Nutrition Guide

[Link]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 4
1. DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF LAYERS.......................................... 5
1.1 BEAK AND ORAL CAVITY 5
[Link] 5
1.3. CROP 5
1.4. PROVENTRICULUS 5
1.5. GIZZARD 5
1.6. SMALL INTESTINE 5
1.7. CECA 6
1.8. CLOACA 6
2. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS........................................................... 7
[Link] EVALUATION 7
[Link] REQUIREMENTS 7
[Link] REGULATION 8
2.4. ENERGY LEVEL AND FEED DILUTION 8
2.5. ROLE OF FAT 9
3. PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS REQUIREMENTS...................... 10
3.1. CALCULATION OF REQUIREMENTS 10
4. CALCIUM APPETITE AND EGGSHELL QUALITY........................ 11
4.1. CALCIFICATION AND SOURCES OF CALCIUM 11
4.2. CALCIUM REQUIREMENTS 11
4.3. PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENTS 12
4.4. SODIUM AND CHLORINE REQUIREMENTS 13
5. FEED PRESENTATION.............................................................. 14
5.1. IMPORTANCE OF GRANULOMETRY 14
5.2. HOW TO OBTAIN THE RIGHT GRANULOMETRY 16
6. FEEDING PROGRAM AND DISTRIBUTION SCHEDULES........... 19
6.1. FEEDING DURING THE REARING PERIOD 19
6.2. FEEDING DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD 20
6.3. DISTRIBUTION SCHEDULES 20
6.4. DRINKING WATER 22
7. NUTRITIONNAL RECOMMENDATIONS..................................... 23
7.1. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REARING PERIOD 23
7.2. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRODUCTION
PERIOD NOVOgen BROWN PS 25
7.3. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRODUCTION
PERIOD NOVOgen BROWN CS 27
7.4. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRODUCTION
PERIOD NOVOgen WHITE PS 31
7.5. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRODUCTION
PERIOD NOVOgen WHITE CS 33
8. FEEDING IN HOT CLIMATES..................................................... 37
8.1. MECHANISM OF THERMOREGULATION 37
8.2. IMPACTS ON THE PERFORMANCES 37
8.3. HOW TO REDUCE THE IMPACT OF HIGH TEMPERATURES 38
9. TRACE-ELEMENTS AND VITAMINS.......................................... 40
9.1. TRACE-ELEMENTS 40
9.2. ADDED VITAMINS 41
10. RAW MATERIALS...................................................................... 44
10.1. CEREALS AND CEREALS CO-PRODUCTS 44
10.2. PLANT PROTEIN SOURCES 46
10.3. ADDED FAT 48
10.4. FIBER SOURCES 49
10.5. USE OF EXOGENOUS ENZYMES 50
10.6. QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAMS 52
11. FEED CONTAMINANTS AND FEED HYGIENE............................ 54
11.1. MOULDS AND MYCOTOXINS 54
11.2. FEED-BORN MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION : SALMONELLA 55
11.3. CROSS CONTAMINATION 57
11.4. OTHER UNDESIRABLES 57
4| Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

INTRODUCTION

Over the past years, significant progress has been made by our R&D team to
enhance the performance of our birds in terms of productivity, egg quality,
behaviour, and more. Our innovative selection program provides invaluable
information, allowing us to offer the best birds possible to the market.
However, the full expression of the genetic potential is only possible
through good management and experienced poultry farmers. Feed and
feeding techniques are important keys that allow to express the genetic
potential of layers, in terms of productivity, egg quality and behaviour.

We believe that this new guide will contribute to reaching the genetic
potential of our layers. Without doubt, in different environmental conditions,
sanitary conditions, production targets, local legislations and animal
welfare can have specific nutritional needs. In this case, adapting to these
specific conditions is a key. In all cases, they must be interpreted and
adjusted by a local nutritionist depending on observed performances. We
will continue to be at your service to give specific suggestions depending on
your local conditions.

(1)
Note: The performance data contained in this document was obtained from results and experience from our own
research flocks and flocks of our customers. In no way does the data contained in this document constitute a war-
ranty or guarantee of the same performance under different conditions of nutrition, density or physical or biological
environment. In particular (but without limitation of the foregoing), we do not grant any warranties regarding fitness
for purpose, performance, use, nature or quality of the flocks. NOVOGEN makes no representation as to the accuracy
or completeness of the information contained in this document.
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide |5

1. DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF LAYERS

Because the digestive tract of poultry is shorter than those [Link]

of other monogastric species, feed moves faster. The The proventriculus, also known as the glandular sto-
excretion of non-digestible particles starts three hours mach, is a fusiform pouch (on average 3 cm long in
after ingestion and it takes eight hours of transit time to the hen) whose mucosa is very rich in glands excreting
eliminate most of the undigestible fraction of the feed. mucous, hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen and lipases. It
is the chemical stomach where digestion begins with
1.1. BEAK AND ORAL CAVITY protein hydrolysis and daily solubilization of 8 to 10 g of
The beak is, before all else, an organ of prehension that calcium carbonate. The feed just transits a few minutes
hens use to obtain feed. It is composed of two jaws : the in the proventriculus.
upper and lower mandibles. The oral cavity is lined with
a mucous epithelium and is delimited by the tomia and 1.5. GIZZARD
the pharynx. Since limits with the pharynx are not easily The gizzard is the hen’s largest organ (6 to 8 cm
specified anatomically (the combined cavity of mouth and long, with a weight of approximately 50 g when
empty and 100 g when full). It has a rounded shape
pharynx is often referred to as the oropharynx). In the and its cavity is saccular. It is made up of strong
absence of lips and teeth, feed is not chewed and water muscles. The bulk of the organ consists in two thick
is directly swallowed. The tong has no flexibility and can masses of muscle that insert on pearly white
only move back and forth during meals and watering. glistening tendinous centers on each side of the
Even though saliva glands are well developed and saliva gizzard. This mechanical stomach is very extensible
and can grind coarse particles such as whole cereal
is secreted abundantly, very little enzymatic activity is grains. The lysis and minerals (calcium carbonate
observed in the mouth. Saliva wets the feed to make it and phosphates) solubilization continues in the
easier to swallow and thus facilitate the passage towards gizzard thanks to the hydrochloric acid produced in
the oesophagus. the proventriculus, ionize the electrolytes and
destroy the tertiary structures of feed proteins.
Similarly, pepsin, the unique gastric enzyme, cannot
1.2. OESOPHAGUS efficiently act in the light of the proventricule but will
With a length of 25 cm in the hen, this tube-like organ is contribute to hydrolyse the proteins in the cavity of the
located at the right of the trachea. The oesophagus car- gizzard. During the cal-cification period, the gizzard
ries food from the oral cavity to the proventriculus. Just contracts at a rate of three contractions per minute to
before entering the thoracic cavity, it bulges and forms expel a calcium-rich solution.
a diverticulum, called the crop, used for temporary feed 1.6. SMALL INTESTINE
storage. The whole length of the oesophagus is lined with The small intestine is 1.20 m long and is divided
a mucosa that presents accentuated longitudinal folds. into three parts. It is where most of the nutrient
The oesophagus also has very developed longitudinal absorption occurs (85%) :
internal muscles and is very dilatable.
• D
 uodenum : it starts at the pylorus then forms a large
1.3 CROP intestinal loop that surrounds the pancreas. Bypassing
The crop, a feed storage organ, is an out-pocketing of the gizzard, this loop constitutes the most ventral part
the oesophagus located at the base of the neck. In the of the intestine in the abdominal cavity. Three pancrea-
hen, it has a very extensible ventral pouch whose lower tic ducts and two bile ducts enter the duodenum by a
part sticks to the neck skin and subcutaneous muscles. common papilla. The location of this papilla marks the
The crop’s very thin wall contains smooth muscles that end of the duodenum and the beginning of the jejunum.
are not very developed but are rich in elastic fibers • Jejunum : it is divided into two parts. The proximal part,
allowing the progressive release of food particles into called the Meckel’s diverticulum (a vestige of the duct
the proventriculus. This is where feed is hydrated and linking the embryonic digestive tube to the yolk sac) is
pellets crumbled. When the lower parts of the digestive the most important part. The distal part is called the
tubes are empty, the feed does not stay in the crop but supra-duodenal loop.
moves directly to the proventriculus. Inversely, when the • Ileum : it is short and strait and of variable diameter
gizzard is full, feed is stored in the crop, notably during and length.
the nocturnal period.
6| Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

There are little differences between the jejunum and 1.8. CLOACA
ileum which are similar in length and structure. Together, The cloaca is the terminal part of the intestine into which
they represent the largest absorption surface area of the open the urogenital tracts. It divides into three chambers
digestive tube thanks to the peristaltism and reverse each separated by a transversal fold not readily defined :
peristaltism which mixes the chyme, thus favouring lipid • The coprodaeum is where excrements are collected. It
hydrolysis and absorption. The intestinal juice contains is a terminal dilatation of the rectum. Faeces and urine
mucus, electrolytes, and enzymes. The bile, secreted by accumulate in the coprodaeum before their discharge.
the liver and discharged into the duodenum, holds bile • The urodaeum is the middle part of the cloaca. It
salts and lipids. The pancreatic juice allows the hydrolysis receives the urogenital tracts. The two ureters enter
of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. the urodaeum on either side of the dorsal midline. In
females, the oviduct has an opening on the left dorso-
1.7. CECA lateral wall. In males, the ductus deferens enter the
Poultry has a much-reduced colon and a very short rectum urodaeum on the left and right dorsolateral walls.
(7 cm). The ceca absorb some of the undigested feed and • The proctodaeum comes from a depression of em-
reabsorb water. A cecum is a blind pouch that opens into bryonic ectoderm and is opening to exterior by anus.
the intestinal tube at the ileorectal junction by an ileoce- In young bird, it is linked by a duct to the bursa of
cal valve. Although ceca contain an abundant bacterial Fabricius. The cloaca opens to the exterior of the body
flora, bacterial fermentation does not play a large part in by the cloacal orifice : a vertical slit closed by two
nutrient absorption. Reverse peristaltism discharges the horizontal lips.
non-digested feed coming from the colon into the ceca,
favouring liquids over solids. Faecal discharge occurs via
the ceca five to eight times a day.

HEN’S DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Beak

Crop Ileum
Proventriculus Ceca
Rectum
Gizzard
Cloaca
Pancreas
Duodenum Jejunum
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide |7

2. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Energy is necessary for maintaining poultry’s basic The main differences come from :
metabolic functions (the maintenance), body weight • The chosen method of measurement ;
growth and egg production. It is supplied by dietary • The animal used as model (adult poultry versus growing
nutrients: fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. The chicks) ;
“Metabolizable Energy” (ME) system is usually used to • The apparent ME and True ME (taking into account
describe the energy content of poultry diets. ME is the endogenous energy) ;
difference between the gross amount of energy of a feed • The feed intake during trial ;
consumed and the gross amount of energy excreted in • Anti-nutritionals factors ;
faeces, urine, and gaseous products. ME is therefore • The correction with nitrogen balance ;
used to express the available energy content of a diet. • Poultry house temperature…
As a result, the calculated ME value of a given diet may
2.1. ENERGY EVALUATION vary substantially depending on which ME values were
As illustrated in the table below, the ME values assigned used for the individual feed ingredients. In theory, TME
to feed ingredients of the same name by different nutrient is more reliable. But practical estimation of Endogenous
databases differ substantially. Geographical origin and Energy is difficult (since it depends on various factors such
plant variety may be the source of slight modifications as feed intake or type of feed...). In practice, AME is the
in the composition of the raw materials which can lead more commonly used system in all continents.
to variation in ME values.

Value of corn, wheat and soya bean meal showing differences in ME values
CORN WHEAT SOYA BEAN MEAL 48%
COUNTRY - TABLE
Kcal / KG MJ/ Kg Kcal / KG MJ/ Kg Kcal / KG MJ/ Kg
Brazil – Rostagno (1) 3 381 14.15 3 046 12.74 2 302 9.63

Europe – Janssen (2) 3 289 13.79 3 036 12.69 2 323 9.72

France – INRA (3) 3 203 13.40 2 988 12.50 2 280 9.53

Netherlands – CVB (4) 3 415 14.29 3 258 13.63 2 309 9.66

Spain – Fedna (5) 3 250 13.60 3 050 12.76 2 385 9.98

USA – Feedstuffs (6) 3 390 14.18 3 210 13.43 2 458 10.28

(1)
– Rostagno, H.S. (ed). 2005. Brazilian tables for poultry and swine. Composition of feedstuffs and nutritional requirements.
2nd ed. Departemento de Zootecnia, Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Brazil.
(2)
– Janssen, W.M.M.A. (ed). 1989. European table of energy values for poultry feedstuffs. 3rd ed. Spederholt Center for Poultry Research
and Information Services, Beekbergen, the Netherlands.
(3)
– Sauvant, D., J-M Perez, and G. Tran (eds). 2004. Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matières premières destinées aux
animaux d’élevage. INRA 2nde ed. INRA-AFZ, France.
(4)
– Centraal Veevoederbureau (CVB). 2008. CVB Table booklet feeding of poultry. CVB-series no.45.
(5)
– Fedna Tables 4th edition, 2021
(6)
– Feedstuffs 2008 Reference issue and buyers guide. Feedstuffs, September 10, 2008. Minnetonka, Minnesota, USA.

Nitrogen retention introduces a deviation of the ME value, based on body weight and egg mass and given within
as it is very dependent on the physiological status (growth, a range. While calculating this range, different energy
production or maintenance), the nature of the feed or the calculation methods in the world were considered. Energy
feed intake level. Since the goal is to formulate a balanced consumption for maintenance is important. The energy
feed for all physiological status, a correction for zero requirements of an animal are influenced by several
nitrogen retention has been used in most research works. factors, including its body weight and plumage condition.
Each country, and even every nutritionist, has its own In general, animals with higher body weight and/or poor
method to calculate the energy (the equations, and feathering will have higher energy requirements. The
therefore the energies are sometimes very different for energy required for production may be calculated at 2
the same raw material), we will make recommendations kcal for each 1 g of egg mass.
in ranges to cover a maximum of possibilities. However, Please note that our energy suggestions do not take
these values must be adjusted with a local nutritionist. environmental temperature into account. Therefore, local
nutritionists must adapt energy requirements according
2.2. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS to local temperature and conditions. It should be noted
The energy requirements of laying hens depend on that the metabolic energy requirement (ME) decreases as
the bodyweight, production, temperature, activity and the ambient temperature rises up to 27°C. This is due to
plumage. Our energy recommendations are calculated a reduction in energy requirements for maintenance. On
8| Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

the other hand, as the ambient temperature decreases, 2.4. ENERGY LEVEL AND FEED DILUTION
the ME requirement increases due to a higher need for A reduction in the concentration of the feed results in an
maintenance. It has been established that for every 1°C increase in both the volume and quantity of feed ingested.
increase or decrease in temperature, approximately 2 The intake of feed is dependent on the raw materials used,
Kcal per kg of live weight is consumed, which equates to with cellulose content being a key factor. The effect of
1.4 g of feed per bird and per degree. When temperatures feed dilution on the following should be noted:
exceed 30°C and thermoregulation becomes challenging, • Production: limited impact of approximately 1%;
feed consumption typically declines significantly. • Average egg weight: estimated variation of 0.8% per
100 kcal/kg
→ Alternative systems • Feed consumption: estimated variation of 3% per 100
Hens kept in alternative systems, such as floor, aviary kcal/kg
or free range, require an additional 10-15% of daily • Digestibility: fibres improve the digestibility of the
maintenance energy under standard management starch and to a lesser extent protein and fat by en-
conditions. This is due to the higher activity levels, hancing gastro-intestinal reflux of bile salts as well
temperature changes, feathering conditions and, in as increasing the retention time in the gizzard ;
some cases, feed wastage. In challenging management • Liveability: Diluting the feed results in an increase in
conditions and in the case of poor plumage, these needs feed intake both in volume and quantity, increasing,
may be higher. therefore, feed consumption times. This leads to a
reduction of feather pecking and of mortality related to
2.3. ENERGY REGULATION this behaviour. It has been demonstrated that pecking
During the first ten weeks, pullets cannot regulate they is inversely proportional to feed consumption time. A
energy intake according to the energy level of their diet. diet with an extremely low fibre content is linked to an
This is why any increase of the energy level results in a increased incidence of feather pecking. It is evident
growth increase. We thus recommend the use of feed that hens attempt to fulfil a particular requirement for
in crumble form during the first five weeks in order to insoluble fibre (lignin), which improves feed retention
increase consumption due to easier feed prehension, in the gizzard. This is why sometimes, layers seeking
shorter feed consumption time and improvement of feed their fibre requirement by consuming feathers or litter
conversion ratio. (the only source available in their environment aside
from feed).
Comparison of the performances at 6 weeks
of age according to feed presentation Fibre is a material that is heterogeneous in terms of
its nutritional, chemical, and physical properties. This
MASH CRUMBLE heterogeneous mix can be categorized into two major
Ingested energy level (kcal/day) 75.3 a 79.3 b subclasses: soluble, viscous, fermentable fibre and inso-
luble, non-viscous, non-fermentable fibre. Differentiating
Feed Conversion rate (g/g) 2.62 a 2.48 b between water-soluble and insoluble fibre components
Weight gain (g/day) 10.7 a 11.9 b has helped elucidate the physiological effects of fibre
(Newman et al., 1992). The requirements for hens and
Dijkslag M.A. et al (2021)
pullets vary according to many criteria (production sys-
After ten weeks of age, pullets correctly regulate their tem, age, nervousness, etc.). There is a need for both
energy intake according to the energy level of the diet. soluble and insoluble fibres. As the two subclasses have
The goal becomes then to develop the pullets’ ability to different roles in digestive/absorptive processes within
eat feed, so that they can increase their consumption by the gastrointestinal tract
35-40% in the first few weeks of lay. During this period,
it is important to develop their digestive system by using
diets with an higher amount of insoluble crude fiber and
lower energy.

