PART – A

1. Differentiate between steady and unsteady heat transfer.

During heat transfer, If the temperature within the system does not change with time, it is
called as Steady heat transfer.
If the temperature within the system changes with time, it is called as unsteady heat
transfer.

2. Define fin efficiency.

Ratio of actual heat transfer to maximum possible heat transfer

3. State Fourier law of heat conduction

The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured – normal to the
direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that direction.

4. Define thermal diffusivity.

It is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability
to store thermal energy.
5. Define Prandtl number.

It is defined as the ratio of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity.

6. Differentiate between free and forced convection
If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from temperature
gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection.
If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force like a blower or fan,
that type of heat transfer is known as forced convection.

7. Define Rayleigh number.

It is defined as the ratio of buoyancy force to viscous force.
𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

8. Define hydrodynamic boundary layer.

It is a thin region near a surface, within which effect of viscosity leading to velocity
gradient and temperature gradient exist.
9. Define fouling factor.
The fouling factor represents the resistance to heat flow due to the buildup
of a scaling layer on the tube surfaces of the heat exchanger.
10. Define a heat exchanger.
Heat exchanger is a device, in which heat is transferred between two fluids at different
temperatures.

11. Differentiate between pool boiling and flow boiling.

 Pool boiling: boiling of stagnant liquid
Flow boiling: boiling of fluid, made to flow with external agency.
12. Define effectiveness of a heat exchanger
It is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to maximum possible heat transfer in a
heat exchanger.
13. Define a black body.
A body, which absorbs all the incident radiations, is called as a black body.
14. Define transmissivity.
It is defined as the ratio of amount of radiation transmitted to the total incident radiation

15. Define shape factor.

It is defined as the fraction of radiation energy leaving a surface and falling on the other
surface

16. Define emissivity.

It is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of a given body to the emissive power of black
body.

17. State Fick’s law of diffusion.

The molar flux due to diffusion is proportional to the concentration gradient
18. Define diffusion mass transfer.
The transport of matter on a microscopic level as a result of diffusion from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration in a mixture of liquids or gases is
known as diffusion mass transfer.

19. Define Schmidt number.

It is defined as the ratio of the molecular diffusivity of momentum to the molecular
diffusivity of mass.
20. Define Lewis number
It is defined as the ratio of the thermal diffusivity to the molecular
diffusivity of mass.
 PART – B
UNIT - I

1. A steel pipe (K = 45.0 W/m.K) having a 0.05m O.D is covered with a 0.042 m thick layer of
magnesia (K = 0.07W/m.K) which in turn covered with a 0.024 m layer of fiberglass insulation
(K = 0.048 W/m.K). The pipe wall outside temperature is 370 K and the outer surface
temperature of the fiberglass is 305K. What is the interfacial temperature between the magnesia
and fiberglass? Also calculate the steady state heat transfer.

Given:
OD = 0.05 m
d1= 0.05 m
r1 = 0.025 m
k1 = 45 W/mK
r2 = r1 + thick of insulation 1
r2 = 0.025+0.042
r2 = 0.067 m
k2 = 0.07 W/mK

k3 = 0.048 W/mK
r3 = r2 + thick of insulation 2
= 0.067+0.024
r3 = 0.091 m
T1 = 370 K
T3 = 305 K
To find
(i) T2
(ii) Q
2. A turbine blade is made of stainless steel, which carries 85 Watt heat. The cross sectional
area of the blade is 4.5 cm2. The perimeter of the blade is 7 cm. The gas temperature
flowing over the blade is 800 oC. The temperature at the root of the blade is 1250 oC.
Thermal conductivity of the blade is 22 W/mK and heat transfer coefficient is 110 W/m 2K.
Determine the height of the blade, neglecting heat flow from gas to the end of the blade.
3. A wall furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120 mm thick, covered with a
layer of magnesite brick 240 mm thick. The temperatures at the inside surface of silica
brick wall and outside the surface of magnesite brick wall are 725oC and 110oC
respectively. The contact thermal resistance between the two walls at the interface is
0.0035 oC/W per unit wall area. If thermal conductivities of silica and magnesite bricks
are 1.7 W/moC and 5.8 W/moC, calculate the rate of heat loss per unit area of walls.
 4. A motor body is 360 mm in diameter (outside) and 240 mm long. Its surface temperature should
not exceed 55 oC when dissipating 340 W. Longitudinal fins of 15 mm thickness and 40 mm
height are proposed. The convection coefficient is 40W/m 2 oC. Determine the number of fins
required. Atmospheric temperature is 30oC. Thermal conductivity = 40 W/moC.

