
flooded the market, claiming to be better for the environment than plastic
alternatives. These products, made from discarded wheat stalks, sugar cane,
or other plant waste, claim to be an incredible solution to the plastics crisis.
They are also known as "moulded fibre," which helps to reduce the use of
plastic and waste. While these are thought to be environmentally friendly,
they are likely to be hazardous to the well-being and the health of the
environment. They are made of natural materials that will degrade while

Page | 31
retaining the properties of their non-environmentally friendly counterparts,
namely oil and water resistance.
A plastic film is coated and provides oil and water resistance to
traditional paper plates and bowls. Because eco-friendly plates are intended
to be free of plastic, another material was required to achieve oil and water
resistance. As a solution to this problem, Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
(PFAS) have been introduced. When used on paper plates and bowls instead
of plastic, PFAS can provide water and oil resistance. Using the PFAS class
of chemicals enabled moulded fibre paper items to match the functionality of
their plastic counterparts while also claiming to be environmentally friendly.
According to CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), PFAS
can cause health risks such as:
 Increasing the likelihood of cancer.
 Affects infants' and older children's growth, learning, and
behaviour.
 Reducing the chances of a woman getting pregnant.
 Interfering with the natural hormones of the body.
 Cholesterol levels are rising.
 Influencing the immune system.
Although a single plate or bowl of PFAS may not have any negative
effects on the body, on multiple-use, PFAS can bioaccumulate in both the
body and the environment. It is unknown whether PFAS can degrade, and
because the chemicals have an unknown half-life, they may remain in the
body and the environment indefinitely as "Forever Chemicals".
Technique for sustainable products is constantly improving, and in this
case, it is moving toward compostable and/or compostable paper tableware
that is both sustainable and environment and non-toxic; an alternative that is
free of both plastic and PFAS [9].
Edible Utensils: Why Choose Them
Narayaana Peespaty, the founder of Bakeys, said that he looked into
what was going on with used plastic spoons and found plastic material and
plastic bags in garbage cans, but only broken spoons, indicating that people
were still reusing them. Moreover, eating with single-use plastics can cause
hazards to the body and these plastics can leach into food when the body
comes into contact with a higher concentration of chemicals, which can
disrupt vital body functions [10].

Page | 32
 Sadly, the fate of birds, animals, and marine beings who mistakenly
consume plastic for food might soon befall us, albeit in a different way.
Furthermore, plastics take up a lot of space and choke landfills. Plastic
cutlery can be replaced with edible cutlery to reduce waste and make the
process more sustainable. Besides being delicious, one can also enjoy the
taste of different flavours, and it can also be nutritious. Because we always
throw away plastic cutlery after use, edible cutlery just dissolves in the soil
since it is made of food grains. Therefore, every food sector service can use
it to save the environment.
'If someone is not happy with eating the plates, they can always dump
them,' said Vinayakumar Balakrishnan, the founder of 'Thooshan.' Cattle
feed, chicken feed, fish feed, and organic dung are all possibilities. After
being used, the product will never become garbage. It will provide food for
all living things’ [10].
Benefits of using edible utensils
 Edible cutlery is made of food materials and contains nutrients.
 There are no chemicals, additives, or preservatives in edible cutlery.
They are entirely natural and baked goods.
 Edible cutlery should not be reused. Because these are baked at
high temperatures. Microbial spores have a very low chance of
survival. Even if these micro-spores are present. They are unlikely
to germinate on land after production because the products are
desiccated (which is why they have a long shelf life, even without
preservatives). Moisture is required for life to germinate and
reproduce.
 Unless stray animals and insects eat them up, these disintegrate in
less than a week [11].
Importance of using edible utensils
 All of their products are natural since they do not add artificial
colours or preservatives. Beetroot, carrot, and spinach are some of
the vegetables and fruits that are used as natural dyes.
 They are eco-friendly and are completely biodegradable.
 Millets, grain, pulses, and spices are sourced directly from local
farmers and processed into the products. Fibre and protein are
therefore abundant in the cutlery.

Page | 33
  Meals and snacks have a shelf life of six months to 1 year. The
tableware, including spoons, knives, forks, bowls, plates, cups, etc.,
can be eaten directly without any cooking, but they are sturdy
enough to last a long time.
 Edible utensils are safe to dispose of in the environment even if
they are not consumed [11].
Types of edible utensils
Spoon, fork, knife, spork and chopstick are among the most popular
choice for edible cutleries. The spoons are of various shapes and sizes like
Dinner Spoon, Soup Spoon, and Ice cream spoons. Soup spoons once dipped
in soup, will take the spoon 1.5 hours to ripen. Chocolate spoons are the
most popular of all variants and are cherished with ice cream, they appeal to
all age groups. Recently, the startup launched chocolate spoons shaped like
Teddy bears and alphabet cutlery for kids.
Edible plates, bowls, artistic cups and saucers, containers, edible cups,
biscuit cups, flavoured cups, cookie cups and table wares are other
innovative items being produced around the world.
Dietary significance of edible utensils
Consumption of edible utensils is good for the body in general. They are
considered healthy due to the presence of vitamins and minerals. Fibre, iron,
protein, and calcium are all found in them. Sorghum is one of the main
ingredients used in making edible utensils, they also contain a lot of
micronutrients. They can also be made gluten-free if one has celiac disease.
They contain around 34.86 calories per utensil. Below are some nutritional
information per utensil:
Energy 34.86 kilocalorie
Fat 0.12 gram
Proteins 1.06 grams
Fiber 0.19 gram
Minerals 0.13 gram
Iron 0.56 gram
Carbohydrates 7.64 grams
Calcium 2.13 mg
Thiamine 0.03 mg
Carotene 3.97 mg
Niacin 0.28 mg
Riboflavin 0.01 mg
Folic acid 1.33 mg

Page | 34
 This edible cutlery is an excellent alternative to harmful plastic cutlery
because it is not only environmentally friendly but also contains nutritious
ingredients. It combines flours, Indian spices, and flavours to absorb
moisture at high temperatures. They are 100 per cent natural, free of any
artificial flavours or preservatives.
The dinner plate contains more dietary fibre than the meal according to
Vinayakumar, founder of 'Thooshan,' edible plates may just fill a dietary gap
with 43 grams of fibre and 16 grams of protein. The diameter of these plates
is approximately 11 inches [11].
Expenses associated with edible utensils
A single spoon costs between ₹3 and ₹6, depending on quantity and
flavour. While a plain-flavoured spoon costs ₹3 per piece with an order
quantity of over 5,000 pieces, a chocolate spoon costs ₹4.50 per piece,
according to Trishula's founder. A Bakey's spoon costs Rs 3 and a chocolate
spoon costs Rs 4.5 per piece, respectively. EdiblePRO costs between ₹2 -
₹155.
Points before selecting a cutlery
Plastic cutlery comes in some colours and sizes, but it does not come in
a variety of designs, whereas edible cutlery has a very simple and plain
structure with few designs, but it does have a more rustic appearance.
People prefer using plastic cutlery because it is inexpensive and easy to
dispose of. This type of plastic waste accumulates and is deposited in
landfills, where it will take hundreds of years to decompose. Edible cutlery,
on the other hand, is slightly more expensive, and it will take some time for
people to become accustomed to edible spoons. This edible cutlery is also
nutritious and can be eaten as a snack; it comes in a variety of flavours and is
biodegradable.
Plastic disposable cutlery is widely available in every shop, but its
durability is a concern. Some varieties may be more durable than others, but
the majority are not. Customers begin to have their limitations regarding the
durability of edible cutlery, and they clearly indicate its limited availability
and thus cannot purchase it frequently [11].
A benefit to farmers
Edible cutleries also provide additional income opportunities to local
farmers by procuring wheat bran, which is typically discarded as a byproduct
of agriculture. The product will not be sold by retailers who sell plastic items
since the company is an organic brand. With the Indian government

Page | 35
proposing a complete ban on single-use plastic by 2022, the country will
require more eco-friendly alternatives like edible cutleries. With single-use
masks and PPE kits, India has generated more plastic waste during the
pandemic. People's attitudes are changing slowly but steadily as more people
become aware [12].
The challenges and the way forward
The main problem at every level of the business is a lack of awareness.
Why wouldn't they, in a country like India, where plastic is plentiful and
cheaper than water? It's nearly tough to persuade someone to choose ₹2
goods over a paise product for the greater good.
As per the Central Pollution Control Board, India generates over nine
million tonnes of plastic every year, of which cutlery is a significant
component. Only 60% of plastic garbage is recycled, and the rest generally
winds up in landfills or the oceans, causing serious environmental damage.
Compostable utensils made of corn may appear to be a solution to the
problem. However, it turns out that a significant portion of corn-based
biodegradable utensils are still thrown into landfills, where they will remain
indefinitely without degradation. Because these utensils require high heat
and very specific conditions to degrade, their benefits are frequently
overlooked.
It is essential to provide an alternative to the current disposable utensils
on the market. Edible spoons are delicious, but if they are not consumed,
they can degrade in any outside environment because they do not have
specific degradation requirements. When exposed to nature, spoons will
degrade in 10 days or will be eaten by other animals, similar to a biscuit left
outside. Companies can make a long-term move for the greater good by
actively combating the plastic crisis by providing eco-friendly alternatives.
Recommendations and Suggestions
The honourable Prime Minister has stated that by 2022, the country
would be free of all single-use plastics. We can contribute by avoiding the
use of plastic cutlery instead of using edible cutlery, which brings fun,
nutrients, and taste.
Though COVID-19 has made business more difficult, it has also brought
hygiene and safety to the forefront, which may be beneficial for edible
tableware, soon says Neerja, HR Manager at ‘Trishula’. Both Vinay and
Lakshmi emphasise the importance of encouraging people to use edible
cutlery and dishes for public events, weddings, and parties, which would
help save the planet from tonnes of waste.

