Theme 12: Interrelationships

TOPIC 12.1: THE CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY

Ecology is the scientific study and analysis of the interaction of organisms with each other and their
environment. Environment refers to all external conditions in which an organism lives.

Terms Used in Ecology

1. Habitat: it is a specific area in an environment where an organism lives successfully.

2. Ecological niche: Is the precise place where an organism lives and the role it plays in the habitat. Eg
the role of a lion in a grassland is predation.

3. Population: A group of individuals of same species in a specific area at a given time. Eg number of
antelopes in a national park.

4. Population density: Number of individuals of the same species per unit area at a given time. Eg 142
antelopes per square kilometre.

5. Community: Group of individuals of different species in a specific area at a given time. Eg grass, trees,
antelopes, rats, leopards, etc in a national park.

6. Flora and fauna: Plants and animals respectively.

7. Biomass: Total quantity of living organic matter. Eg the total mass of all living organisms in a national
park.

8. Species: Group of organisms capable of interbreeding & give rise to viable(fertile) offsprings.

9. Trophic level: Feeding level; indicates feeding position of an organism in a food chain. Eg primary
producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, decomposer.

10. Biotic potential: The maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under ideal conditions.

11. Ecosystem: Is a natural unit composed of biotic and abiotic components whose interactions form
stable self-sustaining system. e.g. lake, grassland, forest, etc.

12. Biotic factors: Living components of the environment. Eg plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and
protoctists.

13. Abiotic factors: Non-living components of environment. Eg water, air, mineral salts, clouds,
temperature etc

14. Carrying capacity: Maximum number of individuals the environment can sustain using the available
resources in a given time; without causing depletion of the resources.

15. Biosphere: Part of the earth that can be inhabited by living organisms.

ECOSYSTEMS

An ecosystem is a natural unit composed of living and nonliving things that interact to form a stable self-
sustaining system. The following are the main ecosystems in East Africa;
 • Forests
• Wetlands
• Savanna/Rangelands
• Waterbodies
• Mountains and hills

MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING SOME ECOSYSTEMS

FORESTS

Forests have the following distinguishing features

• Dense vegetation. They have a dense vegetation cover primarily and associated understory
vegetation
• Biodiversity. They host a variety of plant and animal species, often with high levels of species
diversity
• Canopy structure. They have a layered structure with distinct canopy, understory, and forest
floor levels
• High precipitation. Forests usually receive relatively high amounts of rainfall

WETLANDS

Examples include swamps, marsh, moor, bog, etc. The following are distinguishing features of wetlands

• The land is covered mostly with water, with occasional marshy and soggy areas.
• They contain vegetation that is adapted to tolerate water thrive in water-logged areas eg
papyrus, mangrove, water hyacinth, water lilies, Typha species, etc
• They support a rich diversity of animals eg frogs, fish, waterfowl, etc
• They act as water catchment areas (area from which water drains into a waterbody)
SAVANNA

Savanna is characterised by the following

• They have an abundance of grass and other herbaceous plants, making them suitable for grazing
herbivores
• They have fewer trees and scattered shrubs
• They experience variable rainfall patterns ie high rainfall during wet season and very little rainfall
during dry season.

WATERBODIES

These include rivers, lakes and oceans. Waterbodies are characterised by the following

• The land is covered by water which can be flowing or not

• They host a variety of aquatic biodiversity eg fishes, amphibians, crocodiles, hippopotamus,
plants and invertebrates which are adapted to aquatic environments.
• They can cover a very large area extending to thousands of square kilometres.

HIGHLANDS

These include hill and mountains. The following are distinguishing features of highlands

The land is raised higher than the surrounding areas

They have a steep terrain making the area prone to soil erosion

They usually have lower temperature especially at their tops

The soil in highlands is usually shallow with scarce water sources

They host unique plants and animals such as Rwenzori bellflower, African redwood, bamboo, heather,
mountain gorillas, etc

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

There are two components of an ecosystem namely

• Abiotic component
• Biotic component

ABIOTIC COMPONENT

This is a nonliving part of an ecosystem. It consists of all nonliving things such as

• Air
• Water
• Wind
• Clouds
• Mineral salts

Importance of abiotic component

Air

It is a mixture of gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc) covering the earth’s atmosphere

• Provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in organisms

• Provides carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
• Provides nitrogen for formation of proteins
• It is a habitat for some organisms

Water

It is a habitat of aquatic organisms

It acts as a medium in which biochemical reactions take place therefore necessary for survival of all living
organisms

Wind

• It is an agent of pollination
• It is an agent of seed dispersal
• It regulates atmospheric temperature

Mineral salts

They are essential for life of plants and animals

BIOTIC COMPONENT

It is the living part of the ecosystem. It consists of all living things in the ecosystem such as

Plants

Animals

Microorganisms

Importance of the biotic component

Plants

• They are primary producers in the ecosystem (they make complex organic food molecules from
simple inorganic molecules)
• They produce oxygen and add it to the atmosphere
• They use up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and hence control global warming
• They act as habitat for other organisms

Animals

• They are consumers (they feed on already made food) and hence regulate population of plants
• They carry out seed dispersal
• They carry out pollination
• They are necessary in nutrient recycling
Microorganisms/microbes

These include fungi, protoctists and bacteria.

• They act as decomposers ie they breakdown complex organic matter into simple inorganic
matter. This is essential in nutrient recycling
• Some of them eg photosynthetic bacteria and algae are primary producers
• Some of them are parasites

COMMUNITIES

A community is a group of individuals of different species in a specific area at a given time. Eg planktons,
small fish, large fish, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, etc in a lake.

A community contains dominant species that determine other organisms found in the community. A
dominant species is the type of organisms that have a higher abundance relative to other species or has
a profound effect on the community.

Eg in a forest, the dominant species may be Acacia species, bamboo, balsam trees, monkeys, etc.

In a savanna grassland, the dominant species may be grass species, lions, etc.

HABITATS

A habitat is a particular place where a species naturally occurs. A habitat can be aquatic, terrestrial (on
land), or aerial.

Each ecosystem consists of various habitats where species of plants, animals, etc inhabit naturally,

Examples of habitats in a lake are shoreline, water surface, lakebed, etc. In a forest, examples of habitats
may be caves, canopy, understory, forest floor, edge of the forest, etc

Task

Visit a nearby ecosystem (forest, lake, river, pond, etc) and

a. List all living and nonliving things therein

b. Identify the dominant species in the ecosystem and their habitats.

TOPIC 12.2: FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS

A food chain is a feeding relationship that shows how energy and nutrients flow through an ecosystem,
from one organism to another. It starts with producers and moves through various trophic levels of
consumers. Here's a detailed breakdown:

Components of a Food Chain/Trophic Levels

A trophic level is a particular position occupied by a group of organisms in a food chain.

The following are trophic levels

1. Primary Producers (First Trophic Level):

These are organisms that produce their own food from inorganic substances using energy.

Examples: Plants, algae, and certain bacteria (like cyanobacteria) that perform photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis.

2. Primary Consumers (Second Trophic Level)

These are organisms that feed on primary producers to obtain energy ie they are herbivores.

Examples: Insects like grasshoppers, herbivorous mammals like deer, and small aquatic organisms like
zooplankton.

3. Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level):

These are organisms that feed on primary consumers ie they are carnivores and omnivores.

Examples: Frogs, small fish, and spiders.

4. Tertiary Consumers (Fourth Trophic Level):

These are predators that feed on secondary consumers. Examples: Snakes, larger fish, and birds of prey
like hawks.

5. Quaternary Consumers (Fifth Trophic Level):

These are apex predators at the top of the food chain, with no natural predators.

Examples: Lions, sharks, and eagles.

7. Decomposers

These are organisms that break down dead or decaying matter, recycling nutrients back into the
ecosystem. Decomposers can function across multiple trophic levels.

Examples: Bacteria, fungi, and certain insects.

Examples of Food Chains

A food chain consists of arrows and words. The words represent organisms and arrows show transfer of
energy and nutrients and point from the food source to the dependent organism (feeder)
1. Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle→ Saprophytes

2. Green plants→ antelopes→ lions→ bacteria

3. Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small fish → Large fish → bacteria

Importance of Food Chains

• They illustrate the flow of energy and nutrients in an ecosystem.

• They show the interdependence of organisms.

• They highlight the impact of removing or adding species within an ecosystem. Eg removing
carnivores from an ecosystem, results in increase in the number of herbivores and decrease in
the number of plants.