Given:
D = 360x10-3 m
L = 240 x10-3 m
Tb = 55oC
Q generating = 340 W
Longitudinal fin
tfin = 15 x 10-3 m
hfin = 40 x 10-3 m
h = 40W/m2 oC
k = 40 W/m oC.
T∞ = 30 oC
 UNIT-II

1. A vertical pipe 80 mm diameter and 2 m height is maintained at a constant temperature of

120 o C. the pipe is surrounded by still atmospheric air at 30 o C. Find heat loss by natural
convection.
2. Water flows inside a tube of 20 mm diameter and 3m long at a velocity of 0.03 m/s. The
water gets heated from 40 oC to 120 oC, while passing through the tube. The tube wall is
maintained at a constant temperature of 160 oC. Determine the heat transfer rate.
3. Air at 25 oC flows past a flat plate at 2.5 m/s. The plate measures 600 mm X 300 mm and is
maintained at a uniform temperature at 95 oC. Calculate the heat loss from the plate, if the air
flows parallel to the 600 mm side. How would this heat loss be affected if the flow of air is made
parallel to the 300 mm side?
4. A steam pipe 10 cm outside diameter runs horizontally in a room at 23 ºC. Take the outside surface
temperature of pipe as 165ºC. Determine the heat loss per metre length of the pipe.
5.
 UNIT-III

1.(a) Explain the various regimes of ‘Pool Boiling’ with neat sketch.
Boiling is classified as pool boiling or flow boiling, depending on the presence of bulk fluid motion.
Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk fluid flow and flow boiling in the presence of bulk fluid
motion. Boiling takes different forms, depending on the value of the excess temperature ∆T excess. Four
different boiling regimes are observed: natural convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and
film boiling. These regimes are illustrated on the boiling curve in fig, which is a plot of boiling heat flux
versus the excess temperature.
 We know from thermodynamics that a pure substance at a specified pressure starts boiling when
it reaches the saturation temperature at that pressure. But in practice we do not see any bubbles forming
on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation temperature (about 2
to 6o C for water). Therefore, the liquid is slightly superheated in this case and evaporates when it rises to
the free surface. The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection currents, and
heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural convection. For the conditions of fig, natural
convection boiling ends at excess temperature of about 5o C.
NUCLEATE BOILING (between points A and C): The first bubbles start forming at point A of the
boiling curve at various preferential sites on the heating surface. Point A is referred to as the onset of
nucleate boiling (ONB). The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation sites
as we move along the boiling curve toward point C. From fig nucleate boiling exists in the range from about
5o C to about 30oC. The nucleate boiling regime can be separated into two distinct regions. In regions A-
B (5oC ≤ ∆T excess ≤ 10 o C), isolated bubbles are formed at various preferential nucleation sites on the
heated surface. But these bubbles are dissipated in the liquid shortly after they separate from the surface.
The space vacated by the rising bubbles is filled by the liquid in the vicinity of the heater surface, and the
process is repeated. The stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to the heater surface
is primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer coefficient and heat flux in this region of nucleate
boiling.
In region B-C (10oC ≤ ∆T excess ≤ 30 o C), the heater temperature is further increased, and bubbles
form at such great rates at such a large number of nucleation sites that they form numerous continuous
columns of vapour in the liquid. These bubbles move all the way up to the free surface, where they break
up and release their vapor content. The large heat fluxes obtainable in this region. At large values of ∆T
excess, the rate of evaporation at the heater surface reaches such high values that a large fraction of the
heater surface is covered by bubbles, making it difficult for the liquid to reach the heater surface and wet
it. Consequently, the heat flux increases at a lower rate with increasing ∆T excess, and reaches a maximum
at point C. the heat flux at this point is called the critical heat flux. TRANSITION BOILING (between points
C and D) As the heater temperature and thus the ∆T excess, is increased past point C, the heat flux
decreases, as shown in fig. this is because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapour film,
which acts as an insulation due to the low thermal conductivity of the vapour relative to that of the liquid.
In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film boiling partially occur. Nucleate boiling at point C
is completely replaced by film boiling at point D. for water, transition boiling occurs over the excess
temperature range from about 30oC to about 120oC.
FILM BOILING (beyond point D): In this region the heater surface is completely covered by a
continuous stable vapour film. Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum, is called the Leidenfrost
point. The liquid droplets on a very hot surface jump around and slowly boil away. The presence of a
vapour film between the heater surface and the liquid is responsible for the low heat transfer rates in the
film boiling region. The heat transfer rate increases with increasing excess temperature as a result of heat
transfer from the heated surface to the liquid through the vapour film by radiation, which becomes
significant at high temperatures.