Page | 36
 Consumers and restaurants should try to avoid using plastic disposable
cutlery and instead use edible cutlery. It is suggested that if more
manufacturers venture into the production of edible cutlery, then the prices
of the cutleries will be lowered and market availability will be increased.
Every major city in India should establish an edible cutlery production
facility. Since edible cutlery has a 24-month shelf life, there is no need to be
concerned about bulk production expiring. In India, no plastic cutlery will be
used, and human health will be safeguarded.
Conclusion
The disposal of plastic waste is a major source of concern. The disposal
of plastic utensils is significant among plastic wastes and has a significant
impact on the surrounding environment. Some entrepreneurs have created
edible tableware as an alternative to plastic utensils. In this domain, there is a
lot of room for cutting-edge research. Although there are many obstacles,
such as cost, materials, labour, biodegradability, longevity, and so on, edible
cutleries are unquestionably a potential source of environmental protection
and sustainable development.
References
1. Munir S. Edible Cutlery: The Future of Eco-Friendly Utensils.
Kickstarter. Published 2016. Accessed May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1240116767/edible-cutlery-the-
future-of-eco-friendly-utensils
2. Menon A. Chew on some dinner plates. The Hindu. Published May 28,
2021. Accessed May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/get-tableware-you-can-
eat-to-save-the-planet-from-plastic-pollution-say-edible-tableware
manufacturers/article34669333.ece.
3. Rajah L. Eat your meal, then your cutlery? One company’s answer to
plastic pollution | CBC News. CBC. Published July 29, 2018. Accessed
May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/bakeys-edible-cutlery-1.4763171
4. Karelia G. These Women Quit Their IBM Jobs to Make Edible Cutlery
That Can Save The Planet! The Better India. Published June 18, 2020.
Accessed May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://www.thebetterindia.com/230393/bengaluru-women-startup-
edible-cutlery-ecofriendly-features-buy-sustainable-environment-india-
gop94/

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5. Mishra G. Ditch the Plastics: This Gujarat Boy’s Edible Spoons Come
in 8 Unique Flavours! The Better India. Published June 30, 2018.
Accessed May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://www.thebetterindia.com/148075/news-edible-spoons-trishula-
kruvil-patel/
6. Rowlo S. Eat-In It & Eat It - Eco-friendly mystery behind Attaware
edible cutlery -. Published June 20, 2020. Accessed May 24, 2022.
Available from: https://livingartlife.com/attaware-eco-friendly-edible-
cutlery-india/
7. Mathai K. For extra flavour, bite into these spoons. The Times of India.
Published August 1, 2021. Accessed May 29, 2022. Available from:
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/for-extra-flavour-bite-
into-these-spoons/articleshow/84940332.cms?frmapp=yes&from=mdr.
8. Jain A. Kerala-Based Brand “Thooshan” Launches Edible Cutlery To
Fight Battle Against Single-use Plastic. Published June 8, 2021.
Accessed May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://thelogicalindian.com/sustainability/kerala-based-brand-thooshan-
launches-edible-cutlery-to-fight-battle-against-single-use-plastic-28791
9. How Compostable Plates can be Dangerous to your Health.
Transitions2earth®. Published 2020. Accessed May 26, 2022. Available
from: https://transitions2earth.com/blogs/news/how-compostable-plates-
can-be-dangerous-to-your-health
10. Chintala P. Next-gen Disposable Cutlery: Making Edible Spoons in
India. Haaretz. Published 2018. Accessed May 24, 2022. Available
from: https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/impact-journalism-day-
2018/MAGAZINE-next-gen-disposable-cutlery-making-edible-spoons-
in-india-1.6158924.
11. Bagel Y. A Study on Use of Edible Cutleries in Hotels & Street Food
Stalls. 2010 (10). Accessed May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://www.eduattuli.com/hmct/Amelioration/2019/USE%20OF%20E
DIBLE%20CUTLERIES%20IN%20HOTELS%20&%20STREET%20
FOOD%20STALLS.pdf
12. Kelmachter M. India’s Edible Cutlery Points the Way for a Zero-Waste
Future. Published 2016. Accessed May 24, 2022. Available from:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/micakelmachter/2016/03/30/indias-edible-
cutlery-paves-the-way-for-asia-to-dream-of-zero-waste/

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 Chapter - 3
Organic Meat Production

Author
Dr. Awlesh Kumar Vidyarthi
Ph.D. Scholar, Div. of L.PT, ICAR-IVRI, Bareilly,
Uttar Pradesh, India

Page | 39
Page | 40
 Chapter - 3
Organic Meat Production
Dr. Awlesh Kumar Vidyarthi

Abstract
World meat consumption has expanded significantly in recent decades,
coinciding with concerns about the sustainability of livestock systems.
Organic meat production is expected to use environmentally friendly
resources such as natural grasslands and byproducts with little alternative
value, as well as fodder cultivated without the use of artificial fertilizers and
pesticides. Organic animals are given the opportunity to exhibit more natural
behavior, such as staying outdoors all year in nature and using minimal
structures. To develop organic meat production in a sustainable manner,
customers must perceive it to be at least as good as conventional production
in terms of environmental quality and pricing. As a result, potential future
organic and conventional meat production are contrasted in terms of
production costs, land requirements, soil conservation, nature conservation,
energy demands, chemical requirements, and nitrogen and greenhouse gas
emissions.
Keywords: Organic meat, sustainability, organic animals, conventional meat
Introduction
Over the previous two decades, the demand for organic meat products has
greatly expanded. Consumer perception that organic livestock products have
higher amounts of nutritionally beneficial substances, making them 'healthier,'
has been a main factor of this increase. However, there is still considerable
scientific uncertainty over whether and to what extent, organic production
standards result in significant and nutritionally relevant changes in food
quality. Since pre historic times of human civilization, humans have killed
animals to provide meat to eat. It can be assumed that most people in modern
society enjoy meat in one form or another, as a daily item or an item of
delicacy. However, the incidence of BSE (Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy) epidemic in cattle, use of dioxin in animal feed, use of
growth hormone and use of antibiotics as feed additives put a question mark

Page | 41
on food safety (Watson and Redman, 1999) [27]. Food safety is now an
important issue discussed more strongly now than ever before.
Confronted with the effects of environmental degradation, as well as an
increasing awareness of animal welfare, developed countries are looking for
alternative livestock production systems that allow for environmental
preservation and a high standard of animal welfare without compromising
food security and food safety. As a result, many people are looking for meat
alternatives that are not routinely produced. Organically produced meat is a
viable alternative to conventionally produced meat and demand for this
'organic meat' is rising in the so-called developed world. The most recent
estimates indicate that there should be at present more than 250,000 organic
farms all over the world, covering a surface of about 17-18 million hectares.
In relative terms, this is almost nil but the recent growth has been impressive
and all experts forecast a continuous expansion. As most countries have signed
the agreement of WTO, we can say that in the near future most trade will be
in accordance with the WTO rules. Under the WTO regime strict compliance
with production standards would be the first criterion for export. This is where
the developing countries are lagging behind currently.
Length of conversion period
The establishment of organic animal husbandry requires an interim
period, the conversion period. Replacement poultry should be brought onto
the holding at the start of the production cycle. Animal products may be sold
as "product of organic agriculture" only after the farm or relevant part of it has
been under conversion for at least twelve months and provided the organic
animal production standards have been met for the appropriate time. The
certification programme shall specify the length of time by which the animal
production standards shall be met. With regard to dairy and egg production,
this period shall not be less than 30 days. Animals present on the farm at the
time of conversion may be sold for organic meat if the organic standards have
been followed for 12 months.
All organic animals must be born and raised on organic land. Organic
animal husbandry should not rely on conventional farming methods. Trading
or swapping cattle should preferably occur between organic farms or as part
of a long-term collaboration between specific farms. When organic livestock
is not available, the certification programme may accept conventional animals
up to the age limitations listed below:
 2-day old chickens for meat production.
 18-week-old hens for egg production.

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  2 weeks old for any other poultry.
 Piglets up to six weeks and after weaning.
 Calves up to 4 weeks old which have received colostrum and are fed
a diet consisting mainly of full milk.
Certification programmes shall set time limits (not exceeding 5 years) for
implementation of certified organic animals from conception for each type of
animal. Breeding stock may be brought in from conventional farms at an
annual rate not exceeding 10% of the adult animals of the same species in the
organic farm. Breeds should be chosen which are adapted to local conditions.
Breeding goals should not be at variance with the animal’s natural behaviour
and should be directed towards good health. Breeding shall not include
methods which make the farming system dependent on high technological and
capital-intensive methods. Reproduction techniques should be natural. The
certification procedure will verify that breeding systems are founded on breeds
that can naturally copulate and give birth. Artificial insemination is
permissible. Embryo transfer techniques are not permitted in organic farming.
Hormonal heat treatment and induced birth are not permitted unless used on
specific animals for medical reasons and under the supervision of a
veterinarian. The use of genetically engineered species or breeds is not
allowed.
Animal nutrition
The livestock should be fed 100% organically grown feed of good quality.
All feed must come from the farm or be produced in the region. The diet must
be provided to the animals in a way that allows them to carry out their natural
feeding behaviour and digestive needs. The diet should be balanced based on
the nutritional requirements of the animals. Organic feed processing industry
products must be used. Colorants are not permitted in organic cattle
production. The certification programme will develop feed and feed ingredient
standards. The prevailing part (at least more than 50%) of the feed shall come
from the farm unit itself or shall be produced in co-operation with other
organic farms in the region. For the calculation purpose only, feed produced
on the farm unit during the first year of organic management, may be classed
as organic. This only applies to feed for animals raised within the farm unit,
and such feed may not be sold or otherwise marketed as organic. If obtaining
particular feeds from organic farming sources proves impossible, the
certification scheme shall enable a percentage of feed consumed by farm
animals to be acquired from conventional farming.