FOOD WEBS

A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains within an ecosystem, illustrating how
different organisms are related through feeding relationships.

Examples of food webs

1.
2.

Importance of Food Webs

1. Food webs show the stability and resilience of ecosystems. The interconnectedness means that the
ecosystem can often withstand the loss or decline of one species, as alternative food sources are
available for consumers.

2. They show how nutrients and energy are recycled within the ecosystem, highlighting the role of
decomposers in breaking down organic matter and returning nutrients to the soil.

3. Food webs emphasize the importance of biodiversity. A diverse array of species at each trophic level
contributes to the robustness of the ecosystem.

4. They help ecologists understand the complex interactions between species, including predator-prey
relationships, competition, and mutualism.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Energy flows from the sun to the primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary
consumers and finally to decomposers. Energy is lost as it flows from one trophic level to another.
Therefore, the producers receive the largest amount of energy and the decomposers receive the
smallest amount of energy. That is why the number of trophic levels is limited.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

An ecological pyramid is a diagrammatic representation of either number, biomass or energy at each

trophic level in a food chain per unit area in a given time.

There are three types of ecological pyramids namely

1. Pyramid of numbers

2. Pyramids of biomass

3. Pyramid of energy

Pyramid of numbers

It is a histographic representation number of individuals at each trophic level in a food chain per unit
area/per unit volume at any time. Numbers progressively decrease as we ascend the pyramid.

Appearance of pyramid of numbers

A pyramid of numbers is usually upright. This is because in most ecosystems, the number of producers is
higher than the number of consumers.

However, a pyramid of numbers may be inverted if the number of producers is less than the number of
consumers.

Example

The table below shows number of some species in a certain ecosystem. Construct a pyramid of numbers
for the data given.

Response

Food chain: Grass → Goats → Cheetahs → Hyenas

Note

• First, identify the trophic levels

• Construct the food chain or food web
• Draw horizontal bars whose length is relative to the number of organisms given ie the higher the
number, the longer the bar
• Start with producers, then going upwards consumers, and lastly decomposers

Exercise

Study the data given data below and answer the questions that follow.

Organisms Population
Elephants 500
Buffaloes 900
Birds 1500
Crocodiles 20
Lions 50
Hippopotamus 100
Grasshoppers 7200
Shrubs 9500
Grass 55000
Warthogs 800
Antelopes 700
Pythons 50

(a) Identify the organisms in each trophic level

(b) Determine the number of organisms in each trophic level.

(c) Construct a food web and a pyramid of numbers for the data above.

(d) Comment on the appearance of the pyramid of numbers.

THE CARBON CYCLE

Carbon cycle is the circulation of carbon in nature. In nature, carbon occurs in compounds carbon
dioxide, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, etc.
Photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae take up carbon from the atmosphere in form of
carbon dioxide as a raw material of photosynthesis and make organic food molecules namely
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and vitamins.

The organic food molecules are taken up by heterotrophic organisms such as animals during feeding.

Some organic molecules are used in respiration by organisms (plants, animals, etc) to generate energy
and carbon dioxide hence carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere.

Some other organic molecules are converted to carbon dioxide and other inorganic substances when
organisms die and decompose.

Other organic molecules in organisms do not decompose but form fossils and fossil fuels. When these
fuels are burnt, carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere.

The carbon dioxide that returns to the atmosphere is again taken up by photosynthetic organisms.

Some carbon dioxide is taken up by water bodies eg oceans as carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form
carbonates which can be taken up by plants.

Processes Involved in Carbon Cycle

1. Photosynthesis: Carbon in form of carbon dioxide is taken by photosynthetic organisms eg plants,

algae and photosynthetic bacteria to form organic molecules. Photosynthesis reduces the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

2. Respiration: Organic molecules are broken down in living cells to form carbon dioxide.

3. Decomposition: Organisms die and organic molecules in their bodies are converted to carbon dioxide
and other inorganic substances.

4. Combustion: The organic molecules in fuels like wood, petrol, diesel, etc are burnt to generate energy
and carbon dioxide.

5. Volcanicity: It is eruption of molten rock, ash and gases from the crust of the Earth. The carbonates in
rocks decompose when heated to form carbon dioxide

The role of carbon cycle in maintaining CO2 balance in the atmosphere

The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is kept relatively constant (at approximately 0.03%).
This is because naturally some processes remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere while others add
it there.

