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TEACHING NOTES FOR CURRICULUM STUDES
The term ‘curriculum’ originated from the Latin word “curere” meaning to “run a course”. It
therefore, represents a course of subjects covered by learners in their race towards a certain
educational goal or target.
Curriculum definitions have developed along a continuum from narrow to broad ones. There
is also a myriad of curriculum definitions by different scholars such as:
That which is taught in schools A set of subjects Content A program of studies
A set of materials A sequence of courses A set of performance objectives
Everything that is planned by school personnel A series of experiences undergone
by learners in a school That which an individual learner experiences as a result of
schooling.
Definitions of curriculum by scholars.
Ralph Tyler (1949): - All the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the
school to attain its educational goals.
Taba (1962): - a plan for learning.
D. K. Wheeler (1978):- the planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of
the school.
Kerr (1968): -all the learning, which is planned and guided by school whether it is carried on
in groups or individually.
Curriculum is a systematic and intended packaging of competencies i.e. knowledge, skills
and attitudes which are underpinned by values. Learners should acquire these values through
organized learning experiences both in formal and informal settings.
Curriculum is viewed as composite whole including the learner, the teacher, teaching and
learning methodologies, anticipated and unanticipated experiences, outputs and outcomes
possible within a learning institution.
What are the characteristics of a curriculum?
It comprises the experiences of children for which the school is responsible.
It has content.
It is planned.
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It is a series of courses to be taken by students
Sequence of curriculum content
Sequence is defined as the order in which content is presented to learners over time.
Content is broken down into manageable sections that can then be presented to
learners over a period of time in varying arrangements or order.
How should content be arranged and presented to the learners?
Traditionally, subjects have been sequenced according to a logical criterion, that is, the
‘logical’ approach of the decision-making involved.
E.g. arithmetic should be taught before geometry and grammar should be taught before
literature.
However, there are four principles which are used for sequencing content.
1. Simple to complex: This approach to ordering content is traditionally found in
sciences, mathematics, grammar, music, foreign languages and many other subjects
taught in schools. In this situation, sequence is seen as a progression from simple,
subordinate components to complex structures, which in turn are the subordinate
components of even more complex superordinate structures.
2. Prerequisite learning: This principle is followed in subjects which consists largely of
laws and principle such as physics, grammar and geometry. To understand one set of
laws or principles, the learner must acquire the prerequisite learning. To apply a law
of motion in physics to a practical problem, for example, one must first know the law.
Much of the basic and high school curriculum in Zambia is based upon the notion of
prerequisite learning.
3. Chronology: This principle suggests sequencing content according to the chronology
of recorded events. This is particularly important if one accepts a causal relationship
between events such that to understand an event one need to understand what
preceded it. History, music and literature use this approach, as does any subject that
examines its own history, such as the history of science. The chronological principle
can be applied forward or backward form any particular point in time.
4. Whole-to-part learning: The rationale for this principle is that understanding the
whole makes possible the understanding of partial or constituent phenomena. In
literature it is useful to study a novel as a whole before an analysis of its constituent
parts. Typically a literature curriculum would recommend students read a novel as an
entity before undertaking character and plot analysis. Commonly used in geography,
for example, this principle suggests that the learner first examines the globe, then
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associated global concepts (time, seasons), followed by specific local topics such as
weather. Similarly in biology, the student learns about the whole animal before one
learns about its parts.
These four guiding principles have been expanded to include two additional approaches to
sequencing:
1. Increasing abstraction: Content can be sequenced according to the idea that one
learns most effectively and what is closer or more meaningful to the learner. Thus, we
can commence ordering content with one’s own experiences and proceed to more
remote learnings.
2. Spiral sequencing: This term was described by Bruner (1965) in connection with
whole curriculum organisation, but most often it is applied to smaller components of a
curriculum. In the process of Education, Bruner noted that students should be exposed
to the content’s basic ideas repeatedly, thus building on basic understanding until the
whole concept or lot of learning has been acquired. As a learner progresses through
the curriculum, the spiralling process allows the content (knowledge, skills, values
and attitudes) to be reinforced and extended. The end result is a learner is familiar
with the requirements of the curriculum.
Elements/Components of a Curriculum
A curriculum generally is expected to consist of the following elements:
• Aims, goals and objectives (Curriculum intent).
• Subject content / learning experiences
• Methods / strategies of delivery
• Evaluation
All these components interact with one another. It is the interaction of these elements in the
social, political, economic, technological and environmental context that constitutes a
curriculum.
Now let us look at each element in turn.
Purpose (Aims, Goal and Objectives)
The purpose of a curriculum:
• is based on the social aspirations of society,
• outlines the goals and aims of the programme, and
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is expressed as goals and objectives.
There are three categories of goals and objectives:
• Cognitive, referring to intellectual tasks,
• Psychomotor, referring to muscular skills, and
• Affective, referring to feeling and emotions.
You should note that the curriculum reflects the relevance of whatever the society deems to
be important
Content or Subject Matter
The content of the curriculum:
• is divided into bodies of knowledge, for example, mathematics, English and science;
• outlines the desired attitudes and values;
• includes cherished skills;
• is determined by prevailing theories of knowledge; and
• caters to ideological, vocational and technical considerations.
You should note that the curriculum content must be applicable to the solution of the
problems affecting the society which uses it.
Methods
The methods outlined in a curriculum:
• deal with teaching and learning experiences, and
• involve organisational strategies.
Flexible teaching methods facilitate learning.
Evaluation
Evaluation is used to:
• select appropriate content based on the aims and objectives of the curriculum;
• select appropriate methods to address the content and purpose;
• check the effectiveness of methods and learning experiences used; check on the
suitability and the appropriateness of the curriculum in answering social needs; give
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feedback to the planners, learners, teachers, industry and society; and provide a
rationale for making changes.
You should note that in conducting evaluations, judgement must be made regarding:
• inputs,
• means,
• content,
• outputs, and
• outcomes of the whole learning process