SOLUBLE FIBERS INSOLUBLE FIBERS

• Is a structuring fiber
• Accumulates in the gizzard. Regulates the passage of
• Lowers intestinal passage rate, faster transit
feed through the digestive tract
• Reduces digestion of fat, protein and starch
• Improves starch digestibility
• Constitutes an energy source for monogastric animals
• Increases intestinal passage rate, longer transit
• Affects the viscosity of the digesta
• Can only be poorly or not fermented
• Is mainly made of fermentable parts
• Stimulates intestinal villi growth
• Reduces faecal dry matter contents
• Does not constitute an energy source for young mo-
• Binds nutrients (pectin), effect “cage” lowering the
nogastric animals
digestibility
• Increases faecal dry matter contents
• Potential prebiotic effect
• Orientation and development of the microbiota
• Prevention of pecking
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide |9

Therefore, the energy strategy is to never increase the of linoleic acid and other essential fatty acids. If the
energy during the life of a pullet or layer, at the risk of linoleic acid content is marginal in some grain-based
reducing feed consumption. diets, there is a higher risk of producing smaller eggs
than normal size.
For all high fibre diets, it is essential that animal growth • Added fats and oils bind dust and increase the pala-
remains in the range recommended for the given breed. tability of mash feed. However, it essential to ensure
With low ME diets, feed intakes are higher than those that they are of good quality and properly stabilized
observed with higher ME diets (but the feed is often less to avoid oxidation and rancidification. Care should be
expensive). Sufficient amounts of water shall also be taken as they are sensitive to factors such as heat,
available to allow the feed to swell in the digestive tube light, and oxygen.
thus enhancing a better feeling of satiety. • Unsaturated oils and fats, such as palm oil, which
remain solid at 35°C (95°F), provide better binding of
The decision to use diluted diets, particularly during the fine particles and enhance pellet durability, thereby
growing stage, is largely dependent on the availability and improving the overall presentation of mash or pel-
cost of raw materials. Some high-fibre ingredients are lets. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly
not well documented, and their ME is not well defined. omega-3 (n-3) PUFAs, offer numerous health benefits,
Furthermore, others may pose a risk of contamination including supporting immunity, reducing inflammatory
by mycotoxins concentrated in fibrous seed coatings (a conditions, and promoting cell membrane integrity,
common occurrence with co-products of grain where immune function, fertility, and embryonic development.
mycotoxins tend to concentrate). Whenever possible, they are the preferred choice.
• Pullet feed: its energy level shall be superior or equal
[Link] OF FAT to the one of « layer feed », but its density shall be
Energy regulation is modified by the presence of fat in the lower to promote consumption when hens enter the
diet which enhances feed presentation and palatability. laying period.
It has been demonstrated that an increase in fat content • Layer feed: at the first stage of egg production, the goal
enhances feed intake. Between 2,200 and 3,000 kcal, a is to promote feed consumption in order to rapidly ob-
100 kcal increase in energy level leads to an increase in tain eggs of marketable size. Thus, it is recommended
energy consumption of approximately 1.2% if it is obtained to use a diet rich in fat, with a minimum insoluble fibre
without addition of fat and of 1.4% when fat is added (lignin) content. After the laying has begun, transitio-
(Joly, 2005). At the same energy level, Adding 4% of fat ning to a diet richer in cellulose will maintain feather
improves palatability and feed presentation by binding fine and will reduce the risk of pecking. This strategy is
particles together, increasing feed intake of about 2.8%. particularly beneficial in alternative poultry farming
(free range, biologic…), especially when there is no
Increasing the fat content in the diet does not seem to litter in the outdoor run.
affect the number of eggs produced. However, egg weight
increases significantly, especially at the beginning of the From a practical perspective, the effect of low density,
laying period. Oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have high cellulose (insoluble fibre) raw materials may be
a greater impact on egg weight increase. incorporation fats into the diet. Feed granulometry has
Fat has several characteristics that make it especially also an effect on energy consumption. If the feed is ground
useful in feed formulations: too finely, the energy consumption may be reduced. There
• Fat is a concentrated source of energy. Fat has about are three factors that must be carefully managed: feed
2.25 times more energy per unit of weight than car- presentation, fibre content, and fat content. A balance
bohydrates. between these three criteria is essential to maximizing
• Energy from fat is generally more efficiently used (bet- genetic potential at a lower cost. Hens’ feed consump-
ter assimilation) by poultry than energy from protein or tion time depends on the volume ingested and density
carbohydrates, especially when storing fat in tissues. of diet. Feather pecking is inversely proportional to feed
• Fat has a relatively low heat increment, which means consumption time. For hens reared on the floor or in
that less body heat (extra heat) is produced from diges- aviary, it is necessary to avoid very high-energy diets and
ting and metabolizing a calorie from fat than a calorie to add a minimum amount of fibre. It is also recommended
from protein or carbohydrates. This is especially bene- to add a minimum amount of litter over the course. Ener-
ficial when poultry is heat-stressed or in hot climate. gy regulation is not specific to a breed (white-egg layer,
• Fat blends containing vegetable oils are a good source brown-egg layer or tinted-egg layer) but rather depends
on the dilution methods applied
10 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

3. PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS REQUIREMENTS

Proteins are structural components of tissues such as The increased use of synthetic amino acids has had
feathers and muscles. Poultry uses amino acids, the a significant impact on diet formulation over the past
elementary components of proteins. A crude protein twenty years.
gives relatively little information on the composition in
amino acids and/or their availability. Since poultry does For example Isoleucine and valine are limiting factors
not synthesize some amino acids or since the amounts when diet formulas are based on Ser
Leu Ile Arg
produced are insufficient, these amino acids must be wheat or when meat products are Phe His Tyr
supplied by the feed. excluded from the feed (This can be
Val
compensated with synthetic Valine Trp
Thr
Over the past thirty years, genetic progress in persistency that is now common in feed mills). Lys
Met
and feed efficiency has led to a significant increase in amino
acid requirements. The total amino acid requirement of Achieving maximum genetic
a hen includes three components : a requirement for egg mass mostly depends on
maintenance, a requirement for tissue protein accretion concentration of amino acids in the
(the growth) and a requirement for egg production. feed. Levels of amino acids in the
feed must be arranged with rehards
The “ideal” protein concept is defined by satisfying amino to daily egg mass and regarding to
acid requirements. The formulation shall then be based daily feed intake.
Liebig’s barrel
on the content in limiting amino acids of the chosen raw
materials and their digestibility. Formulating diets based 3.1. CALCULATION OF REQUIREMENTS
on digestible amino acids has allowed the reduction of the During the formulation, it is important to make sure
safety margin. This method gives a better estimate of the that all the amino acid requirements are satisfied
bioavailability of amino acids in the feed. Modern diets according to the guidelines. Several factors need to
are based on digestible amino acids. Since this formulation be taken into consideration: age of the animals,
process is more accurate, it generates more cost- feed intake, energy level, ambient temperature. The
efficient diets and can lower the environmental impact calculation is always based on the following formula:
in comparison to a diet based on total amino acids or
crude protein. For example, if the daily requirement for lysine is
estimated to 800 mg / day and the average intake is 110 g,
In any case, the formulation shall take into account the the following percentage of lysine will be calculated : (800
need to satisfy all the requirements in essential amino mg * 100) / 110 = 0.727% of digestible lysine in the feed.
acids, notably in methionine (met), cystine (cys), lysine
(lys), threonine (thr), tryptophan (trp), isoleucine (ile), (Daily amino acid requirements * 100) / Daily feed intake
arginine (arg) and valine (val).

Summary of daily amino acid requirements

18-50 weeks
DIGESTIBLE AMINO REQUIEREMENT IN MG/
ACIDS DAY
Lysine 800
Methionine 420
Methionine + Cystine 720
Tryptophan 180
Threonine 560
Isoleucine 660
Valine 720
Arginine 850
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 11
4. CALCIUM APPETITE AND EGGSHELL QUALITY
Eggshell quality has become even more critical because of Eggshell weight increases regularly of approximately 0.5
the lengthening of production cycles and the development g per hour for the 12 hours of the calcification period.
of automatic egg collection systems. While substantial If during the calcification, calcium is not available in
genetic progress has been achieved. However, diet and sufficient quantity in the digestive tract, eggshell quality
feeding techniques are the keys to the expression of this will suffer.
genetic progress. Eggshell quality and colour depend
essentially on the hen’s ability to use its dietary calcium There are two sources for the calcium used during the
during shell formation. A good calcium diet improves calcification : feed is the main source and the medullary
eggshell quality, colour, prevents bone demineralization bone is the secondary one. The calcium in the medullary
(osteoporosis) and fractures. bone is only mobilized if there is a deficiency in dietary
calcium in the gizzard during the calcification. However,
4.1. CALCIFICATION AND SOURCES OF CALCIUM the medullary bone does not store enough calcium to
Nowadays, the time taken to produce an egg is close to fully compensate a calcium deficiency. Some studies
24 hours. The ovulation occurs within 5 to 10 minutes have shown that reducing the dietary calcium supply by
following the previous oviposition. Calcification starts after only 1% had an immediate negative effect on eggshell
albumen hydration and appearance of crystalline nuclei quality. Moreover, demanding calcium constantly from
in the protein framework of the shell membrane. i.e. the medullary bone results in osteoporosis, fractures,
approximately 10 hours after the previous egg has been mortality and medium-term deterioration of eggshell
expelled. The calcification lasts about 12 hours and starts quality through an exhaustion of animals (Nau et al, 2010,
shortly before turning off the lights and this independently Science et technologie de l’œuf 116-117).
of the chosen lighting program. The calcification process
is the following :
• At the very beginning of the calcification, the
proventriculus secretes large amounts of hydrochloric
acid in a continuous manner.
• The gizzard mixes the food and expels a calcium-rich
solution that is immediately absorbed.
• Calcium binds to the Calbidin protein (a protein with a
high affinity to calcium) to pass through the intestinal
barrier.

Ovulation Enter in Shell Beginning of

at 6h Gland at 11h Calcification at 16h

4H 20H

Night Night

Rapid Ovi-position Rapid Calcification

Calcification Time (80%) period

4.2. CALCIUM REQUIREMENTS Because of this, the calcification depends on the amounts
Hens require approximately 2.2 g of calcium daily to form of calcium ingested at the end of the day and on the
eggshell, it is vital that their diet provides a daily supply of molecular size of the calcium. Using granular calcium
this mineral, ideally, about twice the amount they utilize. carbonate of 2 to 4 mm allows an increase of calcium
storage in the gizzard. The solubility of the carbonate is
Calcium absorption occurs essentially during the 12-hour as important as the size of the particles. Larger particles
eggshell calcification period, during which the absorption dissolve more slowly; higher quantities of calcium are
rate is above 70%. In the absence of calcification, the available towards the end of the night. Small size particles
absorption rate can get down to 20%; calcium is then (less than 1 mm) are not well retained in the gizzard and
used to rebuild the medullary bone. are partially excreted directly into the faeces. This results
in reduced quantities of absorbed calcium leading to a
deterioration of eggshell quality.
12 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

• Brown egg hens : the intake of particulate carbonate → Feed distribution and lighting schedules
must represent 60% of total intake. The remaining Since the goal is to have sufficient quantities of calcium
40% must be supplied in pulverulent form to promote available throughout the calcification period, feeding
the reconstruction of the medullary bone. times shall fit the hens’ calcium requirements to obtain
a good eggshell quality. Calcium intakes at the end of
• White egg hens : the intake of particulate carbonate the day shall thus be encouraged by adapting the feeding
must represent 50% of total intake and the remaining times and by leaving the feeders empty in the middle of the
50% must be supplied in pulverulent form. These day or end of the morning (never late in the day before the
hens tend to lay eggs later after the light is turned on, extinction or very early in the morning just after lighting).
allowing them to more effectively use the pulverulent
calcium from the feed ingested early in the morning. When possible, hens ingest more than 50% of their ration
during the 6 hours prior to lights out in order to satisfy
Calcium carbonate, which is used in powder form as a their specific calcium appetite. A fraction of this calcium
whole, is responsible for a reduction in the quality of intake is stored in the crop.
the eggshell and a decrease in consumption because
it increases the fineness of grinding of the feeds. Since hens do not eat during the night, shell quality
Supplying calcium carbonate solely in powder form depends on the quantity of calcium remaining in the
results in a decrease of eggshell quality and a decrease digestive tract at the end of the day. A way to improve
in consumption because the grist is too fine. Inversely, the shell quality is to encourage hens into consuming calcium
supply of granular calcium carbonate results in increasing in the middle of the night with the use of flashing lights.
calcium intake at the end of the day by promoting higher (when allow by local regulation).
calcium consumption just before shell formation. The
start of the calcification triggers a specific calcium 4.3. PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENTS
appetite that drives the hen to eat high quantities of During the calcification, a fraction of bone calcium is
calcium. So, always available feed before extinction to desorbed freeing calcium and phosphate ions into the
satisfy this need. bloodstream. Phosphate ions are then reabsorbed by the
kidneys (a part only is recycled). Consequently, rebuilding
Eggshell quality also depends on the solubility of the bone calcium storage requires supplying phosphate.
calcium. To achieve a good retention rate, low soluble Phosphate requirements depend on the demand in
calcium shall be used. When calcium solubility is too high calcium stored in the bones, on the form under which
or too low, shell quality is negatively impacted. However, calcium is supplied in the diet, and on the type of feeding.
hens that have not completed their calcification after Indeed, the use of granular calcium and adequate feeding
the lights have been turned on need a very rapid supply times limit the use of bone calcium and thus reduce the
of very soluble calcium. It is thus interesting to keep loss of phosphorus in the urine. The need for phosphorus
some calcium in powder form in the diet which should via the feed is then lower .
be available in sufficient quantity in the morning when
lighting. A shortage in phosphorus leads to a demineralization of
the hen’s skeleton which can over time cause fractures
With increasing age and egg weight, it is sometimes (cage layer fatigue), decrease egg production and increase
necessary to increase the proportion of particulate mortality.
limestone at 70/30 for the Browns and 60/40 for the Phosphorus recommendations shall take into account the
Whites, to compensate a drop of shell quality. significant variations of raw material phosphorus content
and quality as well as phytic phosphorus availability which
→ Influence of age on calcium requierements for the most part is related to the presence of natural
As the hens age, shell weight increases, the quantity of phytases or additives.
calcium deposits increases. It is thus important, at the
end of the laying period, to adequately satisfy layer’s There are several methods for expressing available
calcium requirements by increasing the calcium content phosphorus, in particular as a function of the basic
in the feed as soon as 45/50 weeks of age. At this age, reference which can vary. This criterion is essential
more than 2.4 g (+/- 0.22 g) of calcium are deposited because the digestibility of phosphates is not the same
which corresponds to a theoretical daily requirement of between a monocalcium (more assimilable) and a
4.3 - 4.5 g. dicalcium dihydrate (about 75% against a monocalcium
with reference base 100). A phosphate origin is never pure
Our recommendations are therefore function to the age at 100%, it is always a mix between the different forms.
: 4.1 g before 45 weeks, 4.3 g from 45 to 70 weeks and Example with a monocalcium who can be constituted
4.5/4.6 g beyond this age. Must be adjusted according to to : monocalcium 75% + dicalcium 15% + tricalcium
the solubility of carbonate and observed shell quality. 10% (undigestible). Today, some laboratories are able
to analyse phosphates in order to characterize them
better by fraction and thus to adjust in consequence the
matrix value.
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 13

Adding phytases to the feed allows the increase of 4.4. SODIUM AND CHLORINE REQUIREMENTS
phytic phosphorus availability. Each phytase supplier A sodium deficiency will cause a general weakening
has different recommendations in term of valorisation of the body, pecking, cannibalism and a decrease in
which can vary to 1.1 to 1.6 g of available phosphorus production. A deficiency in chlorine and/or sodium will
(more with extra-dosing). Phytases, whether natural or lead to a reduction in consumption up to a total rejection
microbial origin, are easily degraded by heat, even though of the feed.
thermos- resistant coatings are available today. This is
to be taken into account in formulation and during the An over-consumption of water will lead to a deterioration in
manufacturing process of the feed. the quality of the droppings as well as the litter (too humid).
To provide chlorine-free sodium, it is recommended to
Excess of phosphorus tends to have a negative impact supplement salt with sodium bicarbonate (or sulfate),
on shell quality. We recommend to reduce it in the end with a preference for bicarbonate due to its beneficial
of lay to improve the eggshell quality. effect on electrolyte balance.