Processes that remove/decrease amount of CO2 in the atmosphere

• Photosynthesis
• Dissolution of CO2 in large water bodies like oceans

Processes that add/increase amount of CO2 in the atmosphere

• Respiration
• Decomposition
• Combustion
• Volcanicity

TOPIC 12.3: ASSOCIATIONS IN BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES

In biological communities, associations refer to the relationships and interactions between different
species that live in the same environment.

The main types of associations found in biological communities include the following

• Competition
• Predation
• Symbiosis

COMPETITION

It is an interaction among species in which species strive for the same scarce resource. Examples of
resources competed for may be light, food space, mates, etc.

Forms of Competition

[Link] competition happens between members of the same species. Eg different lions
competing for preys, mates, territory, etc

2. Interspecific competition occurs between different species. Eg lions and leopards competing for preys.
Different trees in a forest competing for sunlight, animals competing for water in a savanna, etc.

Importance of competition in a community

It ensures that organisms that are well adapted survive and reproduce and pass their adaptations to
their offspring. Organisms which are not well adapted die and eventually are eliminated from the
community.

PREDATION
It is an association in a community in which one organism captures, kills and eats another.

A prey is an organism that is captured, killed and eaten by another organism. A predator is an organism
that captures, kills and eats another organism.

Examples

Predator Prey(s)
Cat Rat, lizard, birds, etc
Eagle Rat, snake, birds, lizards, etc
Lion Buffalo, cow, antelope, monkeys, etc
Didinium nasutum (a protozoa) Paramecium
Vorticella Paramecium, bacteria
Spider Insects
Ladybugs (insects) Aphids (insects)
Praying mantis Grasshoppers, moths, crickets, flies
Dragonflies Mosquitoes, flies, bees, etc

Predator-Prey Relationship

In a community, the both population sizes of prey and predator fluctuate with time reaching their
maximum and minimum at different time. This is because the population size of one directly influences
that of the other.

As the number of prey increases, there is more food available for the predator, allowing the predator
number to increase as well. When the predator number increases to a threshold level, so many of preys
are killed so the number of preys begins to decline. This is followed by a decline in number of predators
due to scarcity of food.

The decline in number of predator allows the number of preys to grow due to low predation pressure,
and the cycle begins.

A graph showing predator-prey relationship

Question
Lynx is a medium-sized wild cat that preys on hare in the wild. The table shows the number of hare and
lynx in a national park from 1981 to 2016

Time(Years) Number of hare Number of lynx

1981 25000 5000
1986 40000 10000
1991 70000 30000
1996 30000 28000
2001 8000 7000
2006 40000 10000
2011 80000 20000
2016 19000 42000

(a) Plot a graph to represent the data in the graph

(b) Explain the relationship between the numbers of lynx and hare.

SYMBIOSIS (SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS)

Symbiosis refers to a close and prolonged association between two or more organisms of different
species. The following are forms of symbiosis

• Mutualism
• Commensalism
• Parasitism

MUTUALISM

It is an association in a community in which both species benefit from the interaction.

Examples

• Pollinators like bees and flowering plants, where bees get nectar and plants get pollinated
• Mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots, where fungi fix nitrogen in the soil and receive carbohydrates
in return.
• Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules of legumes in which legumes obtain nitrogen fixed by
bacteria and bacteria get food and shelter.

COMMENSALISM

Whereby one species benefits, while the other is neither helped nor harmed.

Examples

• Barnacles attaching to whales, where barnacles get a mode of transport to food sources and
whales are unaffected
• Epiphytic plants growing on trees, gaining access to sunlight without harming the host tree.

PARASITISM
It is an association between two species in which one species benefits and the other is harmed. The
species that benefits is called a parasite and the one that suffers harm is called a host.