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Animal health
Management practices should be directed to the wellbeing of animals,
achieving maximum resistance against disease and preventing infections. Sick
and injured animals shall be given prompt and adequate treatment. An
important objective of organic livestock husbandry is the avoidance of
reliance upon routine and/or prophylactic use of conventional veterinary
medicines.
 Natural medicines and methods, including homeopathy, Ayurveda
medicine and acupuncture, shall be emphasized.
 The use of conventional veterinary medicines are allowed when no
other non-allopathic alternative is available and where these are used,
the withholding period shall be twice the legally required period.
 Vaccines shall be used only when diseases are known or expected to
be a problem in the region of the farm and where these diseases can’t
be controlled by other management techniques. However, genetically
engineered vaccines are prohibited.
Apart from the above-mentioned standards, there are several other
standards concerning mutilation, record keeping, transport and slaughter. The
principles and production standards outlined above are only a few illustrative
once not an exhaustive list, according to Indian Standards on Organic
Production, which may vary from other standards. So, briefly, we can say,
‘organic meat’ is obtained from animals or birds raised in an organic system,
which are based on the physiological and behavioural needs of animals.
Animals are not caged, tethered or confined in buildings without adequate
natural ventilation and lighting. They are given enough room for free
movement and kept in appropriate size herds and flocks. Attention is given to
bedding materials, access to pasture and fresh water. The health and vitality
of the animal is maintained by sound nutrition and good management
practices, prophylactic antibiotics should not be necessary. All growth
promoters and hormones are prohibited. Veterinary drugs are allowed only
where there are no effective complementary treatments. Withdrawal periods
after giving a veterinary drug are strict in order to prevent residues in meat
(Saffron, 2001).
Organic meat and food safety
Though the situation is under control but the single incident, which put a
big question mark over ‘food safety’, was the outbreak of BSE (Bovine
Spongiform Encephalopathy) and its link with CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob

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Disease). The most plausible explanation for the BSE outbreak was the
transmission of 'scrapie' from sheep to cattle via flesh and bone meal, which
is widely utilised as a protein source in livestock feed (Bear, 1997 [5]; Watson
and Redman, 1999) [27]. Food safety is a contentious issue that is difficult to
quantify. Organic meat production, without a doubt, reduces the risk of
potential public health problems occurring by prohibiting the use of
antibiotics, hormones and pesticides, which are suspected to have endocrine
disrupting, carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive and nervous effects
(Lee et al. 2001) [13], and by applying more stringent safety margins (i.e.,
withdrawal period) to acceptable practises such as antibiotic use on individual
sick animals (Redman and Holden 1994) [19]. Organically produced animal
products contain fewer veterinary medications and pesticides, which are
suspected to have endocrine disrupting, carcinogenic, teratogenic,
immunosuppressive and nervous effects (Lee et al. 2001) [13] and by applying
more stringent safety margins (i.e., withdrawal period) to acceptable practices
such as use of antibiotics on individual sick animals (Redman and Holden
1994) [19]. Organically produced animal products have lower levels of
veterinary drugs and pesticides. Because frequent antibiotic use is restricted,
organic meat may lower the danger of contamination by antibiotic-resistant
bacteria, specifically E. coli 0157: A7 infection. The 'organic' label guarantees
that no food ingredient has been irradiated and that no genetically modified
organisms have been used (Kouba, 2001) [12]. However, it appears that organic
farming increases the danger of product contamination by animal parasites and
microorganisms prevalent in manure (Kouba, 200 [12]; Avery, 2001 [3]).
Effects on environment
Organic meat production includes less intensive livestock husbandry
procedures than traditional meat production. Synthetic fertilisers and pesticide
sprays are prohibited in the production of animal feed and fodder, and animals
are kept at lower stocking rates. This reduces the risk of pollution (Younie and
Watson, 1992) [31], as well as nutrient losses at the farm level (Sundrum, 2001)
[23]
. In the Netherlands, a life cycle study was carried out to examine the impact
of organic dairy production to environmental sustainability. The study showed
that emission of greenhouse gases (gCO2-equivalents) and acidification
potential (gSO2-equivalents) per liter of milk were 14 and 40% less for organic
than conventional dairy herds (Oosting and DeBoer, 2001) [18], which could
be an indicator for meat producing ruminants also. Higher amount of
roughages in the diet of organic animals could be the causes.
Animal welfare
There is no simple definition of animal welfare. Duncan and Fraser (1997)
[8]
have pointed out that the term did not arises as a scientific concept but as a

Page | 45
reflection of our value system, to express our concern for the appropriate
treatments of animals. Hodges (1999) [10] defined animal welfare as, “the care
of animals kept in the service of mankind, so that their well-being is provided
for, their natural needs are not restricted and their worth and dignity as
individuals are recognized”. In fact, we have no scientific tools to decide
‘good’ or ‘bad’. We have only personal views, background and experiences.
In spite of the difficulty in defining animal welfare, indirect approaches
have been developed in order to assess the appropriateness of housing
condition in terms of animal welfare and to distinguish poor and good living
conditions. There is no general consensus on parameters, which are most
suitable for an overall assessment of animal welfare. While in Ethical
Accounting only verbal summarizations are carried out. The studies of
Bennedsgaard and Thamsborg (2000) [6] indicated the welfare of animals was
better in Danish organic dairy herds as compared to conventional herds in
terms of general health (i.e. production, body condition, hock lesion, chronic
infection) and udder health (mastitis occurrence, somatic cell count). The
space requirements in organic farms, which is much higher than conventional
farms the question sometimes raised on individual welfare of animals with
respect to health care, as there is a prohibition on conventionally used
veterinary medicines (except in emergencies) on organic farms. The most
common health problems on organic farms are mastitis and parasitism. The
studies revealed that the incidence of mastitis was of the same or even more
for organic farms in comparison to conventional farms (Weller and cooper,
1996) [28]. However, a lower incidence of mastitis was reported by Hovi and
Roderic (2000) [11], among organic dairy herds in England and Wales All the
leading animal welfare organizations support organic farming (OFFC, 1993).
RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) have stated,
“we hope that more people/consumers will became aware of the potential for
organic farming as one means of alleviating the suffering of farm animals”
(Redman and Holden, 1994) [19].
Consumers
The main motivations for buying organic food are concerns about the
personal health, environment and food safety, although many consumers also
prefer to buy organic food for enhanced flavour and freshness (Badertscher et
al. 1998) [4]. Ethical concerns regarding animal welfare and support organic
farmers were also motives for some organic consumers (Aitchison, 1999 [1];
Woodward and Meier-Ploeger, 1999) [30]. Health was the primary concern
among 70% and 46% organic consumers in Germany and U.K., respectively.
Whereas, for environment, it was 10-30% in Germany and 41% in U.K. Taste

Page | 46
was rated high at 40% in U.K. and 13-24% in Germany. Animal welfare was
cited as a reason for buying organic products by 26% of U.K. organic
consumers, and 17% of German organic consumers buy organic products to
support organic farmers (Meier- Ploeger and Woodward, 1999) [14]. Food
safety is long been important to Japanese consumers with 80% of buyers in
1996 citing assured safety as the prime reason for purchasing organic foods
(Naka, 1996) [16]. Because organic foods are generally priced higher than
conventional food, organic consumers generally have above average income
(Wetzel and Ferris, 2000) [29]. Consumers with high meat consumption were
more likely to purchase the labeled (‘Organic’ or ‘Bio’ or ‘Green’) meat
(Badertscher et al. 1998) [4]. Vegetables & Fruits are the most common type
of organic product but a significant proportion of organic consumers buy
organic meat as well. For instance, in U.K. 20% of organic consumer bought
organic poultry and 15% bought red meat, whereas, in Germany, around 10%
bought organic meat and another 7.5% bought organic sausage (Meier-ploeger
and Woodward, 1999) [14].
Standards for production
Organic Standards are the detailed rules defining the production and
processing practices that are permitted in the growing and manufacturing of
organic food and the precautions that must be taken to protect the integrity of
an organic product or process. (Michaud et al. 1994) [15]. Standards whether
international or regional, are linked to a specific philosophy and they are not
simply a collection of prohibitions describing what is not allowed in organic
farming. Standards reflect clearly the positive approach and definition of
organic farming by emphasizing what ought to be done in order to farm
organically (Sharma, 2001) [21]. Implementing organic standards require
inspection and the end product of the inspection is certification. Certification
ensures that organic products are produced, processed and packaged according
to organic standards. Certification also ensures that consumers, producers and
traders against fraudulent labeling of non-organic products. The accreditation
process, which is conducted by an independent accreditation body, evaluates
a certifier’s inspection and certification procedures, as well as that
organization’s ability to remain free from vested interests (USDA, 2001) [26].
There are a few international standards for organic production like the IFOAM
Basic Standards, EU Regulation No-1804/1999 and Codex Alimentarius
ALINORM 99/22A. (Schmid, 2000) [20]. Although the philosophy behind
these standards is the same, they differ in some criteria like conversion period,
feeding, and veterinary treatment. Apart from these international standards
most of the main countries in organic production have their own national or

Page | 47
local standards, like UKROFS in UK, JAS in Japan, California Organic
Standards in state of California, USA (USDA, 2001 [26]; Michaud et al.1994
[15]
; UKROFS, 1994 [25]). India too has developed National Standards for
Organic Production (NPOP, 2000) [17].
Global Market
In markets where demand for organic food has become more widely
accepted, demand and production of organic animal products has also grown.
Markets reflecting this trend includes the USA and EU, and to a lesser extent
Argentina and Brazil. In USA, organic meat and meat products including
poultry are the sixth fastest growing commodity group, with total sales
forecast to $617 million by 2003. Organic meat products are expected to
capture 5% of total domestic organic food sales by 2003 (USDA, 2001) [26]. In
Austria, a total of 96% of all organic farms raise livestock of some kind, 87%
of them raise cattle, 49% and 51% keep pigs and poultry (Eder et al. 2000) [9].
Organic meat and cheese are the main exported organic products of Austria.
In Spain, 52% of the organic livestock farms produce organic beef and 28%
are engaged in mutton and lamb production and another 5%are in goat meat
production (Ameztoy, 2000 [2]; Trujillo, 2000 [24]). French sales of meat
products are expected to reach $2 million by 2003 and in 1998 the organic
meat accounted for 3% of total organic production in France (USDA, 2001)
[26]
. In Argentina, more than one million hectares of land are dedicated to
organic livestock production, the majority of which produce organic beef
cattle and 80% of the produce is exported to the EU. Though little organic beef
is produced in Brazil, organic poultry, egg and milk production are growing
day by day (USDA, 2001) [26]. Oceania accounts for almost half the global
organic farmland, exports most of the organic food produced. New Zealand
also exports organic meat to UK and Germany. Japan is the third largest
market for organic foods after USA and EU and account for the bulk of Asian
market revenues.
Scenario in India
The problems of developing countries are entirely different from those of
developed countries. In most of the developed countries, the problem is over
production. Whereas, in developing countries the problems are poverty,
malnutrition and unemployment, so here food security is the prime goal rather
than food safety. In this situation, development of the organic sector itself is
very difficult and development of an organic meat sector is more difficult.
Except some Latin American countries, whatever developments have taken
place in developing countries are mainly restricted to crop sector (Chander
and Kumar, 1999 [7]; Singh, 2001 [22]). However, the most significant thing