It is thus recommended to : Sodium as well as chlorine requirements are estimated to

• Use a pre-layer feed sufficiently rich in phosphorus to 120 mg / day. To include a safety margin, it is recommended
allow the development of the medullary bone which is to add a daily supplement between 160 and 200 (Na) or
made of a phosphocalcic frame. 160 and 250 (Cl) mg / day. The maximum chlorine level
• Take into account the form in which calcium is supplied. can be adjusted based on the moisture content of the
Phosphorus requirements are lower when the added droppings, with a reduction if they are too wet.
granular calcium has a size comprised between 2 and
4 mm and has a low solubility.
• Maintain a sufficient safety margin at the beginning
of the laying period to avoid any risk of deficiency
(especially in breeders).

Particulate calcium carbonate from 3 to 5 mm

14 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

5. FEED PRESENTATION
5.1. IMPORTANCE OF GRANULOMETRY The use of crumbles or pellets during the laying period
Feed consumption results from a choice implying particle requires :
selection. Being grain eaters, poultry’s consumption is • The control of light intensity to reduce the risks of
related to feed presentation. Poultry preferably eats feather pecking due to short feed consumption times;
particles over mash, thus presenting finely ground • The implementation of an adequate feed distribution
feed may lead to reduced feed intake which in turn can schedule to reduce the effects on eggshell quality
generate deficiencies whereas a coarser grist or a diet related to the use of small calcium particle sizes
in crumble or pellet form promotes feed consumption. (midnight lighting recommended) ;
• More attention in Brown because they lay earlier
→ Feed in crumble form which results in less use of the pulverulent calcium
The impact of feed presentation is well known in broilers. associated with a morning consumption of feed.
Pullets behave in the same manner. Indeed, it has been • To maintain acceptable shell quality, sometimes adding
demonstrated that during the first weeks of age, giving a coarse carbonate or oyster shells in the late afternoon,
feed under crumble form improves growth by 10 to 32% is reccomended.
according to the energy levels. In theory, presenting a
diet in crumble or pellet form may contribute to better The two main quality criteria of crumble or pellet are :
bacteriological quality and will lead to shorter feed • Hardness : It is a measure of how resistant the pellets
consumption time with a lower chance of diet segregation are to breaking when a force is applied (scale from 1
compared to mash. to 10).
• Durability : This measure indicates the durability of the
This however assumes that : pellets in question, taking into account the potential
• The production lines before and after the pelleting for mechanical impacts during transportation from
process are clean and well maintained (see chapter the feed factory to the farm and the distribution of the
on feed hygiene) ; feed at the farm. It assesses the pellets’ resistance to
• The cooling system of the pellets must be clean and abrasion and impacts, expressed as a percentage.
efficient
• The feeding systems in operation and the raw materials
used are providing poultry with pellets or crumbles of
good quality at the feeder levels ;
• Hardness and durability should not only be tested at
the factory outlet, but also in the feeders at the end of
the automatic distribution system.

Very often, difficulties in obtaining good quality pellets

and crumbles cause the following technical problems :
• Breakdown of crumbles/pellets in automatic feed
distribution systems (especially by chain, common in Coarse crumble
layers) and build-up of fine feed particles in the feeders
• Shell quality issues related to difficulties in using
granular limestone ;
• Increased feather pecking caused by a short feed
consumption time. Indeed, the coarser the feed is, the
shorter the feed consumption time will be ;
• Increased competition for coarser particles leading to
feeding heterogeneity if the space around the feeders
is insufficient (over-density), or if the crumble quality
is too low ;
• Increased manufacturing costs. Fine crumble
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 15

→ Feed in mash form Being grain eaters, poultry has a digestive tract designed
In the rearing stage, with the exception of the first three or to quickly ingest its feed ration. The ingested feed is then
five weeks when the diet should be provided as crumbles, stored in the crop to be “hydrated” and “acidified” by lactic
the use of uniform and regular mash feed is preferred. acid secretions before going through the proventriculus.
However, we advise to use crumbled feed up until ten In the proventriculus, hydrochloric acid, pepsin and mucus
weeks of age when it is difficult to obtain a sufficient body secretions are increased when the size of feed particle is
weight at this age. large. In the gizzard, the feed is grinded, impregnated and
pre-digested by the secretions from the proventriculus.
During the laying period, if the feed is presented in mash The gizzard also regulates feed flow in and out of the
form, the feed consumption time will be longer. lower digestive tract. The intestinal peristaltic motility
slows down the feed flow, allows better absorption of
However, if feed consumption times become too long, it is the nutrients by the intestinal villi, and helps stabilizing
important to switch to a coarser mash and/or to increase the intestinal flora.
the density of the feed (via the choice of raw materials or
the incorporation of oil/grease). Too fine feed dietary particles will not allow the above-
mentioned natural process to properly progress in good
Mash quality is assessed by studying the size and conditions. Effectively, small particles will not remain
uniformity of its particles. Good uniformity of particle size long enough in the crop and will not promote an adequate
is essential because poultry prefers bigger particles. If the pre-digestion in the gizzard. This happens frequently
mash is heterogeneous, the dominant birds will quickly when crumbles or pellets are made with a too fine mash.
eat those bigger cereal particles, while the rest of the In this case, granulation is mostly chosen for thermal
group will eat the finer particles. If the space around the and health reasons and not because of its hardness and
feeders is insufficient or the density high, a heterogeneous durability. It is thus recommended to use a coarse mash
batch is obtained during the growing period as well as to produce pelleted feed.
during production. In production, an homogenous granulometry increases
consumption and production. It should be noted that
regularity between two deliveries of feed is essential,
especially in breeders. Hens are very sensitive to their
feed, any change, even minimal in terms of presentation
will be identified and can therefore induce a change in
consumption and/ or behavior.

Coarse mash (1800 tr/min, big grill)

Medium mash (2200 tr/min, fine grill),

Feed granulometry
PARTICLE
STARTER GROWER DEVELOPER PRODUCTION
DIAMETER

Inferior to 0,5 mm max 5% max 5% max 5% max 5%

From 0,5 to 1 mm max 15% max 15% max 15% max 15%

From 1 to 2 mm 50-60 % 45-55 % 25-35 % 20-30 %

From 2 to 3,2 mm 10-20 % 15-25 % 25-35 % 30 -40 %

Superior to 3,2
Max 0 % Max 0 % Max 10 % Max 10 %
mm
16 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

5.2. HOW TO OBTAIN THE RIGHT GRANULOMETRY

Obtaining the right granulometry depends on the two
following factors :
Average grinding diameter (mm)
• Grinding technology used to manufacture the feed.
• Choice of raw materials and limits of their use
depending on their presentation.

→ Grinding technology
Feed particle size depends mainly on the grinding method. Diameter of the holes in the grill (mm)
Three types of grinders are available :

• Grinders with fluted cylinders Influence of hammer speed on the grist size of corn

They are designed for heavy volume production. But they

are more sensitive to deterioration by foreign bodies Example of calculation :
(stones, iron…), they use less energy and the feed • Rotation speed = 1,500 RPM (Rotations Per Minute)
produced has a more uniform particle size. • Grinder diameter = 0.7 m
• Peripheral hammer speed = 0.7 x 3.14 x (1,500/60) =
55 m/s

If the grinder runs at 3,000 RPM, the peripheral speed

is 110 m/s. 55 m/s is the most frequently used speed.
Grinders with variable speed allow the adjustment of
the speed to the raw materials and to the targeted feed
particle sizes. Having a dimmer is a significant plus.

Principe of grinder with cylinders

• Grinders with hammers

They are more commonly used. Grinding is achieved both

by contact between feed particles and the hammers and
by the abrasive effect of the grills. Thus, the control of the
grinding depends on the hammer peripheral speed, the
grill mesh size, and the percentage of holes in the grill.
Hammer peripheral speed is a combination of grinder
diameter and rotation speed. For a given raw material,
the higher the hammer speed is, the wider the distribution Principe of grinder with hammers
range of the feed particles will be.
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 17

The two important criteria to take into account for grinder It should be noted that the grinding technology, with
grills are mesh diameter (from 2 to 10 mm) and percentage equivalent particle size, does not matter. The main thing
of holes in the grill (from 27 to 52%). The higher these is not the equipment used but result of the grinding ;
two values are, the higher the feed particle size and feed either the particles size and their distribution.
particle size distribution
range will be.

Note that grills with

square mesh screens
have a higher proportion
of holes as well as a
lower wear rate. They
also allow higher Grills with round mesh and grills
throughputs. Feed with square mesh
Corn grinded with different particle sizes
particle size and its
distribution range must → Choice of raw materials
be regularly monitored. Excessive variation is a sign of Here are our main recommendations for the use of raw
hammer or grill wear. When hammers are worn, the materials :
distance between the hammer and the grill (normally • Incorporation of calcium carbonate in particulate form
8 mm) is increased. The peripheral feed particle layer to 60 - 70% for browns ; for whites the distribution must
therefore becomes thicker and particle ejection is slowed be 50 to 60% based on age. Depending on the solubility
down. The abrasive effect at grill level is increased. of particulate carbonate, the above percentages can
Grinder yield diminishes and more fine particles are vary greatly.
produced. In the same manner, worn grills will tend to • Limit the use of excessively pulverulent raw materials
reject particles back to the grinder instead of letting them : the use is limited by the palatability of the feed and
out. Hammers must be regularly monitored and changed. the intake levels observed in husbandry. A compromise
must be found between the percentage of oil added to
Grinders with variable speed improve the uniformity of the feed and the use of pulverulent raw materials.
particle size and lower the amount of particles outside • Add vegetable oil or animal fat to help gluing finer
the desired range. Satisfying results are obtained when particles and significantly improve feed palatability.
using grinders at a 55 m/s tangential speed along with The required percentage of added fat is a function of
large diameter mesh grills to reduce the production of the percentage of fine particles present in the feed, as
fine particles and adding a post-grinding sifting step to well as the manufacturing process (each feed mill/line
exclude particles with a size above 3 mm. of production is different).
• Transitions between formulas are crucial. Hens are
• Grinders with discs able to see tiny changes in their diet. The impact is
unfortunately too often negative with a temporary
A movable grinding disc rotates against a stationary decrease in consumption. It is necessary to plan
disc and grips the product to be grind. The compression changes in percentage of each raw material gradually,
force and the shear stress cause the desired grinding step by step in order to obtain smooth transitions. 20%
effects. The progressive arrangement of the teeth of the change of a raw material between two formulas is huge
grinding disc makes it possible to first carry out a first for a hen.
crushing of the product and convey it by the centrifugal
forces towards the outer zone of the discs where the fine In hot climates, a very coarse mash is better than a pellet
grinding takes place. both for price and palatability reasons. The use of this
kind of feed allows for the addition of supplemental fat,
if necessary.

It is possible in some local contexts to exceed these

maximums. The storage times of locally produced raw
materials are generally shorter. That also means the
knowledge of manufacturing process is facilitated in
particular by more audit opportunities of these suppliers.
The price is necessarily competitive, so, we can well
characterize this R.M. with many analyses.
Principe of grinder with discs
18 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

Maximum limits (%) of raw materials

PRE-STARTER & STARTER GROWER & DEVELOPER PRE LAY & LAY
Grains
Barley 10* 20* 20*
Corn 70 70 70
Millet 10 20 20
Oats 10* 15* 15*
Rice & Broken rice 15 20 30
Rye 5* 10* 10*
Triticale 10* 15* 20*
Wheat 50* 55* 60*
White Sorghum (tannin < 1%) 30 35 35
Grains by products
Bakery by-products 5 10 10
Corn gluten feed 5 10 8
Corn gluten 60 % 12 12 10
DDGS Corn 5 10 6
DDGS Wheat 5 10 6
Rice co-products 5 10 15
Wheat co-products 10 15 15*
Vegetables & Animal proteins
Blood Meal 2 2 2
Copra meal 3 5 4
Cottonseed meal 3 3 3
Fish meal 5 4 3
Full fat soya 15 20 20
Peanut meal 2 4 5
Guar Meal 2 5 5
Horse beans (faba) 4 5 5
Lupin 5 5 5
Linseed meal 4 7 5
Meat and bone meal 5 5 5
Palm kernel meal 2 5 5
Peas 10 13 15
Pork Meal 5 5 5
Poultry Meal 5 5 5
Poultry Feather Meal (hydrolysed) 2 3 2
Rapeseed meal 00 5 7 5
Soya bean meal 30 30 30
Sunflower bean 3 5 5
Sunflower meal Hipro 10 15 20*
Sunflower meal Lowpro 5 12 12*
Fat & Oils
Animal Fat 3 5 3
Glycerine 2 2 2
Palm Oil 3 5 3
Poultry Fat 4 4 5
Soya,Rape and sunflower oil 5 5 5
Others
Molasses (cane, beet) 1 2 2
Alfa Alfa/ Grass Meal 2 5 4
Oats hulls 2 5 4
Soya hulls 2 5 4
Sunflower hulls 1 3 2
Sugar beet pulp 0 3 3
Tapioca 7 10 10
* These raw materials often require the simultaneous use of enzymes in order to maximize their values
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 19
6. FEEDING PROGRAM AND DISTRIBUTION SCHEDULES
6.1. FEEDING DURING THE REARING PERIOD simple and widespread technic is the addition of insoluble
To satisfy pullet requirements, we recommend four fibres in large particles pullet feeds.
types of diets during the rearing period, here are some
important points for rearing period: After 10 weeks, it is also possible to distribute crumble
feed, but we must ensure that the crumble is well
• A « starter » feed from 1 day to 5 weeks of age in the presented. In any case, if the crumble is badly presented,
form of crumble. If body weight does not meet the it is better to distribute a coarse mash. To facilitate
standard, we recommend giving a starter feed for one the transition from crumble to mash feed, sometimes
or two more weeks can be challenging, it is advised to make exactly the
same formula and to only modify the presentation (this
• A « grower » feed from 6 to 10 weeks of age in the form minimizes the stress for animals).
of coarse mash or crumble if the weights are too low. These different types of feed are characterized by a
lowering of energy and protein levels. Since poultry is
• A « pullet » feed from 10 to 15 weeks of age in the very sensitive to presentation and introduction of new raw
form of coarse mash. Its energy level shall be equal materials, it is possible to facilitate dietary transitions to
or lower to the ones of the pre-lay and layer feeds give out a diet corresponding to the mix of the two feeds
to enhance feed intake at the beginning of the laying for a few days. This transition phase may prevent under-
period. Crude fiber level shall be higher to increase consumption related to stress or adaptation periods.
feed intake [Link] of oil (1-2 %) will reduce
dustiness of the mash feed in grower and developer Carefully plan the the vaccination program, making a feed
feed. change at the same time as a «strong» vaccination (live
strain inactivated for example) is to be avoided. It is better
• A « pre-lay » feed from 16 weeks of age to 2% lay in to shift (forward or backward) the feed change to minimize
the form of coarse mash with carbonate particulate additional stress in addition to the vaccine challenge.
to exercise animals to consume it [Link] and Regular communication with your veterinarian is essential
protein is higher than previous feed which is given at to find the best compromise between vaccinations and
11-15 weeks. feed transitions.

The animals must be weighed weekly in order to follow 6.2. FEEDING DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD
the growth at best and adapt (move forward or back) the In production buildings, dietary programs can be divided
transitions between feeds to reach the standard weight into 4 or 5 parts :
at transfer . Never forget to calculate the homogeneity • From 2% laying to 45-50 weeks of age to support
during weighing because the distribution of weights is maximum egg mass, hens are fed with «layer 1».
also an important indicator of the good progress of a flock This diet, rich in protein and amino acids, ensures
growth. The weight is not the only criterion to control, it proper growth in the first weeks of laying and that egg
also requires a well-developed digestive tract because a production reaches its peak. A late change in diet after
pullet should increase by about 30 to 50% its consumption 2% laying can cause osteoporosis in the early-laying
in a few weeks as soon she will lay. A well-developed crop hens. To reduce the risk of under- consumption, it is
and gizzard are essentials for a good entrance in lay. A recommended to include at least 1.5% to 2.5% fat to
improve the palatability of the feed and to encourage
a rapid increase in feed intake and egg weight.