(b) Explain the various regimes of ‘Flow Boiling’ with neat sketch.

Flow boiling: The pool boiling we considered so far involves a pool of seemingly motionless
liquid, with vapor bubbles rising to the top as a result of buoyancy effects. Inflow boiling, the
fluid is forced to move by an external source such as a pump as it undergoes a phase-change
process. The boiling in this case exhibits the combined effects of convection and pool boiling.
The flow boiling is also classified as either external or internal flow boiling depending on
whether the fluid is forced to flow over a heated surface or inside a heated tube.
External flow boiling over a plate or cylinder is similar to pool boiling, but the added motion
increases both the nucleate boiling heat flux and the critical heat flux considerably, as shown
in Figure. Note that the higher the velocity, the higher the nucleate boiling heat flux and the
critical heat flux. In experiments with water,critical heat flux values as high as 35 MW/m2 have
been obtained (compare this to the pool boiling value of 1.3 MW/m2 at 1 atm pressure) by
increasing the fluid velocity. Internal flow boiling is much more complicated in nature
because there is no free surface for the vapor to escape, and thus both the liquid and the
vapor are forced to flow together. The two-phase flow in a tube exhibits different flow boiling
regimes, depending on the relative amounts of the liquid and the vapor phases. This
complicates the analysis even further.
The different stages encountered in flow boiling in a heated tube are illustrated in Figure together with
the variation of the heat transfer coefficient along the tube. Initially, the liquid is subcooled and heat
transfer to the liquid is by forced convection. Then bubbles start forming on the inner surfaces of the
tube, and the detached bubbles are drafted into the mainstream. This gives the fluid flow a bubbly
appearance, and thus the name bubbly flow regime. As the fluid is heated further, the bubbles grow in
size and eventually coalesce into slugs of vapor. Up to half of the volume in the tube in this slugflow
regime is occupied by vapor. After a while the core of the flow consists of vapor only, and the liquid is
confined only in the annular space between the vapor core and the tube walls. This is the annular-flow
regime, and very high heat transfer coefficients are realized in this regime. As the heating continues, the
annular liquid layer gets thinner and thinner, and eventually dry spots start to appear on the inner
surfaces of the tube. The appearance of dry spots is accompanied by a sharp decrease in the heat
transfer coefficient. This transition regime continues until the inner surface of the tube is completely
dry. Any liquid at this moment is in the form of droplets suspended in the vapor core, which resembles
a mist, and we have a mist-flow regime until all the liquid droplets are vaporized. At the end of the mist-
flow regime we have saturated vapor, which becomes superheated with any further heat transfer.

2. A copper pan is used for boiling water at atmospheric pressure. The diameter of the pan is 400
mm. Determine the following, if the excess temperature is 15 oC.