Page | 48
about Latin American countries is the presence of strong internal markets for
organic meat and the presence of producer co-operatives.
Conclusion
Though the development of organic sectors in Asian countries is not on a
par with the European countries, some development has already taken place
in the organic crop sector and now the Asian countries are exporting a
substantial quantity of organic tea, fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, nuts, rice,
dried legumes, coffee, sugar, herbs and spices (ITC, 1999), but the export as
well as production of organic meat in most of the developing Asian countries
is still an utopia. Though these countries have some excellent breeds of
livestock, which are well suited in these climatic conditions, are more resistant
to disease, and thrive well on crop residues. Most of the animal husbandry
practices are traditional with a close resemblance to prescribed organic
practices but we failed significantly to convert our advantages into fruitful
gains. Small land holding, low level of literacy, lack of information, high
stocking density, inadequate production of feed and fodder, high cost of
certification, absence of marketing facilities are some hindrances in the way
of conversion from traditional to organic.
References
1. Aitchison A. The Organic Meat Myth Revealed. Opportunities for New
Zealand Organic Beef and Lamb in Europe, 1999.
(http://www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz/secure/reports /angela’s.pdf )
2. Ameztoy JM. Organic animal husbandry conversion in Navarra, Spain.
Proceedings of Second NAHWOA Workshop, Cordoba, Spain, 2000, 9-
11.
3. Avery TD. The Hidden Dangers in organic food, 2001.
(http://www.americanoulook.org/articles||_fa98/avery.htm).
4. Badertscher FR, Jorin R, Rieder P. Demand for meat from particularly
animal friendly production Systems. Agrarforschung. 1998;5:57-60.
5. Bear S. A system analysis of BSE: lessons to be learned. In Proceedings
of an International conference on Agricultural Production and Nutrition
(Ed. Willam Lockeretz). School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts
University, USA, 1997, 35-45.
6. Bennedsgaard T, Thamsborg SM. Comparison of welfare assessment in
organic dairy herds by the TGI 200-Protocol and a factor model based on
clinical examination and production parameters. Proceedings of Second
NAHWOA Workshop, Cordoba, Spain, 2000 Jan.

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7. Chander M, Kumar S. Indigenous cattle and buffalo wealth of India:
exploring its role in promoting organic farming practices. Proceedings of
4th IFOAM-Asia Scientific Conference, Tagaytay city, Philippines, 1999,
Nov.
8. Duncan I, Fraser D. Understanding animal welfare. In: Animal welfare,
Wallingford, U.K., CAB international, 1997, 19- 31.
9. Eder ML, Kirner, Zollitsch W. Animal husbandry in Alpine organic
farming- regional diversity and critical obstacles in Austria. Proceedings
of Second NAHWOA Workshop, Cordoba, Spain, 2000, 9-11 Jan.
10. Hodges J. Why Livestock, Ethics and Quality of life? In: Livestock Ethics
and Quality of Life (Ed. Hodges J and Han IK). Wallingford, U.K., CABI
Publishing, 2000, 1-26.
11. Hovi M, Roderick S. Mastitis and Mastitis control strategies in organic
milk. Cattle Practice. 2000;8:259-264.
12. Kouba M. The product quality and health implication of organic products.
Book of Abstracts of the International Conference on Organic Meat and
Milk from Ruminants, Athens, Greece, 2001, 33.
13. Lee MH, Lee JH, Ryu PD. Public health risk: chemical and antibiotic
residues. Asian-Aust. J Anim. Sci. 2001;14:402-413.
14. Meier-Ploeger A, Woodward L. Trends between countries. Ecology and
Farming. 1999;20:15.
15. Michaud M, Redman M, Dalby J. Organic certification and the
importation of organically produced foods. In: Handbook of organic food
processing and production (Ed. Simon Wright), Glasgow, U.K., Blackie
Academic & professional, 1994, 31-55.
16. Naka C. The Japanese Market for Organic Products and Produce.
Wellington, Tradenz, 1996.
17. NPOP. National Programme for Organic Production containing the
standards for the organic products. Department of Commerce, Ministry
of Commerce, Government of India, 2000.
18. Oosting SJ, De Boer IJM. Sustainability of organic dairy farming in the
Netherlands. Book of Abstracts of the International Conference on
Organic Meat and Milk form Ruminants, Athens, Greece, 2001, 15.
19. Redman M, Holden P. Organic meat and meat products. In: Handbook of
organic food processing and production (Ed. Simon Wright), London,
U.K., Blackie Academic & Professional, 1994, 84-110.

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20. Schmid O. A comparison of organic livestock production standards: the
new EU Regulation No-1804/1999. IFOAM Basic Standards of
November 1998 and the new draft guidelines of codex Alimentarius
ALINORM 99/22A. Proceedings of Second NAHWOA Workshop,
Cordoba, Spain, 2000, 9-11.
21. Sharma AK. A handbook of organic agriculture, Jodhpur, India, Agrobios
(India), 2001.
22. Singh RV. Untapped potential, Down to Earth. 2001;10:34-41.
23. Sundrum A. Organic livestock farming: A Critical review. Livest. Prod.
Sci. 2001;67:207-215.
24. Trujillo GR. Organic livestock production in Spain. Proceedings of
Second NAHWOA Workshop, Cordoba, Spain, 2000 Jan.
25. UKROFS. UKROFS Standards for Organic Production. United Kingdom
Register of Organic Food Standards, London, U.K, 1994.
26. USDA. Implications of U.S and global organic dairy, livestock and
poultry production for international trade, 2001.
(http://www.fas.usda.gov/organics/product.html).
27. Watson SJ, Redman M. BSE-counting the costs of a crisis. Ecology and
Farming. 1999;21:20-21.
28. Weller RF, Cooper A. Health status of dairy herds converting from
conventional to organic dairy farming. Vet. Rec. 1996;139:141-142.
29. Wetzel H, Ferris G. Gain Report#HK0008 Hong Kong Organic Products,
Organics. Voluntary Report for public distribution, Foreign Agricultural
Services, USDA, 2000. (http://www.usfoods.hongkong.net)
30. Woodward L, Meier-Ploeger A. Does ‘organic’ mean quality? Ecology
and Farming. 1999;20:16-17.
31. Younie D, Watson CA. Soil Nitrate-N Levels in organically and
intensively managed grassland systems. Aspects of Applied Biology.
1992;30:235-238.

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Page | 52
 Chapter - 4
Food Additive

Authors
Dr. P. Sheela
Assistant Professor, Department of Food Science and
Technology, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences,
Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Chandraprabha
Tutor, Department of Food Science and Technology, SRM
College of Agricultural Sciences, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu,
India

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Page | 54
 Chapter - 4
Food Additive
Dr. P. Sheela and S. Chandraprabha

Abstract
Food additives are any of the natural or many chemicals that are added
to foods in order to generate certain desired effects viz., improves quality of
the food, colour and stability, enhance flavor and safety aspects. Since the
ancient days food products have been preserved and made more appetizing
with the help of additives like, salt, spices and sulfites. Food additives
needed to be used more frequently and new kinds of additives had to be
created as a result of increased food processing. Without the food additives,
many contemporary items including low calories foods, snacks and RTE
foods would not be viable. This chapter deals with different types of food
additives based on their function in the food stuffs.
Keywords: Food additives, preservatives, shelf life.
Introduction
Facts about food additive
 Food additives are constituents included to food to preserve or
keeping shelf life without any changes of sensory parameters like,
taste, flavor, appearance and freshness.
 It is a necessity to check the vulnerability of prepared product
effects on human health before they can be used.
 In every country, the food safety aspects of food additives are
evaluated by the National and International body like WHO/FAO.
They are the whole responsible for evaluating food safety standards
of food additives.
 Simply the food additives have been examined and found to be safe
by joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives (JECFA)
may be used in foods that are traded globally; maximum use levels
have been established on this basis.

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Food additives
Food additives are substances that are added intentionally to food for
preserve or enhance its safety, improve flavor, maintain freshness and
texture or appearance. Some of the food additives, like salt (found in pickles
or dried fish) or sugar (found in jam, jelly and marmalade), have been used
for food preservation for generations. Food additives described as generally
Recognized as Safe (GRAS), like salt, sugar, and vinegar, have been used for
a long time without any known side effects.
A food developer entails a wide variety of additives since preparing
food products on large scale vs. preparing food on a small scale level at
home is extremely different. To keep the processed food in a safer manner
and maintain good condition from factories to warehouses and stores, and
eventually to reach the customers, these food additives are required.
The use of food additives is only justified where there is a technological
necessity, no customer deception and a clearly stated technological aim, such
as maintaining the product's nutritional content or enhancing its stability.
The use of food additives is only justified where there is a technological
necessity, no customer deception and a clearly stated technological aim, such
as maintaining the product's nutritional content or enhancing its stability.
Food additives can be achieved by synthetically or the combinations of
plants, animals and minerals. To perform specific technical tasks that
consumers usually take for granted, they are purposely included to food.
Widely there are thousands of food additives used in which each one is
designed to improve the taste or safety of food in a particular way. The
WHO and FAO categories food additives into three main groups based on
their intended use.
The definition and list of authorized additives, as well as the permitted
levels, are provided in the Food Safety and Standard Act. The ingredients
that will be utilised as food additives must be of food grade and adhere to
BIS or the Food Safety and Standard Act requirements. The use of additives
in infant foods, to hide flaws or spoilage, or to make food more enticing at
the expense of its safety is prohibited by law. Table 1, represents the list of
major categories of food additives.
Table 1: Different category of food additives

Category Examples
Preservatives Potassium metabisulphite
Sodium benzoate,
Sorbic acid

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Colours Natural and synthetic colours
Flavours Natururally identical extracts
Sweeteners Saccharin, aspartame, polyols
Emulsifiers ad stabilisers Lecithin
Antioxidants Vitamin E, BHA, BHT
Flour improvers Vitamin C, cysteine, chlorine
Processing aids Acds, acidity regulators, humactans,
gelling agents, antifoaming agents
Source: Garrow, J.S et al., 2000, Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Churchill
Livingstone.