• The “layer 2” feed, provided from 45 to 70 weeks of

age is formulated to support persistency. This diet
is characterized by an increase in calcium levels to
20 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

compensate the deterioration of the calcification eat the rest right when lights are turned on again. Finer
process that occurs with age. To maintain persistency, particles will be eaten more easily in the morning. The
amino acid levels should be adjusted according to feed amount of feed given will be adjusted so that the feeders
[Link] energy level of Layer 2 feed should are empty in the middle of the day. This is particularly
be approximately 25 kcal lower than the energy level of important during hot weather periods (summer or hot
Layer 1 feed. It is also possible to balance egg weight climates)
by slightly reducing the fat percentage.
During the laying period, the distribution schedules
• Layer 3 feed is given to support persistency between should be planned according to the natural behaviour
70 and 85 weeks. Ensuring a balanced supply of amino of the hens :
acids based on feed intake is crucial for maintaining
production levels. This diet includes increased calcium • More than 50 % of the feed is eaten spontaneously
and decreased phosphorus levels to meet the hen’s during the last five to six hours of the day.
nutritional needs. . The energy level of Layer 3 feed
should be approximately 25 kcal lower than the energy • Excessive feed distributions can increase competition
level of Layer 2 feed. At the same time, the amount of between hens, this can result in deterioration if
fat can be reduced to control egg weight. feed is presented in crumble form and create flock
heterogeneity due to hen’s preference for larger
• Layer 4 feed is suitable for egg mass less than 51 gr or particles. This is why, we advise to carry out a minimum
after 85 weeks. The amino acid levels of the feed should number of feed distributions.
be adjusted for persistency and feed consumption. The
energy level should be around 25 kcal lower than the • The number of distributions will be determined by feed
previous feed. density, feeding conditions, manual or mechanical
distribution, and storage capacity of trolleys and feed
It is necessary to weigh the hens in production regularly hoppers.
as tracking weight trends over time is crucial. A hen
who loses weight will not produce enough at the end of Accumulation of fines particles leading to under-
laying. A hen who gains weight regularly but not too much consumption shall be avoided. It is therefore recommended
is the ideal situation. A hen that gains too much weight that the feeders remain empty for two to three hours (for
will store too much fat and will no longer produce at the the Brown strains) in the middle of the day to avoid under-
end of laying. Weigh your hens every two to three weeks. consumption and increase feed intake at the end of the
day. This practice is not considered a dietary restriction,
6.3. DISTRIBUTION SCHEDULES as hens quickly adapt to the feed distribution schedule..
During the first five weeks, chicks should have a permanent The goal is to ensure that hens ingest the maximum of
access to the feed in order to favour the starting up. From feed in the shortest time possible. For White strains,
five weeks of age and up until 2% lay, at least 50% of the the empty feeder must be shorter, between one and two
daily feed intake should be provided during the final six hours maximum.
hours of the day. The last feed distribution should occur
right before the lights are turned off to allow pullets to

Empty
feeders

2 à 3h

12-13h of light at plateau

Amount of feed consumed according to the time on a day (in end of rearing)
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 21

→ Principles to apply The morning distribution time shall be defined so as to

Here are a few examples of distribution schedules : obtain empty feeder in the middle of the day. In addition,
• Two distributions : two-third of the feed will be given not giving out feed during laying hours results in cleaner
out approximately five to six hours before turning off eggs, as to avoid egg laying on the floor in alternative
the lights and the remaining third during the two to system. These schedules should always be adapted to
three hours after turning on the lights. production system.

• Three distributions : the first distribution will occur five When the feed is distributed by a trolley, he shall be
to six hours before lights off, the second approximately immediately returned to the end of the battery. This helps
three hours before turning off the lights, and the third avoiding competition for large particles.
will occur during the two to three hours after turning When using line/chain feeding systems, it is preferable
on the lights. to carry out feed distribution in the dark or to have rapid
feed distribution systems to avoid any selective sorting.
• Four distributions : same schedule as for the three-
distribution schedule with the addition of a fourth
distribution during the night lighting period.

• Five distributions : the fifth distribution will occur

approximately one hour after the first morning
distribution.

To increase feed and calcium intake just before or during

shell formation, feed shall be given out at the end of the
day (and in the middle of the night, if it’s necessary).
22 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

6.4. DRINKING WATER

This is often neglected, water is the primary intake for It is generally recommended to conduct a full water
poultry. Water-to-feed ratio is between 1.5 and 1.7 in quality analysis once a year, particularly for water from
temperate climate, between 2 and 3 in tropical climate. networks intended for human consumption. In the case
This means that a layer ingests between 1.5 and 3 times of a particular drill, more frequent testing should be
more water than feed. done, at least one in the summer and one in the winter
(or rainy season). Bacteriological monitoring must be
Providing high-quality, unlimited access to water is frequent and will depend heavily on its quality.
essential to meet the needs of pullets and layers. The In addition to the above standards, special treatment
standards listed below are those set for humans by the should be used to eliminate or reduce the off-standard
European Union and the World Health Organization, as no component(s). For example, iron can be reduced with a
specific standards exist for poultry. Therefore, drinking sand filter (to be cleaned daily), while bacteria require
water safe for humans is also safe for poultry. There is antibacterial treatment.
no such thing as «acceptable» water for poultry that is Bacteriological water treatment (even from the human
unsuitable for humans. network) is essential to guarantee a satisfactory quality
between the beginning of the water lines and the end of
the building.

Non-exhaustive nutritional recommendations (U.E. or O.M.S.)

PHYSICAL AND CHIMICAL CRITERIA GOOD QUALITY DO NOT USE
pH 5.5 - 6.5 < 4 and > 8
Hardness (mg/L) < 150 > 500
Total Dissolved Solids (T.D.S mg/L) < 1 000 > 1 500
Ammonia (mg/L) < 0.5 > 0.5
Nitrite (mg/L) < 0.5 > 0.5
Nitrate (mg/L) < 50 > 50
Chloride (mg/L) < 250 > 1 250
Sodium (mg/L) < 200 > 1 000
Sulfate (mg/L) < 250 > 500
Iron (mg/L) < 0.2 > 1.0
Manganese (mg/L) < 0.05 > 0.4
H2S (mg/L) Non detectable Non detectable
BACTERIOLOGICAL CRITERIA GOOD QUALITY DO NOT USE
Organic matter (mg/L) <2
Salmonella Non detectable Non detectable
Coliforms (CFU/ml) Zero > 50
Total germ count (CFU/ml) < 100 > 100
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 23

7. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REARING PERIOD FOR COMMERCIAL AND PARENTAL LAYERS

Starter Grower Pullet / Developer Pre-Lay

0 - 5 weeks 6 - 10 weeks 11 - 15 weeks 16 weeks to 2%

Crumble Crumble or Mash Coarse Mash Coarse Mash

EM Kcal / Kg 2900 - 3000 2800 - 2900 2650 - 2750 2700 - 2750

EM MJ / Kg 12.13-12.55 11.71-12.13 11.08-11.50 11.30-11.50
EM Kcal / lb 1318 - 1362 1270 - 1318 1205 - 1250 1227 - 1250
% Crude protein 20.0 - 21.0 18.0 - 19.0 15.0 - 16.0 17.0 - 17.5
% Crude fiber 2.5-4.5 3.0 - 5.5 3.5 - 6.5 3.5 - 5.5
% Crude fat 2.5 - 5.0 2.5 - 5.5 2.5 - 5.5 3.0 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 1,12 0,95 0,74 0,81

% Tot. Methionine 0,50 0,43 0,36 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,76 0,63 0,73
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,76 0,65 0,52 0,57
% Tot. Valine 0,88 0,75 0,59 0,71
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,71 0,56 0,65
% Tot. Arginine 1,18 1,00 0,78 0,85

% Dig. Lysine 1,00 0,85 0,65 0,72

% Dig. Methionine 0,45 0,38 0,31 0,36
% Dig. Meth &
0,77 0,68 0,55 0,65
Cystine
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,19 0,17 0,16 0,16
% Dig. Threonine 0,68 0,58 0,46 0,50
% Dig. Valine 0,79 0,67 0,52 0,63
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,69 0,64 0,49 0,58
% Dig. Arginine 1,05 0,89 0,69 0,76

% Calcium 1.05 - 1.10 1.00 - 1.10 0.95 - 1.05 2.20 - 2.50

% Available Phos-
0.45 - 0.50 0.42 - 0.45 0.37 - 0.40 0.42 - 0.45
phorus
% Sodium 0.18 - 0.20 0.16 - 0.18 0.16 - 0.18 0.16 - 0.18
% Chlorine 0.20 - 0.25 0.18- 0.25 0.16 - 0.25 0.15 - 0.25
% Potassium 0.60 - 0.90 0.60 - 0.90 0.60 - 0.90 0.60 - 0.90

• The energy level of the pullet feed 11 - 15 weeks and pre-lay should be equal to that of the laying feed at the beginning of lay (or a little bit above)
• In hot climates, it is recommended to increase amino acid levels by 5% to compensate for lower consumption.
• Take into account average body weight of the flock when considering changing the diet, rather than the age of the flock.
24 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

Some important points for production period.

• Phase feeding is recommended for a successful • It is recommended, whenever possible, to formulate
production performance. To maximise reach of Novogen feeds in A.A-ratios, on the basis of lysine in order to
genetic potential, nutrients of each feed is suggested avoid any imbalance (causing a greater need and losses
based on maintenance needs of birds, standard egg due mainly to competition between A.A.).
mass and egg shell quality as well as optimal conditions
of production (20 - 22°C) and biosecurity. Do not change • We recommend a minimum total fibers for all their
to next feed until you see the egg mass drops. positive effects on the digestion and behavior of the
animals. For cage farms, 3.5% is the minimum. These
• Amino acids : All NOVOGEN recommendations are levels need to be increased and adjusted for alternative
made with a quality protein, with a good availability production systems.
and digestibility of Amino Acids (A.A.). Recommended • Feed Intake: It can vary according to body weight, egg
ideal amino acid ratios (table 1) are indicated in ranges. mass, farm temperature ,feathering condition, energy
These recommendations are given for an average level of feed, and feed granulometry. Production system
temperature in poultry farm between 20 and 22°C, affects the feed intake too. Birds that are reared in
with optimal conditions and good sanitary level. Any alternative systems are more active than birds are in
excessive pressure from the microbial population leads conventional cage systems. They need more energy
to an expenditure of energy and A.A. If necessary, they for maintenance. As a result, we need to consider all
should be adjusted according to the observed field these parameters when talking about feed intake.
performances and the desired production objectives
(typically feather, egg weight, etc.). Any anti-nutritional
factors that may alter the bioavailability of A.A. must
be controlled, taking into account the risk, and must
be managed accordingly.

Ideal Amino Acid Ratio for whole period

DEVELO-
A.A. RATIOS STARTER GROWER PRELAY LAYER
PER
Dig. Lysine 100 100 100 100 100
Dig. Methionine 45 45 48 50 51
Dig. Methionine + Cystine 77 80 85 90 90
Dig. Tryptophan 19 20 24 21 22
Dig. Threonine 68 68 70 70 70
Dig. Valine 79 79 80 88 88
Dig. Isoleucine 69 75 76 80 80
Dig. Arginine 105 105 106 105 104
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 25

7.2. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NOVOgen BROWN PARENTAL STOCK

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 18 TO 45 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 55 - 57g)

Layer 1
300-316 kcal/hen/day
1.255-1.322 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 19.2 19.2 18.3 17.46 16.7 16

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 6.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,82 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,71 0,68

% Dig. Methionine 0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,74 0,74 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,62
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,16 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,57 0,57 0,55 0,52 0,50 0,48
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,66 0,66 0,62 0,60 0,57 0,55
% Dig. Valine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Arginine 0,85 0,85 0,81 0,78 0,74 0,71

% Calcium 4,10 4,10 3,90 3,73 3,57 3,42

% Available Phos-
0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,37 0,35
phorus
% Sodium 0,17 0,170 0,162 0,155 0,148 0,142
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,30 1,25 1,20 1,15 1,10
• The consumption levels listed above correspond to the usual observed consumption after 22 weeks.
26 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 46 WEEKS TO DEPLETION

(with a daily egg mass of 52 - 55g)

Layer 2
292-312 kcal/hen/day
1.238-1.305 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 18.20 18.20 17.33 16.55 15.83 15.17

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,80 0,80 0,76 0,73 0,70 0,67

% Dig. Methionine 0,41 0,41 0,39 0,37 0,35 0,34
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,65 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,15 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,56 0,56 0,53 0,51 0,49 0,47
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,64 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56 0,53
% Dig. Valine 0,70 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,59
% Dig. Arginine 0,83 0,83 0,79 0,76 0,72 0,69

% Calcium 4,30 4,30 4,10 3,91 3,74 3,58

% Available Phos-
0,40 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33
phorus
% Sodium 0,16 0,160 0,152 0,145 0,139 0,133
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 27

7.3. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NOVOgen BROWN COMMERCIAL STOCK

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 18 TO 45 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 58 - 60g)

Layer 1
303-318 kcal/hen/day
1.267-1.330 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 18,50 18,50 17,62 16,82 16,09 15,42

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 6.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,82 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,71 0,68

% Dig. Methionine 0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,74 0,74 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,62
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,16 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,57 0,57 0,55 0,52 0,50 0,48
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,66 0,66 0,62 0,60 0,57 0,55
% Dig. Valine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Arginine 0,85 0,85 0,81 0,78 0,74 0,71

% Calcium 4,10 4,10 3,90 3,73 3,57 3,42

% Available Phos-
0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,37 0,35
phorus
% Sodium 0,18 0,180 0,171 0,164 0,157 0,150
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,30 1,25 1,20 1,15 1,10

• The consumption levels listed above correspond to the usual observed consumption after 22 weeks.
28 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 46 TO 70 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 56 - 58g)

Layer 2
299-314 kcal/hen/day
1.251-1.313 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 18,00 18,00 17,14 16,36 15,65 15,00

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,80 0,80 0,76 0,73 0,70 0,67

% Dig. Methionine 0,41 0,41 0,39 0,37 0,35 0,34
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,65 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,15 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,56 0,56 0,53 0,51 0,49 0,47
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,64 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56 0,53
% Dig. Valine 0,70 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,59
% Dig. Arginine 0,83 0,83 0,79 0,76 0,72 0,69

% Calcium 4,30 4,30 4,10 3,91 3,74 3,58

% Available Phos-
0,40 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33
phorus
% Sodium 0,17 0,170 0,162 0,155 0,148 0,142
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 29

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 71 TO 85 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 52 - 56g)

Layer 3
295-310 kcal/hen/day
1.234-1.297 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 17,50 17,50 16,67 15,91 15,22 14,58

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,78 0,78 0,74 0,71 0,68 0,65

% Dig. Methionine 0,40 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,70 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,59
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,17 0,17 0,16 0,16 0,15 0,14
% Dig. Threonine 0,55 0,55 0,52 0,50 0,47 0,46
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,62 0,62 0,59 0,57 0,54 0,52
% Dig. Valine 0,69 0,69 0,65 0,62 0,60 0,57
% Dig. Arginine 0,81 0,81 0,77 0,74 0,71 0,68

% Calcium 4,50 4,50 4,29 4,09 3,91 3,75

% Available Phos-
0,38 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33 0,32
phorus
% Sodium 0,16 0,160 0,152 0,145 0,139 0,133
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
• The consumption levels listed above correspond to the usual observed consumption after 22 weeks.
30 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 86 WEEKS TO DEPLETION

(with a daily egg mass of 51g and less)
Layer 4
285-300 kcal/hen/day
1.191-1.255 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 17,00 17,00 16,19 15,45 14,78 14,17

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0.96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0.49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0.86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0.21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0.67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0.77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0.84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1.01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,76 0,76 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63

% Dig. Methionine 0,39 0,39 0,37 0,35 0,34 0,32
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,68 0,68 0,65 0,62 0,59 0,57
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,17 0,17 0,16 0,15 0,15 0,14
% Dig. Threonine 0,53 0,53 0,51 0,48 0,46 0,44
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,61 0,61 0,58 0,55 0,53 0,51
% Dig. Valine 0,67 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Dig. Arginine 0,79 0,79 0,75 0,72 0,69 0,66

% Calcium 4,50 4,50 4,29 4,09 3,91 3,75

% Available Phos-
0,36 0,36 0,34 0,33 0,31 0,30
phorus
% Sodium 0,16 0,160 0,152 0,145 0,139 0,133
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 31

7.4. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NOVOgen WHITE PARENT STOCK

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 18 TO 45 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 55 - 57g)

Layer 1
294-310 kcal/hen/day
1.238-1.297 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 19 19 18.1 17.3 16.6 15.9

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 6.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,82 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,71 0,68

% Dig. Methionine 0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,74 0,74 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,62
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,16 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,57 0,57 0,55 0,52 0,50 0,48
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,66 0,66 0,62 0,60 0,57 0,55
% Dig. Valine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Arginine 0,85 0,85 0,81 0,78 0,74 0,71

% Calcium 4,10 4,10 3,90 3,73 3,57 3,42

% Available Phos-
0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,37 0,35
phorus
% Sodium 0,17 0,170 0,162 0,155 0,148 0,142
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,30 1,25 1,20 1,15 1,10
• The consumption levels listed above correspond to the usual observed consumption after 22 weeks.
32 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 46 WEEKS TO DEPLETION

(with a daily egg mass of 52 - 55g)

Layer 2
290-306 kcal/hen/day
1.221-1.280 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 18.00 18.00 17.14 16.36 15.65 15.00

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,80 0,82 0,76 0,73 0,70 0,67

% Dig. Methionine 0,41 0,41 0,39 0,37 0,35 0,34
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,65 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,15 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,56 0,56 0,53 0,51 0,49 0,47
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,64 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56 0,53
% Dig. Valine 0,70 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,59
% Dig. Arginine 0,83 0,83 0,79 0,76 0,72 0,69

% Calcium 4,30 4,30 4,10 3,91 3,74 3,58

% Available Phos-
0,40 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33
phorus
% Sodium 0,16 0,160 0,152 0,145 0,139 0,133
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 33

7.5. NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NOVOgen WHITE COMMERCIAL STOCK

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 18 TO 45 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 58 - 60g)

Layer 1
290-306 kcal/hen/day
1.213-1.280 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 18,00 18,00 17,14 16,36 15,65 15,00

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 6.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,82 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,71 0,68

% Dig. Methionine 0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,74 0,74 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,62
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,16 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,57 0,57 0,55 0,52 0,50 0,48
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,66 0,66 0,62 0,60 0,57 0,55
% Dig. Valine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Arginine 0,85 0,85 0,81 0,78 0,74 0,71