Examples

• Ticks feeding on mammals, where ticks gain nourishment and hosts can suffer from blood loss
and potential disease
• Mistletoe extracting water and nutrients from host trees.
• Tapeworms in the alimentary canal of some mammals

Types of parasites

1. Obligate parasites; these live as parasites for their entire life.

2. Facultative parasites; sometimes these live as free-living organisms (non-parasites) and as parasites at
other times.

3. Ectoparasites; live on the surface of their hosts like ticks.

4. Endoparasites; live inside the bodies of their hosts like tapeworms, plasmodia, round worms etc

The role of parasites and vectors in the transmission of common diseases

A vector is an organism that carries a parasite from one organism to another. Vectors spread diseases
but do not cause them whereas parasites carried by vectors cause diseases.

Therefore, the role of a vector is to spread/transmit a disease whereas the role of a parasite is to cause a
disease.

COMMON DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES

MALARIA

Malaria is caused by a protoctists of genus Plasmodium. There are several species of plasmodium that
cause malaria eg P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale, and P. knowlesi.

Transmission of malaria

1. Through bites of anopheles mosquito to a person, injecting saliva containing Plasmodium sporozoites
into the bloodstream. Only female anopheles mosquitoes spread malaria. They bite humans to get blood
needed in development of their eggs.

2. Through blood transfusions if the donor blood contains Plasmodium parasites

3. By pregnant women infected with malaria parasites to their unborn child.

4. Through organ transplants if the donated organ contains Plasmodium parasites.

Prevention of Malaria

Prevention measures for malaria primarily focus on reducing mosquito bites and controlling mosquito
populations. These measures include:

• Sleeping under insecticide treated nets reduces mosquito bites.

 • Spraying insecticides inside homes to kill mosquitoes.

• Prophylactic use of antimalarial drugs for travelers to endemic areas and for pregnant women in
high-risk regions.

• Reducing mosquito breeding sites by eliminating standing water where mosquitoes lay eggs.

• Using insect repellents, wearing long-sleeved clothing, and staying indoors during peak mosquito
activity times (dusk and dawn).

BILHARZIA/SCHISTOSOMIASIS

Bilharzia, also known as schistosomiasis, is a parasitic disease caused by flukes of the genus Schistosoma.

Symptoms include fever, chills, cough, muscle aches, and fatigue, abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood in the
stool, liver enlargement, blood in the urine.

The main species of Schistosoma that infect humans are Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma
haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, etc

Transmission

It is transmitted through snails in freshwater. Eggs from the urine/faeces of an infected person hatch into
larvae (miracidia). Larvae infect snails and larvae develop and multiply into another form of larva
(cercariae)

Cercariae are released from snails into water and will penetrate into the body through the skin if a
person comes into contact with contaminated water

Prevention and Control

• Avoiding contact with contaminated water. Always use boiled/treated water for drinking,
bathing, and washing.

• Avoid disposing human waste into water bodies to prevent contamination of water sources.

• By reducing the population of the snail intermediate hosts through chemical, biological, or
cultural methods.

• By treating entire communities in endemic areas with praziquantel to reduce the prevalence of
the disease.

SLEEPING SICKNESS/TRYPANOSOMIASIS

Sleeping sickness, also known as human African trypanosomiasis, is a parasitic disease caused by
protozoa of the species Trypanosoma brucei.

Symptoms include, severe headaches, mental confusion and personality changes, poor coordination,
disturbances in sleep patterns, such as excessive sleeping during the day and insomnia at night, seizures
and coma in advanced cases.

Transmission
The primary mode of transmission is through the bite of an infected tsetse fly. When the fly bites a
human, it injects the parasites into the bloodstream.

Prevention and Control

• By reducing tsetse fly populations through insecticide sprays, traps, and targets.

• By wearing long-sleeved shirts and pants and using repellents to avoid tsetse fly bites.

• By regular screening of at-risk populations to identify and treat cases early, thus reducing human
reservoirs of the parasite.

NAGANA/ANIMAL TRYPANOSOMIASIS

Nagana, also known as animal African trypanosomiasis, is a parasitic disease affecting livestock. It is
caused by several species of Trypanosoma.

Transmission

• The disease is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly.

• It can also be transmitted by other biting flies such as tabanids (horseflies) and stable flies..

Prevention and Control

• By reducing tsetse fly populations through the use of insecticides, traps, and targets.

• By administering trypanocidal drugs to susceptible livestock as a preventive measure.

• By using insect repellents.

ADAPTATIONS OF PARASITES TO THEIR MODE OF LIFE

• They use vectors to find a suitable host.