Food additives are required

 It provides protection against food spoilage during storage,
transportation, distribution or processing.
 The convenience food revolution.
 Fortified foods-enriched.
 Product deterioration can be stopped (improve flavour, colour).
 Nutritional quality of food maintained and wastage reduced.
 Make food more attractive and to provide efficient aids in
processing packaging and transport.
Types of food additives
 Direct additives are intentionally added to the product, such as
artificial sweetener added to low-calorie soft drinks.
 Indirect additives - Indirect additives are those applied to food in
very small amounts during processing or packing.
How food additives are work
 Taste: Enhances the palatability and aroma or flavour of any food
product, such as fruit glazing agents.
 Preservative: Preserves food by extending the food's shelf life,
such as sodium benzoate in squash.
 Quality: Improves the food's quality or stability, for example, by
adding humectants to a mix of dry foods or using antioxidants to
stop lipids from turning rancid.
 Color/Flavor: Adds the appropriate colour and enhances flavour,
such as the turmeric powder's utilization of the commercially
available colouring agent curcumin.

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  Consistency: Prevents lumping together of the prepared food by
using anti-caking agents to maintain the consistency of the product.
 Convenience food: Assists in the preparation of convenience foods,
such as frozen peas.
1. Preservatives
Preservatives are food additives that extend the shelf life of food by
halting the development of germs and yeast in the food. For instance, sauces
may contain Class II preservatives like sodium or potassium benzoate. Good
examples of preservatives are sodium or calcium propionate, which is used
in cakes and breads; fumigants, such as ethylene oxide or ethyl formate,
which prevent microbial growth on nuts and spices; and sulphur dioxide,
which is used to stop fruits and vegetables from becoming brown.
Table 2: Principles of preservatives in current use

Name Properties Uses Related preservatives

Inhibit the growth Yogurts sweets, soft
Sodium, potassium and
Sorbic acid of yeasts and drinks, frozen pizzas,
calcium salts
moulds desserts, fillings
Jams, jellies, desserts,
Antibacterial and
uices, marmalades, Sodium, potassium and
Benzoic acid antifungal action
fruit yogurt, soft calcium salts
in acid foods
drinks
Propyl 4- Dessert, sauces, fruit Ethyl and Methyl
Antimicrobial
hydrxybenzoate pulp, purees, pickles derivatives, sodium, salts
Sterilizing at high Saodium sulphite,
Fruit and vegetable
levels inhibitions sodium metabisulphite,
Sulphur products, soft drinks,
fungal growth ad potassium meta-
dioxide beers, sausages
non-enzymatic bisulphite (SO2 is
dehydrated vegetables
browning released in food)
Nisin Antibacterial Cheese -
Inhibits growth of
Sodium nitrite Clostridium Many processed meats Potassium may be used
botulinum
Bactericidal at 5% Pickles, chutneys,
Acetic acid Salts may be used
Many antibacterial cheese, sauces
Baking and dairy
Sodium, calcium and
Propionic acid Limited antifungal products, pizzas,
potassium salts
processed cheese
Source: Garrow, J.S et al., 2000, Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Churchill
Livingstone

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 Table 3: List of preservatives

E-Number Range Additive Type Examples

E120:Carmine
E100-E199 Colours
E133:Brilliant Blue
E200-E299 Preservatives E201:Sodium sorbate
Antioxidants and acidity E300:Vitamin C
E300-E399
regulators E375:Niacicn
Thickeners, stabilizers and E406:Agar
E400-E499
emulsifiers E412:Guar Gum
pH regulators and anti- E513:Sulphuric acid
E500-E599
caking agents E553b:Talc
E621:Monosodium Glutamate
E600-E699 Flavour enhancers
E636:Maltol
E705:Penicilin
E700-E799 Antibiotics
E712:Flavomycin
Glazing agents, gases and E905:Paraffins
E900-E999
sweeteners E925:Chlorine
New chemicals which do E1403:Bleached starch
E1000-E1599 not fall into standard (stabilizer)
classification schemes E1503:Castor Oil

2. Antioxidants
An anti-oxidant is a compound that is added to fats and fat-containing
items to delay oxidation and so extend their nutritional value, flavour, and,
occasionally, shelf life. Fat spoilage is referred to as rancidity. All foods that
include fat, such as breakfast cereals, nuts, and potato chips, have a
propensity to go rancid. To stop rancidity, antioxidants are added to these
products. Some of the most widely utilized antioxidants are butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxy toulene (BHT), naturally
occurring tocopherols, ascorbic acid, and sulphur dioxide.
3. Curing substances
Curing substances are additives used to preserve (cure) meats, contribute
them a pleasing colour and flavour, stop microorganism growth, and stop the
development of toxins. In meat and fish products, sodium nitrite has been
used for centuries as a preservative and colour stabiliser. Nitric oxide is
produced when nitrite is given to meat. Nitric oxide myoglobin (nitrosyl
myoglobin), a heat-stable pigment, is created when myoglobin and nitric
oxide mix. The meat's flavour is enhanced by the curing process. Nitrite
curing also reduces the temperature needed to kill C. botulinum and inhibits
the growth of Clostridium and Streptococcus.

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4. Sequestrants or Chelating Agents
Sequestrants or chelating agents are not Antioxidants. They act as metal
scavengers that catalyse the oxidation process. Citric acid is commonly used
at concentrations between 0.1 to 0.3%, with the suitable antioxidant present
at 100 to 200 ppm. Iron or copper can stimulate colour changes in food and
act as active oxidation catalysts. These trace metals mix with sequestrants
like citric acid or EDTA, which function as metal scavengers and inhibit
oxidation to enhance the quality and stability of food.
5. Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are a class of chemicals used to stabilise a mixture of liquids
that would otherwise separate too quickly or not at all. They are frequently
employed in dairy and confectionery products to disperse microscopic
globules of an oil or fatty liquid in water. They also stabilise gas-in-liquid
and gas-in-solid mixes. Margarine, salad dressings, and shortenings all
contain emulsifying agents. Emulsifiers can make up to 10% of a peanut
butter's composition.
Typically, stabilisers are large molecules that distribute into a matrix or
gel to which other, smaller molecules can be added. Thickeners like seed
gums are employed. Pine apple jam can use cassia tora gum at a
concentration of 0.05%.
Dietary fibre that is soluble for liquid products with the names hydro
coloids, vegetable gums, or water-soluble gums. The optimum soluble fibre
for liquid products must generate clear solutions, have a very low viscosity,
be flavourless and odourless, and have no taste. Gumarabic and specific low
viscosity grades of cellulose gum, carboxyl methyl cellulose, are the two
soluble fibres that best display the traits.
Guargum is a nonionic galactomannan isolated from a shrub of the
leguminoseae family known as Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (cluster bean). The
guar plant's hull is removed by soaking, followed by multistage grinding and
sifting to obtain the gum. Through differential grinding, the germ is
eliminated. Guargum is produced by drying and grinding the separated
endosperm, which contains 80% gum.
Functions of guargum
Table 4: Functions of Guargum

Product Advantages
Slow melt down, drier body, prevents formation of large ice
Ice cream
crystals

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 Better slicibility, better retention and migration of moisture, no
Cheese
syneresis
Reduced mixing time, greater moisture retention, less crumbling,
Cake mixes
easy application of icing
Improves clouding, stabilizes the suspended particulates, gives
Beverages
good mouth feeling
Instant dry mixes Used as thickening and texturizing agent
Source: Dang Parveen and Pankaj Anand, May, 2000, Guargum – A Natures gift for
food industry, Processed Food Industry.

6. Surface-active components
Whether an emulsion is made of oil in water or gas in liquid, these are
required to stabilize it. It includes both natural and artificial emulsifiers, such
as monodiglycerides and the lecithin in egg yolks that stabilizes mayonnaise.
7. Agents for whitening and maturing
Maida, an aata derivative, is white in colour, whereas aata, or milled
wheat flour, is somewhat yellow in brightness. Maida also performs well in
baking. Similar to how hydrogen peroxide is used to bleach milk in the
production of cheese, benzoyl peroxide is added to maida to bleach the
yellow hue and mature the aata, altering its characteristics.
8. Food colour
Food colouring is applied to it to enhance its aesthetic appeal. Food can
be given beautiful and tasty properties by adding natural or synthetic colour.
8.1 Natural colorants
a. Anthocyanins: A variety of glycosidic derivatives of the 2-
phenylbenzophyrylium structure make up anthocyanins.
Anthocyanins imparts blue, violet, and some red colours to the
fruits and vegetables.
b. Xanthophylls and carotenoids: The most prevalent natural colours
in both the plant and animal kingdoms are carotenoids, which are
made of eight isoprene units and are an aliphatic and clicyclic
unsaturated terpene. Oil-soluble pigments are called carotenoids.
The xanthophylls are a class of yellow carotenoids that are related to
carotenens but differ in that they have keto or hydroxyl substituents. Beta
carotenen, beta apo-8'-carotenol, and canthaxanthin are the three most
significant commercially relevant carotenoids. You can combine two or
more of them to create hues ranging from yellow to cherry.