% Calcium 4,10 4,10 3,90 3,73 3,57 3,42

% Available Phos-
0,42 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,37 0,35
phorus
% Sodium 0,18 0,180 0,171 0,164 0,157 0,150
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,30 1,25 1,20 1,15 1,10
• The consumption levels listed above correspond to the usual observed consumption after 22 weeks.
34 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 46 TO 70 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 56 - 58g)
Layer 2
286-302 kcal/hen/day
1.196-1.263 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 17,50 17,50 16,67 15,91 15,22 14,58

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,80 0,70 0,76 0,73 0,70 0,67

% Dig. Methionine 0,41 0,41 0,39 0,37 0,35 0,34
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,72 0,72 0,69 0,65 0,63 0,60
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,18 0,18 0,17 0,16 0,15 0,15
% Dig. Threonine 0,56 0,56 0,53 0,51 0,49 0,47
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,64 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56 0,53
% Dig. Valine 0,70 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,59
% Dig. Arginine 0,83 0,83 0,79 0,76 0,72 0,69

% Calcium 4,30 4,30 4,10 3,91 3,74 3,58

% Available Phos-
0,40 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33
phorus
% Sodium 0,17 0,17 0,162 0,155 0,15 0,142
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 35

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 71 TO 85 WEEKS

(with a daily egg mass of 52 - 56g)

Layer 3
282-298 kcal/hen/day
1.179-1.246 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 17,00 17,00 16,19 15,45 14,78 14,17

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,78 0,78 0,74 0,71 0,68 0,65

% Dig. Methionine 0,40 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,70 0,70 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,59
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,17 0,17 0,16 0,16 0,15 0,14
% Dig. Threonine 0,55 0,55 0,52 0,50 0,47 0,46
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,62 0,62 0,59 0,57 0,54 0,52
% Dig. Valine 0,69 0,69 0,65 0,62 0,60 0,57
% Dig. Arginine 0,81 0,81 0,77 0,74 0,71 0,68

% Calcium 4,50 4,50 4,29 4,09 3,91 3,75

% Available Phos-
0,38 0,38 0,36 0,35 0,33 0,32
phorus
% Sodium 0,16 0,160 0,152 0,145 0,139 0,133
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
36 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

→ EXAMPLE OF DIET SPECIFICATIONS FROM 86 WEEKS TO DEPLETION

(with a daily egg mass of 51g and less)
Layer 4
272-288 kcal/hen/day
1.138-1.204 mj/hen/day

Need g/ 100 105 110 115 120

Ingested quantity (g/d) bird / day

% Crude protein 16,75 16,75 15,95 15,23 14,57 13,96

% Crude fiber 3.5 - 7.0
% Crude fat 2.5 - 6.0

% Tot. Lysine 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80

% Tot. Methionine 0,49 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,41
% Tot. Methio +
0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72
Cystine
% Tot. Tryptophan 0,21 0,20 0,19 0,18 0,18
% Tot. Threonine 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Tot. Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,66 0,64
% Tot. Valine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,73 0,70
% Tot. Arginine 1,01 0,96 0,91 0,87 0,84

% Dig. Lysine 0,76 0,76 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63

% Dig. Methionine 0,39 0,39 0,37 0,35 0,34 0,32
% Dig. Meth & Cystine 0,68 0,68 0,65 0,62 0,59 0,57
% Dig. Tryptophan 0,17 0,17 0,16 0,15 0,15 0,14
% Dig. Threonine 0,53 0,53 0,51 0,48 0,46 0,44
% Dig. Isoleucine 0,61 0,61 0,58 0,55 0,53 0,51
% Dig. Valine 0,67 0,67 0,64 0,61 0,58 0,56
% Dig. Arginine 0,79 0,79 0,75 0,72 0,69 0,66

% Calcium 4,60 4,60 4,38 4,18 4,00 3,83

% Available Phos-
0,36 0,36 0,34 0,33 0,31 0,30
phorus
% Sodium 0,16 0,160 0,152 0,145 0,139 0,133
% Chlorine 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.25
% Linoleic acid (Min.) - 1,20 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,00
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 37

8. FEEDING IN HOT CLIMATES

One of the first consequence of elevated temperatures Thermoregulation is rendered more difficult in very humid
in layers’ facilities result in performance losses (growth, environments when relative humidity is superior to 75%,
lay, livability, eggshell quality…) which in turn can have a the animals can no longer remove heat by evaporation.
significant economic impact. It is thus imperative to adapt
the management of these facilities to reduce the impact of As body temperature rises, feed intake stops immediately.
heat. When temperatures rise, it becomes more difficult This results in a decrease in performances and growth.
to remove animal heat. The hens’ thermoregulation If conditions worsen, increased body temperature can
mechanisms kick in and a decrease in feed intake is lead to the animal’s death.
observed.
8.2. IMPACTS ON THE PERFORMANCES
8.1. MECHANISM OF THERMOREGULATION • Reduced growth starting from 24°C; close to zero
Heat loss can occur via two mechanisms : growth beyond 28°C.
• Direct exchange with external environment (air, litter, • Reduced feed conversion ratio up to 28°C (lower
radiation). maintenance), increased FCR beyond 28°C.
• Water evaporation in the respiratory tract (the main • Between 24 and 28°C, egg weight is reduced by 0.4%
way). per °C; beyond 28°C, egg weight is reduced by 0.8%
per °C.
Thermal exchanges depend on both ambient temperature • Reduced laying rate beyond 30°C; under 30°C, the
and animal body temperature, they decrease when the first impact of increased temperature is egg weight
external temperature rises. Cardiac and respiratory reduction.
rhythms, regulated by body heat, intensify to facilitate
water loss through the respiratory tract, thus allowing
the animals to lose more heat (at the rate of 0.6 kcal
for 1 g of water evaporated). This explains the very high
consumption of water in hot climates.

Thermoregulation in normal conditions and in case of heat stress

25 %
H2O Evaporation
CO2

O2 H2 O
80%
CO
2
Evaporation

75 %
O2

41,5°C Conduction
107°F Convection 44°C
Radiation 20 %
111°F
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
38 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

Curve of temperature of a layer’s house in hot conditions

Temperature in the house and lighting program

°C °F
36 97 6 h above 32°C
34 93
32 90
30 86 10 h above 28°C
28 82
26 79 14 h below 28°C
24 75
With 3 hours of natural light for eating
(without extra light)
22 72
20 68

Natural night

0 5 10 15 20 24
• In blue on the diagram above, temperature range +/- optimal for animals (this temperature is not fixed, it is to be defined according to production
objectives against production cost).
• In orange (28 - 32°C), temperature range with an initiation of performances degradation against optimum zone.
• In orange/red (> 32°C), a sharp drop in food consumption that can go up to a stop during these high temperatures.

It is important to have a presence of the feed in the easily in the morning (or during the night). When lights
coolest hours (blue zone) in order to ensure a good feed are turned on, the hens’ digestive track is empty and they
consumption and thus a good level of production. The will eat fine particles more easily. The first distribution
addition of light must also be done in the coolest hours of feed shall occur approximately two to three hours
of the day : early in the morning or even with a flash after lights are turned on, when the temperature is the
during the night. coolest to avoid any digestion during the warmest hours.
The feed shall be distributed approximately four hours
8.3. HOW TO REDUCE THE IMPACT OF HIGH before turning off the lights. Hens will be able to eat if
TEMPERATURES the temperature is acceptable. However, the hens should
It is possible to maintain the performances by facilitating have sufficient amounts feed during the night lighting
heat loss and/or dispensing the feed when the temperature period and during the hours after turning on the lights.
is cooler to limit digestion during the warmest hours. The distribution schedule and the quantity given will be
determined based on the time at which the feeders are
→ Adapting lighting programs and feeding techniques empty. It is recommended to make sure that the feeders
Since the impact of high temperatures can be reduced by are not empty in the hours after turning on the lights to
making sure the feeding takes place during the coolest avoid any risks of restriction.
part of the day, it is recommended to : If the hens do not eat enough food despite these
• Lit the facility early in the morning (avoid at the evening techniques, it is possible to feed them crumble instead of
if the temperature is not fallen enough). mash.
• Provide a period of 1.5 to 2 hours of light in the middle
of the night. As a reminder, it is not possible to compensate production
• Have an adequate granulometry (80% of the particles losses due to high temperature by increasing energy
between 1.0 and 3.2 mm). (water and feed available) levels and even more so after six weeks of age when
the feathering is well developed and extra-heat loss is
Because the actual act of feeding uses approximately reduced.
25% of the maintenance requirements, providing a feed
with an adequate granulometry is essential to reduce → Increasing heat loss by dispensing cold water
the energy required to eat the feed. It is thus strongly In hot climates, a hen can consume up 300 ml of water
recommended to use granular calcium carbonate (2 to per day; it is necessary to maintain a difference of 15°C
4 mm) and to add oil at a level comprised between 1 and between ambient temperature and drinking water
3% minimum to glue fines particles together and improve temperature, it helps reduce by more than 2% the quantity
feed palatability. Feeders must be empty by the end of the of heat to be removed. It is thus essential to find solutions
morning to avoid any digestion during the warmest hours. to constantly provide hens with cold water (shaded water
cistern and painted in white, underground water pipes…)
Any feed not eaten in the evening will be ingested more
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 39

Amount of feed consumed according to the time on a day, with midnight light

Feed
distribution
Midnight
Light

Empty
feeders

15h-15h30 of light + 1h-1h30 midnight light

Keep in mind that fresh and quality water is the best and ambient air. However, air circulation speed has to
solution in an economic and technical point of view. be reduced during the night to prevent excessive feed
consumption. The following parameters shall be taken
Soluble aspirin has an antipyretic activity and can be into account when setting up the speed, temperature,
given at a concentration of 0.3 g per liter of water to humidity, ages of the animals, feathering.
stimulate water consumption. Moreover, vitamin C,
at a concentration of 1 g per liter of water has also a Pad cooling and fogging systems are also good alternative
positive effect on feed and water consumption. Sodium solutions to decrease ambient temperature. However, they
bicarbonate between 0.5 and 1 g per liter of water will also quickly reach their limits in humid tropical conditions due
push the animals to drink in case of high temperature. to the very high outside humidity!

→ Reducing ambiant temperature via other

techniques
The buildings shall be properly insulated to prevent
temperature increase due to sunlight exposure.

A surface superior to 500 cm² per animal should be

allocated to facilitate extra heat removal (as a reminder,
European regulations impose a minimum surface of
750 cm² per animal). Californian cages are preferable to
standard battery units. They create less obstruction to
air circulation and hens can get their heads out of their
cage. . But every excess of density will have a negative
impact in case of heat stress

When hens are reared on the floor, it is recommended

to add perches to limit floor density. It is possible from
5-6 weeks in pullets.

Fans can also be used to control air circulation speed

and thus to increase heat losses between the animal
40 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

9. TRACE-ELEMENTS AND VITAMINS

[Link]-ELEMENTS
The determination of trace mineral requirements has Over the last 50 years, trace element nutrition research
been a secondary concern in poultry nutrition and has suf- has led to the development of more bio-available organic
fered from a lack of recent research into the fundamental minerals, several of which have been approved for use in
aspects of nutrient availability and animal requirements poultry. These include trace metals derived from chelates
in comparison to other nutrients. In view of the key role (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) and organic Se often from strain-specific
that many trace minerals have in the development of yeasts. These organic forms help to reduce releases and
essential tissues and maintenance of animal health, accumulation in the environment. They can be particularly
this deficit may lead to production and health problems. interesting for the parental flocks.

For example, deficiencies of the trace minerals Sele- Although those minerals bound to organic compounds
nium (Se), Zinc (Zn), and Manganese (Mn) have been have been available to the industry for some years, their
linked to impaired reproductive performance in male adoption in commercial practice has been slow and
and female farm animals (Smith and Akinbamijo, 2000). frequently limited to the breeding (due to the high cost).
Research has also shown that inorganic and/or organic Conventional levels of trace minerals supplementation are
zinc increase levels of zinc in the bone (Qiu et al., 2020). recommended below (to adjust to meet local regulations
In general, almost all minerals play a role in ensuring may be more restrictive) :
optimum immunity. Minerals act as cofactors of different
enzyme systems or as component of hormonal systems
responsible for maintaining the integrity of the cellular
and humoral defence mechanisms.

Summary of trace-elements impacts in PS, their reproductive performances and progeny

JUVENILE JUVENILE
REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNE SKELETON D
GROWTH OF LIVEABILITY OF
PERFORMANCES FUNCTION EVELOPMENT
PROGENY PROGENY

Manganese x x

Zinc x x x x x

Copper x

Selenium x x x x

Added trace minerals recommendation per kg of diet

PARENT STOCK COMMERCIAL STOCK

REARING PRODUCTION REARING PRODUCTION

PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD

Manganese, Mn (2) Mg 90 100 80 100

Zinc, Zn (2) Mg 80 100 80 90

Iron, Fe (2) Mg 40 70 40 40

Copper, Cu (2) Mg 10 15 10 15

Selenium, Se (2) Mg 0.25 0.35 0.25 0.25

Iodine, I Mg 1.5 2 1 1.5

 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 41

9.2. ADDED VITAMINS → Vitamin requirements

Vitamins are essential micro-nutriments, occupying Requirements for vitamins are usually cover by adding all
a central role in most metabolic processes. They are vitamins as synthetic sources (there are however, a few
required for optimum health and normal physiological natural sources). Regular feed ingredients such as corn,
functions such as growth, development, maintenance wheat and soya bean meal, all contain natural sources
and reproduction. of vitamins and in some situations, could theoretically
contain enough to meet the animals’ needs (example :
Severe vitamin underfeeding is rare in commercial choline if the feed is in mash). However, the concentration
practices. It is more likely to encounter marginal of vitamins will vary in feed ingredients because of crop
deficiencies caused either by low supplementation, low location, fertilizer usage, plant genetics, plant disease,
quality sources, poor bioavailability, poor conservation weather and storage. Harvesting conditions often play
conditions and dominant breeders consuming less than a major role in the vitamin content of many feedstuffs.
the average calculated feed intake. Vitamin content of corn is drastically reduced when
harvest months are not conducive to full ripening. In
A marked deficiency of any one vitamin is known to result addition to this inherent variability is the effect that factors
in negative responses in parent egg production : fertility, such as natural plant toxins and mycotoxins can have on
hatchability and offspring performance. With a marginal vitamin availability.
vitamin supply, the progeny will not exhibit classical
deficiency syndromes but they will not perform to their Given these constraints, it is perhaps not too surprising
genetic potential. This is why we recommend higher that regular feed ingredients are not relied on to necessary
vitamin level for parent flocks compared to commercial and sufficient level of vitamins. Consequently, our vitamin
stock. premix recommendations are designed to supply all the
vitamins the animal requires.
Added vitamins recommendation per kg of diet
PARENT STOCK COMMERCIAL STOCK

REARING PRODUCTION REARING PRODUCTION

PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD

Vitamin A (1) IU 10 000 10 000 10 000 10 000

Vitamin D3 IU 3 000 3 200 3 000 3 000
Vitamin E IU 30 85 - 100 25 20
Vitamin K (1) Mg 3 4 3,0 3,0
Thiamine B1 Mg 2.5 4 2,5 3,5
Riboflavin B2 Mg 8 10 8 10
Niacin B3 Mg 45 50 40 40
Pantothenic acid
Mg 14 16 14 12
B5
Pyridoxine B6 Mg 5 5.5 4 5
Biotin B7 Mg 0.25 0.30 0,20 0,15
Folic acid B9 Mg 2 2.5 1.5 2
Cobalamine B12 Mg 0,025 0,03 0,020 0,025
Choline Mg 300 400 300 400
Coccidiostat as required as required
Antioxidant (3)
Mg 100-150 100-150 100-150 100-150

The levels of vitamins and minerals are for standard conditions, they can vary according to activities and challenges. Different level might be possible according to local
regulations.

(1)
Where the heat treatment is applied to diet, higher levels of vitamins may be required.
(2)
Usage of chelated minerals can increase bioavability of themtheir bioavailability
(3)
Inclusion of antioxidants may improve premix stability during storage conditions
42 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

It is quite difficult to determine the vitamin needs. Research → Loss in potency of vitamins
takes a long time to complete and is very expensive. The Another reason for higher vitamin fortifications relative
most recent official public vitamin requirements are from to published data requirements is the loss in potency that
the US NRC (1994). These may be viewed as absolute occur between feed manufacture and consumption by
requirements to prevent clinical deficiencies. In practical the bird. The sensitivity of different vitamins to outdoor
nutrition of breeders, the objective is not only to prevent conditions varies widely (table 14). But as a generalization,
signs of vitamin deficiency but also to support optimum it can be stated that the major causes of loss of vitamin
health and ensure good egg production, hatchability and potency are storage time, storage temperature, and
early chick vitality. The FEDNA in 2008, the FEFANA in storage humidity of the premix before mixing and of the
2014 and Rostagno et al., 2017 have published standards feed after mixing. The galenic of vitamins can also play
that are much higher than the NRC, standards that are an important role, some sources being coated, protected
closer to the real need of animals in a conventional farm. by a matrix (often lipid) for the purpose of releasing at
the appropriate time.
There is also extensive variation in vitamin
recommendations according to environmental effects Another major loss of vitamins occurs if they are premixed
such as growing conditions and management, disease, with minerals and Choline Chloride, stored for any length
diet considerations and strain. Higher levels can be of time prior to incorporation in feed. Trace elements are
recommended when the flock conditions are challenging : aggressive against vitamins, if possible, it is necessary
high stocking density and/or severe internal and external to divide the intake into two premixes (especially if the
microbial challenges. transport/storage is long). Other factors involved in the
mixing of the premix and the feed may also cause a
Our recommendations ensure the optimum delivery of loss of activity: some vitamins are acidic, while others
vitamins to the animals and the developing embryo. With are deteriorated in an basic environment. Vitamin
these extra levels of vitamins in the feed, there should manufacturers can provide information on factors that
be no need to use supplemental vitamins in the water. may affect the activity of their vitamin products. Armed
Except in situations due to environmental conditions, with this knowledge coupled with the conditions that
disease/parasite stress, low feed intake or enteritis, this can be anticipated in the field, it is possible to predict
rule should be broken. what levels of security are necessary to guarantee
performances.