• Occupy strategic places where they can be picked by vectors/host like in food and sexual organs.
• They have more than one host to increase chances of finding host.
• Endoparasites have suckers and hooks for firm attachment to the hosts’ tissues. Ectoparasites
have claws of teeth to attach on the host.
• Parasites have piercing organs like proboscis and stylets for penetration/entry into the host.
• They have cutting teeth and plates like in tapeworms for penetration/entry into the host.
• They camouflage by body colour to hide from the host eg ticks.
• They can secrete mucus that protects them against digestion by hosts’ enzymes.
• They have ability to respire anaerobically thus survive in regions of low oxygen concentration like
in intestines.
• They can undergo dormancy for some time to survive in adverse conditions till conditions are
favourable.
• They have both sexual and asexual phases in their life cycles to increase chances of
reproduction.
• They have short life cycles and produce very many offsprings at a time for rapid multiplication.

HOW DO HUMANS TRY TO PREVENT TRANSMISSION OF PARASITES

 • Through practicing personal hygiene and sanitation eg handwashing, safe food and water, proper
disposal of waste, etc
• Through vector control eg killing vectors, destroying breeding sites of vectors, etc
• Through vaccination and Immunisation
• By routine screening and treatment of individuals in endemic areas for parasitic infections,
especially pregnant women and children.
• By isolating victims and treating them separately

TOPIC 12.4: HUMANS AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The relationship between humans and their natural environment includes aspects of dependency,
impact, and stewardship (caring and improving the environment with time). Man depends on the natural
resources in the environment for survival.

SASTAINABILITY

Sustainability refers to the responsible management and use of natural resources such that they are not
depleted, so that they remain capable of supporting life and human activities for present and future
generations.

Key principles of sustainability in environmental conservation include:

• Resource Conservation

• Biodiversity Protection

• Pollution Prevention

• Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

• Sustainable Land Use

• Community Involvement and Education

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGs)

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations
General Assembly in 2015. The SDGs are to be achieved by 2030.

The scope of SDGs

These goals aim to address a broad range of global challenges, including

• Poverty
• Inequality
• climate change
• environmental degradation
• peace, and justice
 The List of SDGs

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

2. End hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for
all.
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.
8. Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment, and decent work for all.
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster
innovation.
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable
development.
15. Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, and halt biodiversity loss.
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice
for all, and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development.
The Importance of SDGs
• The SDGs offer integrated solutions to economic, social, and environmental dimensions of
development.
• The SDGs represent a global commitment to sustainable development
• They foster partnerships between governments, international organizations, the private sector,
and civil society to achieve the goals.
• The SDGs aim to provide universal access to essential services like education, healthcare, and
clean water.
• They emphasize leaving no one behind, ensuring that vulnerable and marginalized groups are
included in development efforts.
• The SDGs promote the sustainable use and conservation of natural resources.
• They include specific targets for combating climate change and mitigating its impacts.
• SDGs advocate for sustainable economic growth, focusing on creating decent jobs and fostering
innovation.
• The SDGs strive to provide inclusive and equitable quality education for all.
• The SDGs emphasize the importance of justice, human rights, and strong, accountable
institutions.
• They aim to reduce violence and conflict, promoting peaceful and inclusive societies.
 NATURAL RESOURCES OF UGANDA

A natural resource is a material or substance that occurs naturally in the environment and can be used
for economic gain or to satisfy human needs and wants.

Renewable and nonrenewable resources

Renewable Resources: These are resources that can be replenished (replaced) naturally over time.
Examples include:

• Solar Energy
• Wind
• Forests
• Water bodies
• Wildlife eg game and fish

Non-renewable Resources: These resources exist in finite amounts and cannot be replaced or are
replaced much more slowly than they are consumed. Examples include:

Fossil Fuels: Such oil, and natural gas.