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 Natural or artificial carotenoids can be used as food colouring. natural
annatto extracts made from the tropical plant's seeds.
Table 5: Natural colourants and their sources

Source Colourant
Annotto Bixin, Norbixin
Cochineal Carminic acid
Saffron Crocetin, beta Carotene, Zexanthin
Kermes Aglycone kerrmesic acid
Alkanna Tinctoria tansch Alkannet
Monascus Monascus colourant
Red phycoerythrins
Algae
Blue phyococyanins
Paprika extracts Capsanthin and capsorubin
Leaves Xanthophyll
Carrot β and α-carotene
Mushroom Canthaxantin
Red palm oil Lycopene and lutein
Turmeric Curcumin
Source: Srilakshmi, B. 2018. Food Science, 7th edition. New Age International
publisher.
c. Betalaines: Red and yellow pigments of the class betalines are
found in the red beet root, Beta vulgaris. The 4-vinyl-5, 6-
dihydropyridine-2, 6-dicarboxylic acid derivatives red-violet
betacyanins and yellow betaxanthines are water-soluble.
d. Caramel is a complex polysaccharide with an unknown chemical
structure that is made by heating food-grade carbohydrates such as
glucose, sucrose, or starch in the presence of a catalyst such as
acetic sulfuric or citric acids, or bases like ammonium, calcium, and
sodium hydroxides.
e. Curcumin: Turmeric, a yellow brown substance widely used as a
spice and a natural colourant is derived from the rhizome of
curcuma laonga L. it contains about 1-5 per cent of curcumin as the
principla colourant.
8.2 Sources of colourants
a. Annotto is a carotenoid-rich yellow concoction made from the
seeds of the Bixa orellana plant. It also goes by the name "lipstick
tree." The plant comes from tropical and central South America and

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 is an evergreen shrub or tree. Andhra Pradesh is where the tree was
raised. Bixin, a mono-methyl ester of a dicarboxylic carotenoid
molecule, and norbixin, dicarboxylic derivatives of the same
carotenoids as in bixin, make up the colour in annotto. Annotto is a
food additive, particularly in dairy products. The creation of both
water- and oil-soluble preparations is made possible by the presence
of two carboxylic acid groups. There are a succession of yellow to
red colours because the cis forms are redder in colour than the
yellow trans forms and the degradation compound.
b. Saffron or Crocetin, a dicarboxylic carotenoid, and its
digestiobioside ester, crocin, are both present in saffron. Saffron is
made from the stigma of Crocus sativus flower petals. Color and
flavour are both provided by saffron.
 Annatto (yellow to red, extracted from orange red pulp of
seeds)
 Toffee (burnt sugar)
 Safflower (flavor and colour)
 Carotenoid (from carrot)
 The females of an insect called coccus cactus are used to obtain the
natural colour cochineal. There are also natural reds made from
beets, grapes, and cranberries. Common synthetic colour include
approved coal tar dye, which is used in baked goods, candy, and
fizzy beverages. The synthetic colours have an advantage over the
natural ones since they offer better colour stability and homogeneity
and are more affordable. Additionally, the preferred shade of
natural hues
8.3 Synthetic colour
These often excel in terms of colouring strength, colour uniformity
stability, and price. Furthermore, a particular hue is frequently not available
in natural colouring ingredients. Among the items that are coloured with coal
tar dyes include carbonated beverages, desserts made with gelatin, sweets,
and baked goods. Foods employ the acid dyes that are water soluble.
Table 6: Different synthetic colour agents

Colour Common name

Ponceau 4 R
Red Carmosine
Erythrosine

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 Yellow Tartrazine, sunset yellow F.C.F
Indigo carmine
Blue
Brilliant Blue F.C.F
Green Fast Green F.C.F
Rhodamine, Orange G., Amarnath, Fast red, Metanil
Non permitted colours
yellow
Source: Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006, Rules 2011, Regulations 2011 (14th
ed.). Delhi: International Law Book Company, India. 2015. P.483

9. Sweeteners used in diet

Sweeteners aren't calorie-dense and don't provide any nutrients to the
food. Patients with diabetes and those who are concerned about their weight
utilise them. Cyclamates and saccharine were two of the first sweeteners.
The three most popular ones on the market right now are aspartame,
sucralose, and acesulfame-K.
 Sucralose can be used in cooking, unlike aspartame.
 These artificial sweeteners come in quite handy when making
diabetic or low-calorie dishes.
10. Flavouring agents
The majority of additives used in food are flavouring agents, which are
added to food to increase flavour or scent. Numerous dishes, ranging from
cereal, cake, and yoghurt to candies, soft drinks, and confections, use a range
of flavourings. Nut, fruit, and spice mixes as well as those made from
vegetables and wine are examples of natural flavouring agents. There are
also flavourings that mimic natural flavours. There is a growing demand for
flavouring agents. These flavouring chemicals help in the creation of
numerous sorts of food, however some taste loss occurs either fully or
partially throughout the procedures involved in processing food, such as
heating, concentration, or drying.
Synthetic flavouring ingredients include
 Benzaldehyde for cherry flavour and
 Amyl acetate for banana flavour.
 Ethyl butrate for the flavour of pineapple
 Methyl anthranilate, used to flavour grapes
"Flavor enhancers," which lack flavour on their own but improve
flavour when added to food, are also categorised under this category. Mono
sodium glutamate, often known as "ajinomoto," is one of these products and

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is mostly utilised in Chinese cuisine. Anti-caking compounds, such as the
calcium phosphate found in salt or the magnesium carbonate found in icing
sugar, are employed to prevent the product from clumping together.
11. Diverse food enhancers
Ammonium sulphate is used as a yeast food to encourage the growth of
baker's yeast. Calcium chloride is used to firm up fruits and vegetables.
Hydrogenated sperm oil is used as a lubricant in baking pans. Bentonite is
used to clarify wine. Sodium nitrate is used to cure meat. Oxystearin is used
as a crystal inhibitor in vegetable oils. Gibberellic acid is used to stimulate
the growth of malting barley. Sometimes a food additive may be well
known, yet its name may be unfamiliar. Similar to how ascorbic acid, which
is another name for vitamin C, works.
12. Utilization in enzymes formulation
A sort of addition that may or may not wind up in the finished food
product is enzyme preparations. Natural proteins called enzymes speed up
biological reactions by disassembling bigger molecules into their smaller
constituent parts. They serve as alternatives to technology based on
chemicals and can be obtained via extraction from plants, animals, or
microorganisms like bacteria. They are mostly utilized in baking (to enhance
the dough), fruit juice production (to boost yields), wine production and
brewing (to enhance fermentation), as well as cheese production (to
enhance curd formation).
13. Various ingredients
Various uses for other food additives include preservation, colouring,
and sweetening. When food is prepared, packaged, transported, or stored,
they are added, and eventually they end up as a part of the meal. The
degradation brought on by mould, air, bacteria, or yeast can be slowed down
by preservers. In addition to preserving the food's quality, preservatives aid
in preventing contamination that could result in foodborne illnesses such the
potentially fatal botulism. Food is coloured to either restore colours lost
during preparation or to improve the appearance of the food. Because they
provide less or no calories to meals, non-sugar sweeteners are frequently
employed as a substitute for sugar.
References
1. Babu S, Ramesh V. Bhat. Know your food additives, Nutrition, 1997,
31(4).
2. Das Madhusweta. Safety of using monosodium glutamate in processed
foods, processed food industry, 2003.

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3. Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006, Rules 2011, Regulations 2011
(14th ed.). Delhi: International Law Book Company, India, 2015, 483.
4. Srilakshmi B. Food Science, 7th edition. New Age International
publisher, 2018.

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 Chapter - 5
Essential Oils: Extraction Techniques and
Applications

Author
Soumya Hiregoudar
Ph.D. Scholar, Food Science and Nutrition, University of
Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
M.L. Revanna
Professor, Food Science and Nutrition, University of
Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Mamatha H.S
Associate Professor, Bakery Training Unit, University of
Agriculture Sciences, Hebbal, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Page | 67
Page | 68
 Chapter - 5
Essential Oils: Extraction Techniques and Applications
Soumya Hiregoudar, M.L. Revanna and Mamatha H.S

Abstract
Essential oils (EOs) are liquid preparations, produced from plant
materials. There are numerous techniques used to extract essential oils, each
of which has its advantages and affects the biological and physicochemical
characteristics of the extracted oils. More than 200 compounds, both volatile
and non-volatile, can be found in essential oils derived from various plant
species. The use of essential oils as antibacterial, anticancer, anti-
inflammatory and anti-viral medicines, among other things, is made possible
by their effective and efficient qualities. Essential oils and their applications
by employing essential oils as a natural preservative that are suitable to be
used in food preservation, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and among other
industries. So far as factors which are responsible for food spoilage and other
health related problems are still in existence, there is the need to develop
sustained preservation and public health relief techniques. Since EOs are all-
natural, risk-free, and GRAS-recognized, they can be used sparingly or
liberally, depending on the effects of the bioactive chemicals that have been
shown to increase product quality and safety without compromising
nutritional value or sensory quality.
Keywords: Essential oils, chemical constituents, extraction methods,
application
Introduction
Essential oils are secondary metabolites that are natural, intricate, volatile
chemical admixtures with an aromatic odour. Various essential oil varieties
have uses in the flavoring and medicinal industries. Because of increased
awareness of personal hygiene and health, as well as their usage as alternative
medications, essential oil use has increased daily, either directly or indirectly.
According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
essential oils are a "product obtained from a natural raw material of plant
origin, by steam distillation, by mechanical processes, or by dry distillation