Sensitivity of vitamins to environmental conditions

TEMPERATURE OXYGEN HUMIDITY LIGHT pH 3-5 pH 6-7.5

A XX XXX X XX XX O

D3 X XX X X X O

E X X X X O XX

K3 XX X XXX X XXX O

B1 X X X X O XX

B2 O O X XX O O

B6 XX O X X X O

B12 XX X XX X O O

Pantothenate X O X O O O

Niacin O O O O X O

Biotin X O O X X O

Folic acid XX O X XX XX X

Choline X O O X X X

Betaine O O O X O X

C (1) XX XX XX X O X
(1)
Vitamin C interesting in case of thermal stress to boost feed consumption
(2)
O Stable X Sensitive XX Highly sensitive XXX Extremely sensitive
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 43

It is also important not to forget an essential factor such as corn and alfalfa, it is possible to enhance the
having an effect on the stability of vitamins. Indeed, in feed with xanthophylls to achieve the desired yolk color.
many cases today, the feed undergoes a heat treatment Additionally, both natural and synthetic sources of yellow
(heat treatment of feed in the form of mash and/or pellet) and red pigments, with varying concentrations, can be
during which vitamin degradation can be observed under added to the feed to intensify yolk coloration, provided
the combination of the effects of temperature, pressure they comply with local regulations.
and humidity (in this case, favour a suitable galenic). As
with all enzymes, it is advisable to perform regularly a • Omega 3
covering test to evaluate the impact of the manufacturing
process on the final feed. While it is not possible to alter the total amount of fatty
acids in an egg, the composition can be modified to favor
→ Egg enrichments certain fatty acids that benefit human health or embryonic
The egg is a very stable environment, its purpose being development. For example, providing hens with a diet rich
to provide all the nutrients needed for the development in Omega-3 fatty acids (such as EPA and DHA) leads to
of a young chick. Without going into details, it is possible eggs enriched with these beneficial fatty acids (Keegan
to enrich the egg in various constituents : et al., 2019; Moran et al., 2019).

• Vitamins
→ Liver protector
All vitamins can be increased but with varying degrees of Longer production cycles and increased performances
success, because the transfer rates in the egg are very enhance the use of hepato-protectors in regular cure,
different. Vitamins D and E are those with the best transfer usually every 5 or 6 weeks. These special premixes are
of feed to the egg. However, it is necessary to respect the rich in elements helping to detoxify the liver as : choline,
maximum permitted levels of vitamins in feed by certain betaine, sorbitol, group B vitamins, and sometimes
regulations (European, American...). also some plant extracts. The goal is to improve the
performance of this key and essential organ which is
• Trace-elements enormously stressed in the laying hen. The efficacy of
the hepato-protector is optimal when used in preventive
It is possible to enrich the eggs with trace elements mode, before the onset of the first clinical signs in the
such as Selenium or Iodine. But since environmental farm. Their use can start from 30 weeks of age in order to
regulations are increasingly restrictive on releases, the preserve the capacities of laying at the end of production.
possibilities are now very minimal.
This investment is expected to generate long-term
• Pigments returns, particularly true for parent stock flocks, given
that the unique capacity of the liver to regenerate if
IIn many countries, the preferred yolk color varies based provided with the necessary conditions.
on local preferences. By using specific raw materials
44 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

10. RAW MATERIALS

Many feed ingredients are suitable for feeding to layers. Recent work indicates that protein digestibility and starch
Supply, price and quality will usually determine the quality (amount of amylase and amylopectin) are variable
choice. Most countries are limited in the choice of basic between batches of corn and have inconsistent effects on
ingredients, few have a wide choice. Raw materials should nutritive value and animal performance. Corns harvested
be of good quality with predictable and uniform nutritional during the wet season or wet conditions have increased
value across all consignments. The quality of a feed risks of higher levels of mycotoxin contamination than
material is determined by the nutrient composition of corn harvested in the dry conditions. Prolonged storage
the material and how efficiently they can be digested of corn with high moisture content prior to drying also
and released for absorption and utilization in the bird. increases the risk of fungal infestation resulting in in-
creased mycotoxin production. The more or less drastic
Nutritionists continuously make choices over the margin drying conditions influence the bioavailability of protein
of safety as they construct the feed formula, especially for (and amino acids), starch but also pigments. There is a
poultry breeders of high value. This margin of safety can natural degradation of the pigments over time (the longer
be increased or decreased according to several factors. the storage, the fewer pigments).
The rigorous quality-assurance scheme for assessing Wet corn (silage or inerted) can be used in poultry to
nutrient content and the resulting uniformity of nutritional replace part of the conventional dried grain corn.
values across batches of all raw materials must be taken
into consideration when building a margin of safety into
a feed formula.

Ingredients must also be free of contamination by

chemical residues, microbial toxins, heavy metals and
pathogens. They should be as fresh as possible and should
be stored under good conditions. Storage facilities must
be protected from contamination by insects, rodents
and in particular, wild birds; all of which are potential
vectors of disease. It is common in many countries for
these aspects of the production process to be monitored A good quality grain corn
and managed within a scheme such as HACCP (Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point). → Wheat
For breeders, we recommend to increase the control In many countries, all year or at specific times of the
pressure and select raw materials with the best quality. year in others, wheat is the more cost effective primary
cereal in place of corn. Wheat based diets have given
10.1. CEREALS AND CEREALS CO-PRODUCTS good field results. However, a number of factors need to
Corn (or Maize) is the raw material favoured by most be considered when using wheat.
poultry nutritionists and poultry producers. However,
corn prices in the market have increased dramatically All major wheat-producing countries report variability in
in recent years due to high demand worldwide, the Metabolizable Energy (ME) content. The main reason is
increasing use of corn for production of bio-energy and the content of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) which
phenomena of purely financial speculation. In many are poorly digested by poultry and interfere with the
countries, other grains like wheat, barley, oats, sorghum digestibility of other feed components. The NSP content
and broken rice are used successfully. Additionally, grain in wheat may range from 1 to 10% or more, and, is nega-
co-products such as wheat or rice bran are important tively correlated with the ME content, the higher the NSP
and valuable feed ingredients in most part of the world. content, the lower the ME content. Unfortunately, there is
However, their efficient use in monogastric diets is often currently no rapid easy test available to the feed manufac-
impaired by the presence of elevated contents of non- turer to measure the NSP content. Feed companies can
starch polysaccharides (NSP). use an enzyme mixture (xylanase & beta-glucanase), that
will break down the complex polysaccharides in the gut
→ Corn resulting in improved energy utilization and a higher ME
The expected differences in corn composition due to content in the wheat (see exogenous enzymes section).
growing conditions, corn variety and processing appear
small (protein +/- 1,5%, fat +/- 0,6%, starch +/- 3,0%). One of the benefits of wheat is that it contains between
Nevertheless, corn is usually the largest component 9 – 15% crude protein, compared with 6 – 8,5% crude
of bird rations so small variations in corn quality have protein in corn. As a result, the reliance placed on ex-
the biggest impact on finished feed nutrient variability. pensive protein sources is lower in wheat-based diets
Proximate analysis can determine chemical composition to achieve the desired amino acid levels in finish feed.
and expected nutrient values but proximate analysis alone
can neither determine the quality of starch nor protein.
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 45

When using pellets or crumbles, diets containing at least readily determined, ME values are more difficult to obtain.
5 – 10% wheat bind better during feed manufacture re- When components of proximate composition are used as
sulting in improved pellet quality and durability. predictors of ME, crude fibre (CF) or neutral detergent
fibre (NDF) appear to be significantly correlated with
ME content.

→ Rice Co-Products
Rice bran and rice polishings are the two most commonly
used rice co-products for poultry feed manufacturing.
They are good sources of protein, energy, vitamins and
minerals. They also contain a better balance of amino
acids, particularly lysine and methionine, compared to
Soft wheat
other cereal grains.
→ Barley / Oats Rice bran is recognized as being highly variable in its
composition with respect to oil and crude fibre contents.
They depend upon the severity with which the rice is
threshed, the extent to which the oil is extracted (Daghir,
1995) and the amount of husk mixed into the batch (Ich-
hponani et al 1980) as indicated by presence of sand or
silica in the samples. Full fat rice bran contains 15 to 25%
oil depending on the processing technique (significant
amounts of linolenic acid).

The feeding value of rice polishings depends upon the

Barley degree of polishing to which the grain has been subjected.
With its high rate of crude protein and its lower price, Typical values range 11 to 13% for crude protein and 10
barley has a considerable interest for feeding layers. The to 15% for fat.
energy content of barley is one of the lowest among the Besides the variation in chemical composition, problems
usual cereals. Low fat and high fiber rate this cereal seed such as a high moisture content, mould growth and ran-
contributes to their low energy. The main anti-nutritional cidity often affect the storage quality of rice by-products.
factors are of barley beta-glucans, soluble non-starch Both rice bran and rice polishing residues may be used
polysaccharides, encouraging the formation of viscous at high levels provided that the batch analysis is well-de-
gels by increasing their solubility and undisgestibility. fined, and the fat is stabilized by an antioxidant in order to
The use of enzyme allows the incorporation of barley at avoid loss of ME value by an oxidative degradation process.
high levels.
→ Dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS)
Oats are a good source of fibre when used in low doses.
The inclusion of oat grain in layer diets reduces the
availability of dietary energy and other nutrients. This
combination of high fibre and low energy makes oats more
suitable for use in pullet and breeder diets. The inclusion
of oats in pullet diets has shown to reduce mortality and
cannibalism and to make birds more resistant to the
effects of heat stress.

Wheat DDGS

Dried Distillers Grains (corn, wheat, barley, rice…) with

Solubles (DDGS) or without (classic grain distiller), is a
co-product obtained in the dry-milling process to pro-
duce ethanol after the fermentation of starch by selected
yeasts and enzymes. It has been recognized that DDGS
Black Oats is a valuable source of energy, protein, water soluble
vitamins, and minerals for poultry (Yildiz et al. 2018,
→ Wheat Co-Products Cortes-Cuevas, 2015…).
The composition of wheat milling co-products (wheat
bran, wheat middling…) varies markedly both within However, use of DDGS in poultry diets has historically
and between different geographic regions, suppliers, been low due to limitations such as the supply and pricing
even between plants of the same provider. While the
protein content in samples of wheat co-product can be
46 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

of the product. It is existing a wide variability in nutrient →Temperature and maillard reaction
contents and their digestibilities (Noll et al., 2001) based Particular attention must be paid to all raw materials
on suppliers and feedmills. The drying temperature is the undergoing a thermal process (extraction, granulation,
critical point. When she is too high, the amino acids can pressure, drying, etc.). Indeed, depending on the
suffer Maillard reactions and also become undigestible. temperature reached, the starch and the sugars can
Concerns have been raised regarding the levels of the interact by binding irreversibly, this is called «Maillard
mycotoxins as Fumonisin, Aflatoxin, Deoxynivalenol reaction”. The amino acids thus linked are no longer
(DON) and their metabolites in DDGS. These co-products usable by monogastric animals.
concentrate seed coatings in products such as DDGS
and the seed coating is where much of the mycotoxin Temperature is not the only factor influencing the intensity
is located. Therefore, DDGS represents a concentrated of this chemical reaction: humidity, contact time and
source of any original contamination by mycotoxins in alkalinity also tend to increase the phenomenon. At room
the whole grain. temperature, this reaction already exists, but it is minute
in terms of intensity and therefore totally negligible.

We can define a sensitivity by A.A. in this direction: Lysine

> Methionine > Arginine > the others A.A.. The first two
A.A. impacted, Lysine and Methionine, are also the first A.
A. limiting in layers and pullets. It is therefore essential
to ensure the quality of the proteins entering the feeds.
There are different methods for defining the digestibility of
A.A., more or less reliable depending on the raw material
(see chapter on raw material). The most reliable, but
Corn DDGS with 2 different origins the most expensive, is certainly the dosage of Lysine,
which is to be done in case of proven doubt. A poor or
→Other cereals and Co-Products low quality should induce a matrix correction for the
There are many other cereals and their various co-pro- protein value, but also and especially for A.A. total/
ducts, such as sorghum, millet… Like all other raw ma- digestible, and sometimes even a degradation of the
terials, they must be well characterized in order to be digestibility coefficients (it is the double penalty for the
used properly. For safety, we can restrict their use in high temperatures). An extreme solution is not to then
reproductive formulas, if there is the slightest doubt in use this raw material for PS feed or to restrict it strongly.
terms of quality.

Maillard reaction

AA
T°C AA
H H
H N H
N

H C O H C O

Sugar Sugar
10.2. PLANT PROTEIN SOURCES →Soya Bean Meal
There are other raw materials high in protein content Soya bean meal (SBM) is a well-established and relatively
in addition to soybeans as rapeseed or sunflower meal. inexpensive protein source for poultry diets. Harvest,
Algae, micro-algae and bacterial cultures might be an transportation to either storage or to processing should
economical alternative to reduce soybean consumption have an effect on the nutritional value of soya bean meal
in the future. especially amino acid digestibility. Processing conditions
of soybeans to generate oil and meal is perhaps the best
understood factor about soya bean meal quality. Insufficient
toasting means that SBM contains excessive levels of
trypsin inhibitors and excessive levels of lectins.
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 47

The quality of the treatments performed on SBM can be

measured in the following way for an under-cooking:
• Trypsin inhibitor values of 1.8 to 2 mg / g of soya bean
meal (max. 3.5).
• Or expressed as urease activity, 0.00 to less than 0.10
pH units.

Excessive toasting results in protein quality deterioration.

There are at least two laboratory methods available to
Soybean meal 48 (from Brazil)
determine the over processing (irreversible Maillard
reaction that binds the protein/A.A. with carbohydrates,
making them unavailable): The fiber content of sunflower meal is usually high
• The most sensitive temperature amino acid is and variable depending on the dehulling process of the
lysine. Definitely, the best method to characterize sunflower seed for oil extraction. The reincorporation of
the «cooking» and that works on all manufacturing hulls allows to get 28% of protein, without hulls, we 35%
processes with heat. of protein. This often makes sunflower meal a promising
• NIR (Near-Infrared spectroscopy) uses the near- feed ingredient in low energy diluted diets due to the high
infrared light spectrum to determine the digestible content of insoluble fiber unextracted sunflower meal.
amino acid content of a sample. This makes it possible Another characteristic of sunflower meal is that it does
to correct in real time the amount of amino acids not usually have anti-nutritional factors such as those
which have been degraded by excessive heating. This found in soybean, cottonseed and rapeseed meals.
method is less precise than chemistry, but faster.
There is now continuous NIR, the measuring device →Rapeseed Meal
is then located on a transporter, a receiving pit and Extracted rapeseed or canola meal is good alternative
gives a measurement at regular intervals spaced a economical. To use rapeseed meal, it is important to know
few seconds. its origin and especially its glucosinolates contents (it
must be 00). Only oilcakes from low-glucosinolates can
There are at least two common methods for determining be used to avoid risks of haemorrhagic liver or reduction
the cooking quality of a soybean meal : of egg size. All of these problems can be managed effec-
• Solubility of protein in a solution of hydroxide of tively once a few key points about amino acid digestibility,
potassium (KOH) with a target between 75 to 85% glucosinolates content and dietary mineral balance are
(<75% = over-cooking ; > 85% = under-cooking). understood. If adequate supplies (low-glucosinolates
• Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI), American method rapeseed meal) and adequate feed formulation tech-
which corresponds to a solubility of the protein in niques (with digestible amino acids) are used, the levels
water. Principle similar to KOH solubility, with a target of inclusion of rapeseed meal in layers may exceed 5%.
between 15 and 35% (<15% = over-cooking ; >35% =
under-cooking).

There are other methods but not very widely used, such
as in vitro digestibility, such as the Boisen method, for
example.