Minerals: Such as gold, copper, and iron ore, salt, phosphates, etc

Natural factors that may have an effect on ecosystem

• Floods: Flooding can reshape landscapes, redistribute nutrients, and create new habitats, such
as wetlands, while potentially destroying existing ones.
• Wind storms: These intense storms can cause widespread deforestation, erosion, and changes in
water quality.
• Volcanic Eruptions: Eruptions can devastate local ecosystems with lava flows, ash deposits, and
pyroclastic flows. They can also create new landforms and habitats.
• Earthquakes: Earthquakes can alter landscapes by causing landslides, changing river courses,
and creating new water bodies.
• Predation: The presence of predators regulates prey populations, which in turn affects
vegetation and other species within the ecosystem.
• Disease Outbreaks: Natural diseases can reduce populations of certain species, leading to
changes in community composition and ecosystem dynamics.
• Drought: This can reduce the population of plants and animals

Human Activities that have negatively affected natural resources

Human activities in Uganda have significantly impacted natural resources. Here are some examples:

• Deforestation has reduced forest cover eg in Mabira forest

• Bush burning has destroyed vegetation cover and led to soil erosion.
• Agricultural Expansion: Conversion of forest land into agricultural fields for crops such as coffee,
tea, and bananas has reduced forest cover.
• Charcoal Production: The demand for charcoal as a primary cooking fuel has driven widespread
tree cutting.
 • Overfishing driven by high demand for fish like Nile perch and tilapia, has depleted fish stocks in
Uganda's major water bodies.
• Land Reclamation: Wetlands are being drained and converted into agricultural land.
• Urbanisation: Expansion of cities and towns into wetland areas for infrastructure and housing
projects has degraded ecosystems.
• Overgrazing: Intensive livestock farming without proper management has led to soil erosion and
land degradation.
• Unsustainable agricultural practices such as monocropping, and poor land management
techniques have contributed to soil fertility decline and erosion.
• Mining eg gold mining and sand mining has led to soil and water contamination.
Human Activities that have positively affected natural resources
• Reforestation and Afforestation Projects. National Forestry Authority (NFA) has implemented
reforestation projects in various parts of Uganda, eg Rwoho Central Forest Reserve.
• Organic Farming: eg National Organic Agricultural Movement of Uganda (NOGAMU) supports
organic agriculture practices.
• Wetland Conservation Efforts eg Lake George and Lake Nabugabo, have been designated as
Ramsar sites which promotes their protection and sustainable use.
• Wetland Restoration Projects eg Lubigi wetland
• Solar Power Projects: Promotion of solar energy in rural areas reduces reliance on wood fuel and
charcoal, decreasing deforestation and air pollution.
• Biogas Programs: Projects like the Uganda Domestic Biogas Program (UDBP) promote the use of
biogas for cooking
• Establishment and Management of National Parks such as Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
and Queen Elizabeth National Park, which protect biodiversity and promote eco-tourism.
• Catchment Management Programs: Initiatives like the Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) approach promote sustainable management of water resources in catchments.
• Public Awareness Campaigns by organizations like the National Environment Management
Authority (NEMA) educate the public on sustainable practices and the importance of
environmental conservation.
• Community Forest Management: Initiatives like the ones in the Budongo and Mabira forests
have led to improved forest cover and biodiversity conservation.

Ways of Conserving Uganda’s Natural Resources for Future Generations

This includes policy measures, community involvement, sustainable practices, and education. Here are
some suggestions:

• Implement and strictly enforce existing environmental laws and regulations to prevent illegal
activities like logging, poaching, and unregulated mining.
• Promote sustainable agricultural practices eg agroforestry, crop rotation, cover cropping, and
reduced tillage to maintain soil fertility and prevent erosion.
• Protect and restore forests by implement large-scale tree planting programs to restore degraded
forests and increase forest cover.
• Protect existing wetlands and restore degraded ones to maintain their ecological functions, such
as water purification and flood control.
 • Invest in renewable energy sources like solar and wind to reduce dependence on wood fuel and
fossil fuels.
• Promote the use of biogas and energy-efficient cookstoves to reduce the pressure on forests for
fuelwood and charcoal.
• Implement and enforce fishing quotas and seasonal bans to allow fish populations to recover.
• Raise awareness and educate communities about the importance of conserving natural
resources and adopting sustainable practices.
• Involve local communities in conservation efforts by creating community-managed protected
areas and conservation projects.
• Provide training and support to miners to adopt environmentally friendly practices and reduce
the use of harmful chemicals.
• Ensure that mining companies rehabilitate mined areas to restore ecosystems and landscapes.
• Plan and develop urban areas in a way that minimizes environmental impact and preserves
green spaces.
• Improve waste management systems to reduce pollution and promote recycling and
composting.