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after separation of the aqueous phase if any by physical processes". In
addition, the standard states that "the essential oil can undergo physical
treatments, which do not result in any significant change in its composition".
To generate these aromatic oily liquids, various plant parts including
peels, barks, leaves, flowers, buds, seeds, and others are employed, along with
a variety of extraction procedures. The stereochemical structures of the
molecules that make up essential oils differ from one another, and this
variation can be affected by the method of extraction that is chosen. According
on plant organ, age, soil composition, climate change, and life cycle stages of
the plant, the quality, quantity, and composition of extracted essential oils
might fluctuate. The term "essential oils" refers to complex mixes of volatile
organic chemicals found in plants, such as terpenes and sesquiterpenes (both
of which belong to the hydrocarbon group), as well as alcohols, ethers, esters,
ketones and others.
For example, in Oraginum species, the essential oil contains 30% of
carvacol and 27% of thymol as major components.
With their important pharmacological effects, these aromatic medicinal
herbs are being used in pharmaceutical sectors as antibacterial, anti-
inflammatory, antiviral, and antifungal medicines. Interest in the application
of essential oils in many fields is rising steadily. Numerous investigations have
been made to determine the antibacterial effects of essential oils on a variety
of bacteria. Additionally, because to the pleasant scent created by the essential
oils of the aromatic plant, psychiatrists employ them for their psychological
patients.
Additionally, due to their biological effects against food-borne pathogens
as Salmonella typhimurium, Clostridium perfringens, Listeria
monocytogenes, Pseudomonas putida and Staphylococcus aureus, the demand
for essential oils as food preservatives is rising. As various studies have
shown, the issue of pathogens in food and animal products has been solved by
the low dosage application of essential oils. The emergence of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria and the potential for human-to-livestock transfer have
boosted the need for the use of natural plants as antibiotic alternatives in
animal feed. In fact, the European Union has outlawed the use of synthetic
antibiotics in livestock feed in order to encourage the healthy growth of
animals.
What are Essential Oils?
Essential oils are concentrated forms of the readily evaporative volatile
aromatic chemicals that give plants their distinctive smells. These intricate,

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priceless liquids are all derived from distinct plant species. Every plant species
has a specific geographic origin, with unique environmental factors and
nearby animals and flora.
Essential oils are frequently referred to as the “life force” of plants. Unlike
fatty oils, these "essential" oils are volatile, highly concentrated, substances
extracted from flowers, leaves, stems, roots, seeds, bark, resin or fruit rinds.
The amount of essential oils found in these plants can be anywhere from 0.01
percent to 10 percent of the total. That's why tons of plant material are required
for just a few hundred pounds of oil. These oils have strong antibacterial
properties and a variety of medicinal components. These oils are frequently
used in a variety of goods, including meals, medications, and cosmetics, for
their flavor and their medicinal or odoriferous characteristics. Watch out for
imitations. Synthetics cannot be used in place of essential oils. The whole
spectrum of chemicals that only pure oils contain cannot be replicated by
cheap imitations.
Oil "sacs" found in flowers, leaves, stems, roots, seeds, wood, and bark
are where essential oils are derived from. They are very different from the
popular vegetable, nut and seed oils, which are composed of different fatty
acids. Essential oils are utilized by plants to combat illness, contain hormone-
like substances, start cellular regeneration, and act as a chemical defense
against bacterial, viral and animal enemies. However, despite their different
origins, several chemicals in blood and tissues share structural similarities
with essential oils, making them compatible with our own physiology.
How to use Essential Oils?
Although some essential oils can be very helpful when consumed
internally, external application or inhalation is the most efficient approach to
use most essential oils. Body oils, compresses, cosmetic lotions, baths, hair
rinses, steam inhalation, perfumes, and room sprays are just a few of the
applications for essential oils. Essential oils are quite potent; if not utilised
correctly, some may irritate the skin or have other negative consequences.
Before applying any essential oils to the skin, it is preferable to dilute them in
a base oil such as almond, jojoba, or apricot kernel, unless otherwise stated;
the proper dilution is typically only 1 to 10% essential oil in carrier. A diffuser
or oil lamp may effectively release essential oils into your environment for
inhalation, which is a wonderfully relaxing method.
Chemical compositions of essential oil
Pure essential oils contain more than 200 constituents, most of which are
combinations of terpenes and phenylpropanoid derivatives with negligible

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chemical and structural distinctions. Essential oil components can be roughly
divided into volatile and non-volatile portions. The mono- and sesquiterpene
components, many oxygenated derivatives, alcohols, aliphatic aldehydes, and
esters are all present in the aromatic oil volatile fraction's overall chemical
makeup. On the other hand, carotenoids, fatty acids, flavonoids, and waxes,
which are categorized as non-volatile residues, make up 1–10 weight percent
of separated essential oil.
 Volatile fraction: Monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, as
well as their oxygenated derivatives, are found in essential oils,
which make up 90-95% of the oil's weight. Aliphatic aldehydes,
alcohols, and esters are also present.
 Nonvolatile residue: Contains hydrocarbons, fatty acids, sterols,
carotenoids, waxes, and flavonoids, and makes up 1–10% of the oil.
Hydrocarbon
Essential Oils consist of Chemical Compounds that have hydrogen and
carbon as their building blocks. Isoprene, a type of basic hydrocarbon found
in plants, has the following structure.
Terpenes
Generally have names ending in “ene”
For examples: Limonene, Pinene, Piperene, Camphene, etc.
Terpenes have antiviral, antibacterial, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory
properties. Monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes are further
categories for terpenes. When two of these isoprene units join head-to-tail, the
result is a monoterpene; when three join, the result is a sesquiterpene; and
when four link, the result is a diterpene. This is in reference to the isoprene
units under the Hydrocarbon category.
Monoterpenes [C H
10 16]

Properties: Bactericidal, Expectorant, Stimulant, and Analgesic.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons make up the majority of the naturally
occurring monoterpenes (C10). However, several of their oxygenated
derivatives, including alcohols, ketones, and the monoterpenoids class of
carboxylic acids.
More than 400 naturally occurring monoterpenes have been found in the
branched-chain C10 hydrocarbons, which consist of two isoprene units.
Additionally, the monoterpenes can be cyclic compounds (Menthol -

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Monocyclic; Camphor-Bicyclic; Pinenes (and)-Pine genera as well), in
addition to being linear derivatives (Geraniol, Citronellol).
Example
 Camphene and pinene in cypress oil.
 Camphene, pinene and thujhene in black pepper.
Sesquiterpenes
Properties: anti-inflammatory, anti-septic, analgesic and anti-allergic.
Sesquiterpenes can have a linear, monocyclic, or bicyclic structure and
are biogenetically produced from farnesyl pyrophosphate. They make up a
sizable group of secondary metabolites, some of which have been identified
as stress chemicals produced as a response of illness or damage.
Sesquiterpene Lactones
There are more than 500 chemicals in this category; they mostly
characterize the Composite but sporadically appear in other families. They
have not only shown promise from a chemical and chemotaxonomic
perspective, but they also exhibit a variety of anticancer, anti-leukemia,
cytotoxic, and antibacterial actions. They have the potential to cause human
skin allergies and to discourage insects from feeding on people.
Chemically, molecules can be categorized based on their carboxylic
skeletons; for example, guaianolides, pseudo guaianolides, eudesmanolides,
eremophilanolides, xanthanolides, etc., can be produced from
germacranolides.
The unsaturated-lactones are a structural characteristic of all these
chemicals that seems to be connected to a lot of the biological activity.
Example
 Farnesene in chamomile and lavender.
 Beta-caryophyllene in basil and black pepper.
Diterpenes
Properties: anti-fungal, expectorant, hormonal balancers, hypotensive.
Four isoprene units make up a diterpene. Rarely is this molecule present
in distilled essential oils since it is too heavy to allow for steam evaporation
during the distillation process. All plant families produce diterpenes, which
are made up of substances with a C20 backbone. There are 20 main structural
categories of the over 2500 known diterpenes. Gibberellins, a type of plant

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hormone, and phytol, which appears as a side chain on chlorophyll, are both
diterpenic derivatives. The biosynthesis takes place in plastids, and it's
interesting to note that mixes of mono- and diterpenes make up the majority
of plant resins. Diterpenes develop from the metabolism of geranyl geranyl
pyrophosphate similarly to how monoterpenes do (GGPP).
Diterpenes are employed in some sedatives (cough medicines),
antispasmodics, and other medications with minimal therapeutic value.
Example
 Sclareol in clary sage is an example of a diterpene alcohol.
Alcohols
Properties: anti-septic, anti-viral, bactericidal and germicidal.
The substances that include hydroxyl compounds are alcohols. Alcohols
can be found in nature either alone or in combination with terpenes or ester
molecules. Alcohol is produced when terpenes are joined with an oxygen and
a hydrogen atom. The resultant alcohol is known as a monoterpene when the
terpene is monoterpene. Alcohol has no or very little harmful response on the
skin or in the body. They are therefore thought to be safe to use.
Example
 Linalool found in ylang-ylang and lavender.
 Geraniol in geranium and rose.
 Nerol in neroli.
Aldehydes
Properties: Anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-septic, anti-viral,
bactericidal, disinfectant, sedative.
Medicinally, essential oils containing aldehydes are effective in treating
Candida and other fungal infections.
Example
 Citral in lemon.
 Lemongrass and lemon balm.
 Citronellal in lemongrass, lemon balm and citrus eucalyptus
Esters
Alcohols and acids react to generate esters as a result. Esters found in
essential oils are used for their calming and balancing properties. They are

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potent antibacterial agents due to the alcohol content. Esters are classified in
medicine as antifungal, sedative, and having a balanced effect on the
neurological system. With the exception of methyl salicylate, which is
poisonous to the body and is present in birch and wintergreen, they normally
don't require any precautions.
Example
 Linlyl acetate in bergamot and lavender.
 Geranyl formate in geranium.
Acids
Properties: anti-inflammatory.
Organic acids in their free state are generally found in very small
quantities within Essential oils. Plant acids act as components or buffer
systems to control acidity.
Example
 Cinnamic and benzoic acid in benzoin.
 Citric and lactic.
Ketones
Properties: anti-catarrhal, cell proliferant, expectorant, vulnery.
Plants used to treat upper respiratory issues frequently contain ketones.
They facilitate mucus movement and reduce congestion. Ketone-rich essential
oils are advantageous for accelerating wound healing and increasing the
growth of scar tissue. Usually, but not always, ketones are extremely
poisonous. Thujone, which is present in mugwort, sage, tansy, thuja, and
wormwood oils, is the most toxic ketone. Pulegone in pennyroyal and
pinocamphone in hyssops are two more poisonous ketones that can be present
in essential oils. Jasmone in jasmine oil, fenchone in fennel oil, carvone in
spearmint and dill oil, and menthone in peppermint oil are a few examples of
non-toxic ketones.
Example
 Fenchone in fennel, carvone in spearmint and dill
 Menthone in peppermint.
Lactones
Properties: anti-inflammatory, antiphlogistic, expectorant, febrifuge.