→Sunflower Meal
Sunflower meal is a good vegetable source of protein with
amino-acid digestibilities similar to those of soya bean
Rapeseed meal 00
meal and much higher values than those in cottonseed
or rapeseed meals. Its lysine content is relatively low
but the methionine content makes it suitable for diets in →Animal Meal
addition to soya bean meal. It is very widespread today There is a great variety in animal meals (P.A.P. in Europe
especially for alternative systems which need more fiber. = Processed Animal Proteins). It is essential to properly
characterize animal meals by identifying the species they
originate from. For example, for fish meal, it is important
to know which type of fish (such as herring or salmon) or
animal (such as cattle or chicken) is used.. Additionally,
it is important to know what part of the animal is used,
muscle, fat, bones, viscera, skin, feathers, or blood. The
use of layer poultry flour should be avoided to minimize
the risk of transmission of avian diseases. Poultry can
be fed products from ruminants, fish, pigs, and insects. .
The verification of the good quality animal meals require
Sunflower meal dehulled, « Hi-pro »
48 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

very specific analyses, depending on the type of product. 10.3. ADDED FAT
It should be noted that animals or co-products unfit for The inclusion of raw materials (grains and co-products)
consumption (rendered materials) should never be used. that have low ME contents produces a demand for oil/
fat in the diets.
→Insects
Insects have been allowed in Europe since 2021, although Oils and fats are not just a source of energy, they also
they have been used in other parts of the world for much have an important role in many physiological functions.
longer. Insect flour or oil are therefore new raw materials. It is essential to know the fatty acid profile (especially
They are a source of protein with often good digestibility, linoleic acid and ratio unsaturated/satured) when using
and importantly, without antinutritional factors (on the grease and oil as raw material in the diets. Increase or
other hand, caution is needed regarding heavy metals, as decrease the linoleic acid content of a diet is a well-known
they can accumulate). These flours also contain certain method to adjust the weights of eggs, especially at the
beneficial components, especially for intestinal health beginning of spawning.
(Chitin for example). The oil can have specificities like the
one from the larvae of black soldier flies, which is rich in In feed «layers», the level of added fat is between 0.5
short chain fatty acids and Lauric acid (antibacterial and and 5%. The products of the oxidation of fats and trans
antiviral actions are not negligible). fatty acids of vegetable oils (example : recycled oils) are
undesirable products in the diet of parent flocks.

Indicative fatty acid profile (%) of several vegetable oils (INRA)

Oils ALPHA-
LAURIC MYRISTIC PALMITIC STEARIC OLEIC LINOLEIC UNSAT.
(plant ACID C12:0 ACID C14:0 ACID C16:0 ACID C18:0 ACID C18:1 ACID C18:2
LINOLEIC
/SAT.
sources) ACID C18:3
Canola /
- - 4 2 62 22 10 15.7
Rapeseed

Coconut (1) 47 18 10 3 7 2 - 0.1

Palm 0.5 1 45 5 38 10 0.5 1

Soya - - 11 4 23 54 8 5.4

Sunflower - - 7 5 22 65 0.5 7.3

Linseed - - 6 4 18 16 56 9

(1)-
Presence of short chains fatty acids C6, C8, and C10 (13%), absent of the other vegetable oils

Indicative fatty acid profile (%) of several animal oils and greases (INRA)
Animal products GREASE OF GREASE OF
SALMON OIL (1) COD LIVER OIL (1)
(oils/greases) RUMINANTS (1) POULTRY (1)

C14:0 4 1 4 4

C16:0 26 21 11 3

C16:1 4 5 9 9

C18:0 20 7 5 3

C18:1 40 42 20 25

C18:2 3 21 1.5 2

C18:3 0.5 2 1 0.5

C20:1 - 1 9 12

C20:5 - - 12 11

C22:1 - - 6 5

C22:6 - - 14 11

Unsat / Sat 1 2.3 3 3.2

(1)- 
Each source is unique because it comes from different animal species, different fatty parts, various processes... These products must be systematically
characterized before use and check their stability and regularity over time (preservation, homogeneity, such as the typical undesirable dioxins)
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 49

→Quality of fat sources the manufacturing processes (extraction, purification,

The quality of fat is critical for a variety of reasons. The grinding...) are complex. It is widely used in humans &
first is that poor conservation leads to an oxidation which by the pharmaceutical industry and has a strong interest
will lead to a decrease in the energy value (the energy in laying nutrition, especially when no other fiber source
of the most energetic raw material in the ration will be is available as with a single corn/soya diet. However, the
overestimated). The second is that an oxidized fat emits often very fine particle size implies to use it in addition to
an unpleasant odour for the animals which will influence other coarser fibers that will have a mechanical impact.
their consumption. The third is technological, a fat too rich
in water/impurities/oxidized will lose its viscosity, so, its →Sunflower meal
ability to bind fine particles. A fourth aspect is the action Sunflower meal (low pro> high pro), are very rich in in-
of free radicals derived from unsaturated fatty acids that soluble fibers. It is the source to have available because
will react with many molecules including A.A. (reduced it brings fiber and protein for a cost in the end the most
digestibility. It is therefore necessary to check frequently : economical. High-dose incorporation is not a problem
• Humidity/Impurities. Not being able to be considered because there are very few anti-nutritional factors in this
as fat, it is in the best case a dilution of energy. oilseed. Present in all European formulas, it would have
• The “final» oxidation via different methods, for example, an interest in many other countries all around the globe.
the Anisidine index. This index makes it possible to
know the state of oxidation. But he does not know if the →Lucerna/ Alfalfa
fat is being in degradation, also yet important factor. Alfalfa is an interesting source for its insoluble fibers,
• The peroxide index makes it possible to show whether because it is very rich, 4 to 5 times more so than soya
the fat is in the process of oxidation. This index gives us hulls, 1.5 times more than oats hulls, for example. It is
an indication of the state of conservation, low = stable a source to incorporate when available in small doses.
(or fat is already totally oxidized ), but no degradation There are many other components that have a positive
in progress. High = fat is degrading (but the Anisidine effect on animals in this legume such as saponins, an-
index may be very low, if we are only at the beginning tioxidants (xanthophylls)... They are increasingly being
of the process). used in Europe in alternative farms, in the form of very
compact bales, available into the buildings. Leaving the
- High peroxide + low anisidine = fat not oxidized but choice to the pullets and layers to consume it according
during oxidation. to their need.
- Low peroxide + high anisidine = fat oxidized, the phe-
nomenon is finished.
- Low peroxide + low anisidine = fat stable and good
quality.

Alfalfa, dehydrated in pellet

→Oats / Barley
“Fiber-rich” cereals can be useful for diversifying the
From left to the right : Poultry fat, blended of vegetable oils, soya oil inputs. Recent studies (including human studies) show
(with impurity), soya oil, palm oil (heated to be liquid), palm oil (oxidation that the more sources of fiber of different origins in the
in progress) diet, the more developed and varied the microbiota will
be, which is a clear improvement in intestinal health.
10.4. FIBER SOURCES However, the concomitant use of broad-spectrum xyla-
The fibers are difficult to describe chemically speaking nases should be favoured in order to compensate for the
(i.e. Analysis methods and components of the vegetable negative effects of viscosity (in particular for barley). In
walls), each analysis method represents a different fiber some countries oat hulls can be found (envelopes are
fraction. even richer in insoluble fibers).

The sources available for laying hens are relatively low. →Soya Hulls
As for other raw materials, here is an overview of the In many countries, the availability of fiber sources is low
sources often incorporated into formulation. except for soya co-products such as hulls/shells that
are dehulled during oil production processes. This raw
→Lignocellulose material is rich in cellulose (rather soluble fibers), but
Lignocellulose is an «insoluble» fiber from wood. It is it contains a non-negligible part of the insoluble fibers
not sold as a raw material, but as an additive because we are looking for.
50 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

→Sugar Beet Pulp Since enzymes are proteins, the structure of the enzyme
The sugar beet pulp can also be used for its fibers is critical to its activity. The pH, heat or certain organic
intake, in small doses. With a disadvantage that is solvents can alter enzyme structure. Changes in the
the sugar content that is easily fermentable by the structure of the protein can decrease or negate enzyme
microorganisms present in the intestine. . (simple activity. The temperatures to which feeds are exposed
sugars will be used very little by the birds themselves). during the pelleting or heat treatment process can range
from 60 to 90°C under normal conditions. Studies reveal
10.5. USE OF EXOGENOUS ENZYMES that temperatures over 75°C and pressures can lead to
Enzymes produced endogenously by poultry are able to loss of feed- borne and added enzyme activity.
digest only 5 to 20% of the NSP (non-starch polysaccha-
rides) present in the feed. The supplier of the enzyme or your nutritionist should
be consulted to ensure the raw material matrix and
Numerous studies over the past thirty years, with impro- feed specification values for energy and amino-acids
vements in the technology of production, they became less are correctly adjusted for the enzyme being used and for
expensive, are now being routinely used in poultry and the conditions where the enzyme is used. Consideration
poultry breeder feeds to improve digestibility of the diet. must be given to phosphorus, calcium, sodium and other
For instance, phytase can be used effectively to increase minerals ensuring correct values have been ascribed to
the digestible phosphorus concentration of monogastric the product.
rations. Whereas carbohydrases, such as xylanase and
beta-glucanase, can effectively increase the diet’s energy Future developments in enzyme technology will likely
digestibility of feed ingredients high in NSP (wheat, barley, focus on more thermo-tolerant enzyme preparations,
etc.), but their effectiveness is lower among adults than greater enzyme activity and enzymes which function
among the young chick (imperfect digestive system). optimally at low gastric pH values. Additionally, as more
is known of the chemical nature of our feed ingredients,
In order to obtain maximal benefits from the inclusion of better methods of degrading these compounds may be
enzymes in animal feeds, it is necessary to ensure that found.
the enzymes are chosen on the basis of the feed com-
position. In simple terms, the enzyme must be matched Enzymes can therefore reformulate diets to reduce costs
to the substrate. Failure to consider the phytate content while maintaining performance or being added as an
of the complete diet when assigning an available-phos- additional component to reduce raw material digestibility
phorus credit to the phytase product may lead to phos- variability and increase performance («on top»). There
phorus deficiencies, resulting in poor egg production, are no bad enzymes, only bad uses (insufficient substrate,
osteoporosis, and gout. Similarly, failure to consider the too little activity, competition between additives, over-
xylan or beta-glucan content of the complete diet when evaluation of matrix, etc.).
assigning energy credits to a carbohydrase product may
lead to wrong energy assumptions, resulting in incorrect
feed allocation with reduced growth, egg weight, and egg
production (energy over-estimated).

Analysis methods and components of the vegetable walls

CONSTITUENTS OF CELL WALLS
Parietal Pectic
Lignins Celluloses Hemicelluloses Soluble
proteins substances

Total Dietary Fibers TDF

Water-insoluble fibers
« Carré’s walls »
ANALYTICAL METHODS

NDF Neutral Detergent

Fiber
Van Soest fractions

ADF Acid Detergent

Fiber

ADL Acid Detergent

Lignin

Weende’s crude fiber

NON-STARCH

Insoluble NSP

Soluble NSP
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 51

→Phytases and Phytates reductions in performance, sticky droppings and dirty

Phytases have been used in the feed industry for close eggs. The addition of enzymes to the diet to address NSP
to 30 years. Over that period, the number of products viscosity can improve feed efficiency, improve manure
has increased and the recommendations on how to use quality and promote the use of alternative feed ingre-
these products have changed. However, despite several dients, frequently lower in cost.
thousand scientific papers, the market is now well esta-
blished, is widespread all around the globe use of phytase Enzyme cocktails containing more than one enzyme will
in poultry feeding. Initially, phytases were offered as a often improve the response compared to pure single en-
means to improve the phosphorus bioavailability from zymes (in reality, depends on the substrate), assuming
phytate-containing ingredients. However, it was gradually that cost considerations are not ignored. This is due to
understood that the digestibility of other minerals (notably the fact that feedstuffs are complex compounds contai-
calcium but also sodium), carbohydrates and amino-acids ning protein, fat, fiber and other complex carbohydrates.
were also variably influenced by the ingestion of phytase. Merely targeting a specific substrate such as Beta glucan
Phytates are the form of storage of plants for phospho- may not provide maximal benefits since layers of other
rus. This makes it antinutritional factors. In addition to substrates may inherently protect some of the Beta
their effects on digestible phosphorus, they bind other glucan. For example, beta glucans and arabinoxylans
components : Zinc, Peptides, Amino Acids..., which can may be bound to peptide or protein in the cell wall of
influence the processes of absorption of these nutrients the feedstuff. Therefore, enzymes able of hydrolysing
in the intestine. protein may enhance the activity of pentosanases and
beta glucanases.
Most commercially used phytases are not intrinsically
thermostable enough to survive the harsh conditions As a consequence of the mode of action of the NSP-hy-
encountered when feed is steam conditioned and / or drolysing enzymes, an increased utilization of dietary
pelleted (the last generations have a clear advantage energy may well be expected. In fact, increases in ME
on this point because they have been selected in part values of either whole diets or specific raw materials due
for their natural resistance). Two approaches have been to enzyme supplementation have been repeatedly descri-
employed in order to circumvent this problem: Genetic bed in the literature. Because of improvements observed
modification or coating the enzyme to produce a more in protein digestibility it is tempting for the nutritionist to
thermotolerant enzyme. A third alternative way is spraying lower the overall target protein and amino-acids levels of
the phytase onto the feed after the heat treatment and/ the diet. However, because of the variation in individual
or pelleting process. To date, the effectiveness of these amino acid digestibility, caution is advised in doing this in
three solutions is equivalent if they are well mastered. order to ensure adequate levels of limiting amino acids
The commercial usage of phytase is based on the assign- are provided.
ment of a nutrient matrix to a given dose of the enzyme.
Nevertheless, there are differences in the release of →Proteases
nutrients between generations of enzymes (favouring as These enzymes have the effect of increasing the diges-
far as possible the most effective, and therefore the last tibility of the protein via their targeted action on this
generations). These factors that influence the extent and substrate. The overall digestibility of the protein fraction
consistency of the effects of phytase should be carefully is rather high in poultry, proteases seem to be more
considered when formulating poultry diets, especially for intended: to young animals (imperfect digestive sys-
parental diets. For this reason, a programme of frequent tems), a feed with a high protein ratio or a protein of low
enzyme recovery measurements after feed processing is quality/digestibility. Their use is increasingly widespread
essential (to be made for all enzymes). throughout the world.

Extra-dosing is developing more and more with the latest →Cumulation of valuations
generations of phytases. This is to double or triple the Particular attention should be paid to the cumulation
recommended dose to reduce the use of mineral phos- of potential valuations. Some identical interactions and
phate. With such doses, greater effects are expected on mode of action mean that 2 enzymes used at the same
the ancillary nutrients such as A.A., but may also go as time will not have the same values as taken separately.
far as totally suppressing the mineral phosphate at the If phytase is used with an energy value = 1, more of the
end of laying for CS flocks. protease (energy value = 1), plus a xylanase (= 1): the sum
of all these activities will not be 3 ! But very often 2. There
→NSPases is very little published information on these concomitant
It is now well known that NSP can exert anti-nutritive uses, it is especially the experience of the nutritionist and
activity in monogastric animals. The NSP of barley, wheat the field trials that make us lean towards more caution.
and rye (beta glucan, arabinoxylans or pentosans) are
those most intensively investigated. Ingestion of NSP by 10.6. QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAMS
monogastrics results in increased viscosity of the digesta Feed quality-control programs are targeted to deliver
(Antoniou and Marquardt, 1983). This increased viscosity feeds that consistently contain the formulated nutrients
reduces the passage rate of the feed leading to overall in an available form and contain minimal levels of un-
52 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

desirable substances. A formula is not something fixed, ratory analysis. Always retain a portion of the subsample
it evolves, changes ; quality control must be put in place for possible later analysis.
to achieve the greatest possible stability/regularity over
time, but also between 2 feed delivery. Ideally, each new batch of grain or grain co-products
should be sampled because grains tend to be unpre-
→Raw materials quality control dictable in nutrient content according to their source,
It is important to pay attention to the quality of the in- supplier, process... When suppliers are bound by local
gredients from an economic as well as technical point of law to meet guaranteed analysis (feed/raw material
view. By assuming good quality of manufacture, dosage label with nutrients), raw materials may not have to be
and mixing of a feed, it is possible to explain for the sampled quite so often. But trust does not forbid control.
most part the origin of variations in nutrient contents
by the variability of the ingredients. Ingredients must be If premixes are purchased from a reputable company, it
described in terms of analytical values and physical and/ is not necessary to routinely send samples for expensive
or sensory characteristics. Ingredient assessment that vitamins laboratory analysis. Nonetheless, it is a good idea
only considers colour (example : heat damage), odour, to sample each shipment of premixes and keep samples
contaminants and texture generally will fail to identify stored in freezer. This sample permits further analysis if
much of the variation in ingredient quality. problems with premixes are suspected.