POLLUTION

It is the addition of harmful substances to environment in amounts that cause damage. The substances
which cause pollution are called pollutants.

Types of pollution

1. Air Pollution

Examples of air pollutants include sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate
matter(smoke, dust, etc), hydrocarbons, ammonia and carbon dioxide.

Sources

• Industrial Emissions: Factories and power plants release pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO₂),
nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.

• Vehicle Emissions: Cars, trucks, and buses emit carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and
nitrogen oxides.

• Agricultural Activities: Pesticides, fertilizers, and animal waste contribute to the release of
ammonia and other gases.

• Burning of Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil, and natural gas combustion release various pollutants,
including carbon dioxide (CO₂).

Effects

• Health Issues: Respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and cancer.

• Environmental Damage: Acid rain, smog, and damage to vegetation and wildlife.

• Climate Change: Greenhouse gases like CO₂ and methane (CH₄) contribute to global warming.
Control Measures

• Transitioning to clean energy sources eg solar energy

• Using electric cars instead of petrol/diesel cars
• Using public transport instead of individual cars
• Using nonmotorized transport means eg bicycles
• Practicing afforestation and reafforestation
• Proper disposal of waste

2. Water Pollution

Examples of water pollutants include sewage, detergents, heavy metals (lead, mercury, etc), soil, hot
water from industries, plastics, etc.

Sources:

• Industrial Discharges: Factories release chemicals, heavy metals, and waste products into water
bodies.

• Sewage and Wastewater: Untreated or inadequately treated sewage contributes to nutrient

pollution and pathogens.

• Agricultural Runoff: Pesticides, fertilizers, and animal waste wash into rivers, lakes, and
groundwater.

• Oil Spills: Accidental releases of oil during extraction, transport, or storage.

Effects

• Health Hazards: Contaminated drinking water can cause diseases like cholera and dysentery.

• Ecosystem Damage: Aquatic life suffers from toxins, reduced oxygen levels, and habitat
destruction.

• Economic Losses: Impacts on fishing, tourism, and water-dependent industries.

Control Measures

• Limiting carbon dioxide emissions to prevent acidification of water sources

• Reducing use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers
• Treating sewage before releasing it into water bodies
• Proper disposal of waste

3. Land Pollution

Examples of land pollutants are plastics, human waste, household waste (damaged electronics, broken
glass, old metallic objects, old electricals, etc), heavy metals, etc

Sources:

• Agricultural Chemicals: Overuse of pesticides and fertilizers.

 • Industrial Activity: Disposal of industrial waste and chemicals.

• Waste Disposal: Improper disposal of household and industrial waste, including plastics and
electronics.

• Mining Activities: Contamination from heavy metals and other toxic substances.

Impacts:

• Health Risks: Exposure to contaminated soil can lead to skin diseases, respiratory problems, and
cancer.

• Reduced Soil Fertility: Loss of essential nutrients and microorganisms, impacting agriculture.

• Water Pollution: Contaminants can leach into groundwater and surface water.

Control measures

• Proper disposal of waste by recycling, reusing, and reducing waste

• Afforestation and afforestation
• Restoration of ecosystems in mining areas
• Ban using plastic bags

GARBAGE/WASTE DISPOSAL

Waste disposal refers to removal of waste from the environment. There are principles of proper waste
disposal and these are

• Recycling ie using waste to make new products

• Reusing using plastic bag again
• Reducing eg cooking using gas instead of charcoal
• Prevention eg using electric cars instead of petrol cars

Different ways in which garbage can be recycled or reused

• Plastic products eg bottles, bags etc can be recycled or reused as storage containers, to grow
plants, etc
• Broken glass can be recycled to manufacture new glass
• Scrap metal can be recycled to manufacture new metal products
• Waste paper eg old newspapers can be recycled to make new paper, toilet paper, etc
• Batteries can be recycled
• Faulty electronics eg phones, computers, calculators, etc can be repaired and reused or recycled.

Strategies for more sustainable practices in schools

• Establishing conservation clubs in schools

• Having nature excursions (study trips) to appreciate nature
• Hosting sustainability fares
• Giving awards to schools that implement sustainability programmes
• Giving economic incentives to groups in schools that excel in implementing sustainability
programmes.
• Promoting awareness about sustainability by designing posters, through music dance and
drama, etc