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 Because of its function in reducing prostaglandin synthesis and
expectorant effects, lactones are considered to be particularly effective at
reducing inflammation. Even more potently expectorant than ketones are
lactones.
Mechanism of action of Essential oils
The chemical makeup of EOs and the placement of one or more functional
groups on the molecules that make them up determine how they work. The
primary mode of action is thought to be membrane damage. The ability of EOs
to dissolve in the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes appears to be crucial
to the antibacterial activity of these compounds. According to some reports,
clove oil can lessen the amount of ergosterol that is specifically present in the
membranes of fungi. It has been discovered that the terpenoids in EOs obstruct
the enzymatic processes of energy metabolism. The discussion centers on
essential oils that may be utilized to treat and prevent oral diseases.
Extraction methods for essential oils
It is possible to extract diverse aromatic plant parts to create essential oils,
which have numerous uses in the realms of cosmetics, medicine, and food
safety. The qualities and components needed in the botanical extract determine
the production process and methodology used to extract essential oils. Since
improper extraction techniques may result in the destruction and change the
action of phytochemicals included in aromatic oils, the extraction method
utilised is the primary factor to ensure the quality of essential oils. The ensuing
impacts can include things like the elimination of pharmaceutical components,
a staining effect, an unpleasant flavour or odour, and a physical alteration of
essential oils. These extraction techniques can be divided into two groups:
classical methods and innovative methods. The application of innovative
techniques, such as ultrasonic and microwave enhanced processes, has
improved the efficiency of extraction process in terms time required for
isolation of the essential oil and energy dissipation, as well as improvement in
production yield, and high quality of essential oils.
Conventional Extraction Methods
Conventional techniques applied to extract essential plant oils are based
on water distillation by the heating process.
Hydrodistillation
Avicenna, who was the first to establish oil extraction through the
alembic, discovered hydro distillation, which is the earliest and most basic
method of oil extraction. The first plant extract to be processed in this way

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was rose. The process begins by directly submerging the plant components
into water inside the alembic (vessel), and then boiling the entire combination.
The apparatus consists of a heating source, a vessel (Alembic), a condenser to
change the liquid from the vessel's vapour into a liquid, and a decanter to
collect the condensate and separate the essential oils from the water. This
extraction process is widely employed for extractions involving hydrophobic
natural plant material with a high boiling point, and is thought to be a
distinctive way to extract plant components like wood or flowers.
This technique allows essential oils to be extracted to a certain extent
without becoming overheated because the oils are submerged in water. This
extraction method's capacity to isolate plant components below 100°C is its
key benefit.
Steam Distillation
The steam distillation process is the most widely used approach in the
extraction of essential plant oils. 93% of the essential oils are extracted using
this process, and the remaining 7% can be recovered further using other
techniques. In essence, the procedure began with the heating of plant material
using steam that was provided by a steam generator (Fig. 5). How well the
plant material structures decompose, rupture, and release the aromatic
components or essential oils depends primarily on heat.
Masango created a cutting-edge steam distillation extraction method to
boost the yields of isolated essential oils and lower the volume of wastewater
generated during the extraction procedure. A dense bed of plant samples is
used in the system, and it is positioned above the steam source. Only steam is
acceptable. Boiling water is not allowed to combine with the botanical
elements, and only steam is permitted to travel through the plants. As a result,
the process uses less steam and the distillate can include less water.
Hydrodiffusion
In the Hydrodiffusion extraction method, steam is given to a container
containing plant materials during the extraction process. Only dried plant
samples that can be harmed by boiling temperatures are used with this
approach. While steam is given from the top of the steam generator during the
hydrodiffusion method, steam is applied from the bottom of the steam
generator during the steam distillation procedure. Low pressure or vacuum
was used for this procedure, and steam temperatures might be as low as 100°C.
This method uses common solvents such acetone, petroleum ether,
hexane, methanol, or ethanol to extract delicate or fragile flower components
that cannot be extracted using heat or provided steam. Usually, plant samples

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are combined with solvents to be extracted, the combination is lightly heated,
and the solvents are then filtered and evaporated. A resin (resinoid), which is
a combination of wax, aroma, and essential oil, is present in the filtrate. The
essential oil is dissolved into the filter mixture by adding alcohol, and it is then
distilled at a low temperature. The aromatic absolute oil is left in the pot
residue while the alcohol absorbs fragrance and evaporates during the
distillation process. Compared to other methods, this method is more
complicated for essential oils extraction, and as a result, time-consuming and
more expensive.
In a different study, researchers used the solvent extraction method for
the extraction of essential oils to examine the antioxidant activity of
Ptychotisverticillata. Carvacol and thymol, which make up 44.6% and 3.4%
of the total phenolic compounds, respectively, are the two primary
components. Other research has extracted the essential oils from Thymus
praecox subsp. Skorpilii var. Skorpilii (TPS), and then mixed the plant
extractant with various solvents such ethanol, methanol, and water to study
the chemical components and antioxidant activity.
Innovation of Extraction Methods
The need for additional extraction technique modification arises from a
number of drawbacks of traditional procedures, which promote chemical
changes in essential oils like hydrolysis, isomerization, and oxidation. The
quality of the essential oils is impacted by these high-temperature methods,
which also lengthen the extraction time. Maintaining the chemical
composition and natural proportion of the oil in its initial condition is crucial
in the process of extracting essential oils. Reduced extraction time, energy
usage, solvent use, and carbon dioxide emissions are factors that need to be
considered when developing novel extraction procedures.
Applications of Essential oils
Application of essential oils in the food industry
Essential oils are rich sources of biologically active compounds with known
antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, which attract interest as additives in the
food industry. The US Food and Drug Administration has classified the use of
essential oils as antimicrobial additives in food as GRAS (Generally Recognized as
Safe). However, because to their potent antibacterial and antioxidant effects, interest
in their use as a food additive has recently increased. The fundamental strategy for
ensuring food safety is to reduce the initial microbial load and/or to utilize active
packaging during post-process applications, such as manufacture and storage, to
prevent the growth of the remaining germs.

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Pharmacological Applications of Essential Oils
According to descriptions, essential oils have a variety of
pharmacological characteristics. Recently, people and businesses have created
ways to alter the effects of pharmaceutical medicines. Perilla frutescens (L)
Britt, Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth, Mentha haplocalyx Briq,
Rosmarinus officinalis Linn, Lavandula angustifolia Mill, and Scutellaria
baicalensis Georgi are six species of the Lamiaceae that are frequently
employed. These plants and their extracts have been used as anti-
inflammatory, anti-tumor, antioxidant, and antibacterial agents.
Nowadays, bacterial infections develop resistance to multiple antibiotics,
which has increased the severity of diseases. Because of their capacity to build
biofilms, medication intolerance, and weakened host cell defence, the
frequency of potentially fatal bacterial infections in humans is on the rise.
Given this, essential oils and their chemical make-up have been extracted from
plants as a potential way to tackle multiple drug-resistant pathogenic
microorganisms. Additionally, essential oils from therapeutic aromatic herbs
including fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), and
peppermint (Mentha piperita) have been shown to be effective against yeast,
fungus, viruses, and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. According to
reports, higher plants' defence mechanisms benefit from EOs. According to
Bisht, Copaifera officinalis essential oil includes -cadinene, -humulene, -
copaene, -germacrene D, -caryophyllene, and -bisabolene, all of which have
the ability to prevent the growth of S. aureus and E. coli. Additionally, the
camphene, terpineol, -pinene, -thujone, and camphor in essential oils suppress
the growth of Klebsiella pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, and Enterococcus
faecalis. Along with others, these EOs have been applied to oral and dental
treatments. Both the antioxidative and insect-repelling qualities of EOs have
been proven.
Essential Oils as Edible Coating
Ingredients in Food Biological substances like proteins, lipids, and
polysaccharides, either alone or more frequently in combination, are typically
the basis for edible films and coatings. The use and selection of EOs should
take the consumer's sensory acceptance of the final product into account. In
fact, their direct use is typically discouraged because of their powerful flavour.
In order to increase food quality and safety, edible coatings have been
proposed as a substitute for traditional food packaging. These coatings can
therefore incorporate EOs. Applying edible coatings comprising oregano and
thyme EO's to fresh beef slices may be able to reduce the growth of harmful

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germs and improve colour stability while maintaining acceptable sensory
qualities, claim Polat and Kezban.
Preventing the growth of spoilage microorganisms associated with fresh
food and its products is a crucial issue for the food business. Bioactive
bundling systems are seen to be a potential invention that significantly affects
product security and shelf-life extension. The loss of the produce's
organoleptic quality and nutritional content is a result of the desired impact of
microbial and enzyme inactivation. To preserve and enhance the storage
quality and shelf life of goods, it is crucial to create efficient storage
techniques and alternative technology. The use of essential oils (EOs) and the
parts of them as natural antibacterial agents to inhibit the growth of pathogenic
and spoilage bacteria in food has enormous potential. Numerous plant EOs
have been found to have antibacterial activities. By including an EO directly
into the product as an ingredient or combining it with an edible coating
material and films to protect the product's surface, essential oils and their use
in food and their products have been used to inhibit the development of
foodborne diseases and germs.
Conclusion
The use of essential oils in the food industry as a preservation strategy to
increase food shelf life and prevent postharvest degradation of fruits and
vegetables is summarized, along with their key components and extraction
techniques. Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United
Nations, food security and sustainability have been important concerns. Food
preservation is a crucial challenge as a result of the requirement to provide
year-round food availability. Whether or not the bioactive chemicals included
in EOs have the ability to fulfil the desired function will determine how they
are developed and used. EOs have been studied and used in a variety of
industries, including the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic ones. Their
existence has been seen to more effectively combat foodborne pathogens and
other microbes. Since EOs are all-natural, risk-free, and GRAS-recognized,
they can be used sparingly or liberally, depending on the effects of the
bioactive chemicals that have been shown to increase product quality and
safety without compromising nutritional value or sensory quality.
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