(i) surface heat flux

(ii) power required to boil the water
(iii) rate of evaporation
(iv) critical heat flux
3. In a refrigerating plant, water is cooled from 20 oC to 7 oC by brine solution entering at - 2 oC
and leaving at 3 oC . The heat flow is 5500 W and overall heat transfer coefficient is
800 W/m2K. Determine the area required when using a Shell and Tube heat exchanger
with water making one shell pass and the brine making two tube passes.
[Link] enters a counter flow heat exchanger dry saturated at 10 bar and leaves at 350 ºC. The
mass flow of steam is 800 kg/min. the gas enters the heat exchanger at 650 ºC and mass flow
rate is 1350 kg/min. if the tubes are 30mm diameter and 3m long. Determine the number of
tubes required. Neglect the resistance offered by metallic tubes use following data

For steam:
Tsat = 180 ºC (at 10 bar)
Cps = 2.71 kJ/kgK,
hs = 600 W/m2K
For Gas :
Cpg =1 kJ/kgK
hg = 250 W/m2K

Given:
Hot fluid = Gas Cold fluid = Steam
mc = 800 kg/min = 800 / 60 = 13.33 kg/s

mh = 1350 kg/min = 1350 / 60 = 22.5 kg/s

Th1 = 650 ºC
Tc1 = 180 ºC (at 10 bar, take saturation temperature from steam table)
Tc2 = 350 ºC
Cpc = 2.71 kJ/kgK = 2710 J/kgK
Cph = 1 kJ/kgK = 1000 J/kgK
ho = 600 W/m2
hi = 600 W/m2

To find : No of tubes required

Solution:

Heat gain by the cold fluid, Q = mcCpc(Tc2 - Tc1) = 13.33 x 2710 x (350 – 180)
= 6141131 W
Heat lost by the hot fluid = Heat gained by the cold fluid

Q = mhCph(Th1 – Th2)
6141131 = 22.5 x 1000 x (650 - Th2)
 UNIT-IV

1.
2. Liquid Oxygen is stored in a double walled spherical vessel. Inner wall temperature
is – 160 oC and outer wall temperature is 30 oC. Inner diameter of the sphere is
20 cm and outer diameter is 32 cm. Determine the following. (i) heat transfer, If
emissivity of spherical surface is 0.05 (ii) rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen, if its
latent heat of evaporation is 200 kJ/kg.
3. Emissivities of two large parallel plates, maintained at 800oC and 300oC, are 0.3 and 0.5
respectively. Calculate net radiant heat exchange for these plates. Calculate the
percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminium radiation shield of
emissivity 0.01 is placed between them. Also calculate the temperature of the shield.

Given data:
Temperature of first plate, 𝑇1 = 800℃ =1073 𝐾
Temperature of second plate, 𝑇2 = 300℃ = 573 𝐾
Emissivity of first plate, 𝜀1 = 0.3
Emissivity of second plate, 𝜀2 = 0.5
Emissivity of radiation shield, 𝜀3 = 0.01

To find:
(4) Heat transfer without shield, 𝑄
(ii) Percentage reduction in heat transfer
(iii) Temperature of the shield, 𝑇3
Solution
4.
 UNIT-V

1. An open pan 210 mm in diameter and 75 mm deep contains water at 25oC and is
exposed to dry atmosphere air. Calculate the diffusion co-efficient of water in air.
Take the rate of diffusion of water vapour is 8.52 x 10-4 kg/h.

𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵 𝑫𝑨𝑻𝑨:
Diameter, d = 210 mm = 0.21 m
Depth, L=x2−x1=75 mm = 0.075 m
Temperature, T = 25 oC = 298 K
Diffusion rate or mass transfer rate = 8.52 X 10 - 4 kg/hr = (8.52 X 10 - 4 )/3600 kg/s
= 2.36 X 10 - 7 kg/s
To Find:
Diffusion Coefficient, Dab
2. Determine the diffusion rate of water from the bottom of a test tube of 25 mm
diameter and 35 mm long into dry air at 25 OC. Take diffusion coefficient of water
in air as 0.28 X 10 - 4 m2/s.
3. Two large tanks, maintained at the same temperature and pressure, are connected by a
circular 0.15 m diameter duct, which is 3 m long. One tank contains a uniform
mixture of 60 mole % Ammonia and 40 mole % air. And the other tank contains a
uniform mixture of 20 mole % Ammonia and 80 mole % air. The system is at
273 K and pressure 1.0123 X 105 Pa. Determine the rate of Ammonia transfer
between the two tanks, assuming a steady state mass transfer.
4.