Every quality control program should include a combi- In all cases, it is recommended to carry out a regular
nation of rapid appropriate tests at the feed mill (e.g. audit of your raw materials suppliers to know well the
moisture, test weights, rancidity, etc.), and combined with critical points of their process and the risks or undesi-
periodic analysis more completed at a reliable laboratory rables potentially present in their/your raw materials.
(ideally accredited). The frequency of these analyses is The objective is to adapt its quality control so that it is
often linked to the variability and tonnage of each ingre- as economical and relevant as possible, and according
dients. A rapid analysis (NIR for example) on site may lead to potential risks.
to the rejection of certain deliveries deemed deficient. It
also helps to demonstrate to the raw materials suppliers, →Process control
the quality commitment of the feed manufacturer. The process by which high-quality ingredients are made
If the rapid inspection of important ingredients at the feed into high-quality feeds involves three components within
mill suggests a risk of poor quality, and without waiting the feedmill : personnel, machinery and procedures. The
for the chemical analysis, then use a safety margin for company commitment to quality must be supported by
energy (ME), proteins etc., in order to anticipate a lower everyone from top management down to all feed mill
digestibility : employees. Any employee who discovers a problem with
• e.g. corn, in normal conditions = ME 3360 kcal, if poor a batch of an ingredient should be recognized for their
quality, use 3200 kcal/kg ; commitment.
• e.g. soya bean meal, in normal conditions, crude protein
46%, if poor quality, use 45% (or lower). Equipment selection, operation, repair and troubleshoo-
ting can become a very complicated process which can-
Basic nutrients which must be analysed regularly are not be covered in this guide. However, considering the
humidity, crude protein, starch, crude fiber, ash, crude fat special characteristics of breeder feeds, it is important
and the main minerals like calcium, phosphorus, sodium to emphasize :
and chloride. However, analysis of amino acid contents
especially lysine, methionine and threonine are beneficial • Verification of the cleanliness of equipment including
where possible. These represent the nutrients that must the delivery truck.
be listed for every raw material in order to build a raw • Meters and scales : batch scales should be inspected
material matrix. This matrix needs to be adjusted on a at least once each month, while micro-ingredient
regular basis based on local ingredient information. It is procedures and scales should be checked weekly (a
absolutely impossible to build a locally accurate matrix regular physical inventory should be done for these
based only on published tables from reference sources or micro ingredients that are often expensive or dange-
the internet. While this simple fact seems to be obvious, rous).
it is very often forgotten in practice. Create a matrix ac- • Grinding and granulometry of the feed.
curate, consistent, maintained and alive, it’s a job either ! • Mixing efficiency (minor ingredients and main raw
materials) related to risks of insufficient or too long
Sampling is a critical part of any quality-assurance pro- mix time (to be checked at least twice a year). Risks
gram. Steps involved with collecting a representative include mixers used beyond/below their designed
sample include following a sampling scheme; follow a capacity and worn, altered or broken equipment.
sampling plan, collecting numerous samples to ensure it • Spraying system, injection of liquid in mixer : these
is representative; using the correct sampling equipment industrial processes are delicates to master well.
and procedure; inspecting the sample for its sensory Regularly check the condition of the injection nozzles,
characteristics and finally mixing the subsample for labo- the flowmeters, make a regular physical inventory...
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 53

Liquids more or less viscous/tights tend to clog the It is recommended to keep samples of all delivered feed on
circuits. farm for at least 3 months or preferably the lifetime of each
flock to assist the diagnosis of any future performance
Attention must be given to accuracy of inclusion of pre- problems while not forgetting these samples may play an
mix and feed additive such as phytase. Into feed, there important role in understanding microbiological problems
must be assurance that the minerals, vitamins and all such as salmonella contamination. Conservation must
feed additives are blended into the feed in a homogenous be protected from light, heat and moisture.
manner. A test of homogeneity and cross-contamination The practical difficulties in achieving the exact control of
is recommended once a year by manufacturing line. , en feed composition emphasize the importance of continuous
according to potential risks. monitoring of flock performances.

→Finished feed quality Note: The time taken for feed to reach the birds after
A program of monitoring the quality of finished feed manufacture should be as short as possible. This is
should be agreed between the supplier and the feed especially important under conditions of high temperature
buyer. This will minimize disputes and claims. Indeed, and humidity. Indeed, the loss of vitamins as well as other
we need to ensure that an analysis of a sample of feed type of damage (including mould development) are then
is well representative of the diet actually provided. accelerated in these difficult conditions. Mixtures of acids
This agreement should include sampling method, may help to better conservation, but they only delay the
sampling frequency, and procedure for comparing the inevitable development of mould.
actual diet analysis with the diet specification, tests for
contamination, microbiological status and the storage
of samples. Routine laboratory analysis of finished feed
should be conducted each month at the minimum and as
regularly as possible depending on the tonnage.
54 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

11. FEED CONTAMINANTS AND FEED HYGIENE

All feed must be considered a potential source of bacterial and zearalenones. These toxin agents are ubiquitous in
infection : particularly Coliforms and Salmonellae. distribution all around the world and have been isolated
Breeder feeds must be decontaminated, especially if from a wide variety of grains, oilseeds, etc. The response
recurring microbial pathogen control is required. of a poultry receiving a dietary mycotoxin will depend upon
The growth of moulds on feedstuffs (grains, finished numerous factors. These factors include weight, age,
feeds) and the elaboration of toxins by these moulds physiological and health status of bird. Combined effects
(i.e. mycotoxins) are a prevalent problem due to between several mycotoxins (synergistic effect) and most
their detrimental effect on poultry performance and importantly, the dose coupled with the duration of feeding
reproduction. By some estimates, mycotoxins affect as that dose (= amount consumed). It should also be kept
much as 25 to 40% of the world’s feed crops each year. in mind that a threshold dose must be reached before a
response to the dietary mycotoxin will be noted/notable.
11.1. MOULDS AND MYCOTOXINS
There is a huge interest in these naturally occurring In contrast, if the level of contamination is high, the
chemical compounds due to their adverse effects, their response may occur rapidly and with a high degree of
wide variety of clinical signs and their more or less severe severity. Acute mycotoxicosis outbreaks are however rare
economic losses. events in modern commercial poultry production. More
Identification of mycotoxin contamination is made difficult commonly, low mycotoxin doses that may go undetected
because the symptoms are often vague, non-specific are responsible for sub-chronic, non-specific effects that
and can also be associated with other diseases or go result in reduced efficiency of production and greater
relatively unnoticed. Some of the problems associated susceptibility to other infectious diseases, especially with
with mycotoxicosis in poultry are as follows : long production cycle.
• Reduced weight gain and decrease of uniformity in
rearing. Increase feed clean up time. We recommend that each new crop must be properly
• Decrease serum proteins. Increased liver and kidney characterize the «average» contamination to assess
weights. Liver and kidney lesions. the risk and thus adapt the doses of mycotoxin binders.
• Induced immune-suppression/depression. In parental, the use of a binder is recommended
• Altered feathering. systematically for safety.
• Reduced egg production, fertility and hatchability.
Smaller day-old chicks.
• Low quality of day old chicks. Estimated minimum level of main mycotoxins
• Mortality. to affect performances
MYCOTOXIN
→Mould growth (ppm)
PULLETS LAYERS (1)
Fungal contamination of grain and poultry feed is versatile
and pervasive. Mould spores are commonly found in the Aflatoxin (B1) 20 20
soil, on decaying plant debris. They are transported to the Aflatoxin (B1) 1 000 1 500
plants by air currents, water movement and insects. It
Ochratoxin 10 10
can start in the field, or on the crop itself, or during post-
harvest transport and storage. Environmental factors T2 Toxin, HT2 30 50
such as moisture content (> 14%), optimum temperature
Vomitoxin (DON) 500 500
and insects are the main factor in the activity of moulds.
Zearalenone 75 100
Whether they are field or storage fungi, these micro-
organisms require nutrients for growth. Therefore, →Moulds and mycotoxins control
the presence of mould in grain and feed will reduce The most cost effective prophylactic measure to protect
the available nutrient content. Nutritional deficiencies investments in grain, feed and animal performance is a
associated with mould growth in grains and feeds include comprehensive risk management program that starts by
decrease in dietary energy values (Bartov et al, 1982), cultivation practices, appropriate drying of cereals after
altered amino-acid profile and reduced vitamin levels. the harvest and finished by the storage. Prevention of
This lead to a negative impact on animal performance condensed water on the silos walls and elimination of
together with feed refusal (smell and taste are modified) pests and mites are also important. There also can be
and more or less specific pathology (enteritis, black humidity controls from a representative sample. The
tongues…). “risky” grain can be blended with clean grain and/or given
to species of animal less sensitive to the mycotoxins like
→Mycotoxin contamination broiler of more than 20 days of age rather than high value
Among thousands (USDA, 1999), well over 300 mycotoxins breeders (be careful, some local regulations prohibit now
are currently identified. The important mycotoxins studied the dilution of contaminated batch with healthy batch).
are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, fumonisins The detection of mycotoxins, though, is difficult and
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 55

sampling methods do not provide consistency in their Many strategies such as in feed antibiotics or vaccines
results. In addition, specialized laboratory equipment have been tried and tested to control Salmonella in the
supported by qualified technicians is needed. poultry industry but none of these Salmonella control
strategies have been successful on their own. Therefore,
Speciality feed additives, known as mycotoxin organic the control of Salmonella must be considered in terms
adsorbents or inorganic binding agents are the most of an integrated approach combining improved hygiene,
common approach to prevent mycotoxicosis in animals. biosecurity and management practices including specific
It is believed that the agents bind to the mycotoxin nutritional technology.
preventing them from being absorbed. The mycotoxins
and the binding agent are excreted in the manure. Be Feed has traditionally not been considered a major source
aware that not all binders are equally effective. Many may of SE for breeder flocks when it does not contain animal
impair nutrient utilization and are mainly marketed based protein ingredients. However, some co-product used in
on in-vitro data only. In addition to using toxin adsorbents/ breeder feed may contain various type of salmonella.
binders in feed, an additional solution especially when Monitoring has shown that vegetable raw materials may
facing trichothecenes (T-2, DON) toxins, is to provide early have similar levels of Salmonella contamination to animal
protection for the liver (hepato modulator), the main organ sources. The most common vegetable raw material found
that supports detoxification of toxins and metabolites. to be contaminated is oilseeds protein such as sunflower,
The completed breeder feed should be treated with a rapeseed, palm kernel and soya (especially because they
mould inhibitor per security. pass through harbours, involving a risk of contamination
by harbour birds).
Several commercial products are available and are
generally mixtures of organic acids (i.e. acetic acid, sorbic Salmonella bacteria are moderately resistant to the
acid, propionic acid…), which, in combination, prevent environment and are inactivated by most disinfectants,
the growth of a wide variety of moulds. If the incoming formaldehyde gas, heat and extremes in pH.
feed ingredients are thought to be of poor quality (i.e. if
a cereal contains many cracked and mouldy kernels, or Breeder feeds must be safe, it must therefore be treated
has a mouldy odour), it should be treated at reception to systematically either by heat treatment, additives (acids,
avoid any development during storage. This will prevent formaldehyde, etc...).
further mould growth but will not negate the nutrient
destruction that has already taken place as a result of
earlier mould growth. It will not eliminate mycotoxins →Enterobacteriaceae level as indicator of salmonella
that have already been produced. These raw materials contamination ?
contaminated, must not be used in breeder feeds. Enterobacteriaceae are a group of gram-negative bacteria,
non-spore forming bacteria that includes Salmonella,
11.2. FEED-BORN MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION : Escherichia coli, and other enteric bacteria. The level of
SALMONELLA enterobacteriaceae in feed is a strong indicator of the feeds
It is estimated that about 15% of the Salmonella microbial quality and therefore level of enterobacteriaceae
contaminations in poultry products are caused by feed. in feed is considered a reliable indicator of raw materials
One of the major challenges for feeding poultry includes and feed quality.
the use of Salmonella-free feed. This is a standing request
of many breeding companies because consumers demand When enterobacteriaceae levels are high, the probability of
and expect Salmonella-free food products. Salmonella contamination is also high and concomitantly,
when enterobacteriaceae levels are low the probability
Zoonosis have only become a focus of attention in the last of Salmonella contamination is low. The “acceptable”
fifteen years. Salmonellosis is generally accepted to be maximum levels of enterobacteriaceae, where action
one of the most important zoonosis transmitted by meat needs to be taken, have not been determined for all
and eggs (Escherichia coli & Campylobacter sp. are also feeds or feed ingredients. In Europe, a maximum limit
common). Salmonella cannot be entirely eradicated, but for enterobacteriaceae has been established. In breeder
it can be controlled. Breeding flocks free of salmonella feed, the maximum acceptable level of enterobacteriaceae
have been considered as a fundamental pre-requisite is 100 cfu/g with a target level of 0 cfu/g.
for a better control of Salmonella at broiler/layer level.
A broad range of Salmonella can be isolated from poultry. To achieve this, a very strict feed control program is
However, the most relevant to the poultry industry are recommended building on heat treatment of the compound
broad host range serovars multi-species : Enteritidis feed, use of feed additives and regular checks at defined
(SE) and Typhimurium (ST), and host specific (to poultry) critical control points (CCP) in feed mills.
serovars Pullorum and Gallinarum. Other serotypes in the
top 10 of causes of human salmonellosis cases included: →Critical control points (CCP)
Infantis, Hadar and Virchow. The following CCPs have been identified and indicate
where process-monitoring samples should be taken
in feed mills in order to effectively identify frequent
56 | Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

contamination problems with ingredients or post- through a comprehensive specific air circulation system
processing contamination : especially after the de-contamination process. The
• Dust taken from ingredient auger system below or closed cooling is positive pressure relative to that of
behind the intake pits. the factory.
• Dust from ledges inside tops of raw materials silo’s
and bins. Or dust from ingredient sieves or spillage Maintenance, the frequency of manual cleaning by specific
from ingredient bin augers if bins are inaccessible or personnel, decontamination of hot air circuits (70
do not accumulate dust. - 80°C) and bacteriological controls are also very
• Swabs from coolers, taken below coolers or on important factors in the success of this technique.
associated framework, at the pellet shakers. Or for
mash ration lines take dust from finished product bins One of the advantages of the concept is to enable breeders
or augers. to continue mash feeding which increases the time it takes
• Dust from ledges near to feed discharge points. the birds to consume their daily allowance (see chapter
on feed presentation).
The processing equipment in the feed mill must be
designed to allow easy and effective cleaning. Special →Feed additives for salmonella control
attention should be focused on mill hygiene during the Some feed additive products are sold for salmonella
maintenance and shut down periods. control in the feed. To date a number of products have
For a feed production of more than 10 000 MT per year, gained commercial acceptance, including short chain
a monthly sampling at each CCP listed above is the fatty acids (formic, acetic, propionic and butyric acids) and
minimum required. In the case of feeding grand-parent formaldehyde (forbidden product now in several European
stock, the sampling frequency at each CCP can reach 1 countries). They all demonstrate anti-Salmonella
per 150 MT produced. properties.
Where a result is obtained with more than 1 000
enterobacteriaceae cfu/g, the following should be taken : Medium chain fatty acids (C6 to C12; caproic, caprylic,
• Re-sampling at the CCPs and analysis ; capric and lauric acid), essential oils, probiotics, prebiotics
• Serotype any positive samples ; and glycans have also been listed. However, these
• Implement the necessary cleaning and disinfection products will limit colonization of the gut by Salmonella
program ; sp. but may not have sufficient bactericidal properties.
• Additional investigation including evaluation of raw The development of such feed additives for the control
materials ; of Salmonella has been somewhat empirical and often
• Inform the raw material supplier of the results if a the concentrations used in commercial operations is
specific ingredient is the reason of the contamination. determined by the cost of addition rather than scientifically
determined minimum inhibitory concentration as
→Dedicated heat treatment line determined by the supplier.
Traditionally, Salmonella control in finished feeds, such
as poultry breeder feed, has been attained by heating the The antibacterial activities of organic acids are also
feed through a manufacturing process such as pelleting. dependent of the temperature, moisture, dose of acids
However, at standard pelleting temperatures (65-70°C) and time between addition of acids and feed consumption
total de-contamination is highly unlikely. Furthermore, by the birds. The actions of acids are relatively slow and
subsequent multiplication of any residual Salmonella 48 hours’ exposure appears to be a minimum for best
and re- contamination, especially through the cooling efficiency.
system, may occur.
Note that some of the commercial acids products can
For effective de-contamination, the best system consists be corrosive to the mill equipment (to check before use).
of a dedicated heat treatment line for poultry mash feed Prefer buffered forms that are less aggressive.
or both pellet and mash diets. Dedication starts prior to
heat treatment and includes all routing through the heat These organic acid and formaldehyde products may also
treatment process to dedicated bulk out-loading bins and help in preventing re-contamination during the handling,
from there to the bulk delivery vehicles. storage and transportation phases.
The heat treatment is made from two specific equipments :
• Regarding heat treatment itself, a defined combination →Risk of recontamination
of a set temperature for a set period of time, at a set One of the biggest challenges in producing salmonella-
relative humidity must be consistently applied to the free feed is to avoid any kind of recontamination during
finished feed (these settings are specific to each type cooling, delivery and storage of the feed. Recontamination
of equipment). Out of the « thermiseur », feed can be occurs when dust and residues in the cooler or feed
pelletized or crumbled or maintained in mash. transport system, inside the mill, in feed trucks, in the
• The system requires a cooler to return temperature storage and in the farm feed system become incorporated
and moisture to the pre-treatment levels. All the air into the breeder feed. Dust and feed residues contain
supply to the biosecure milling facility should be filtered high levels of mould and bacteria which result in an
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 57

increased incidence and increased level of bacteria/ 11.4. OTHER UNDESIRABLES

mould in the feed consumed by the animal. The highest There are other toxic and/or undesirable substances that
risk of contamination is in the cooler because it is a hot can contaminate feeds. Without making an exhaustive
and humid zone favourable to the bacterial and fungal list, it is necessary to monitor :
development. The cooler must be located in an isolated
room to avoid condensation that is very dangerous. →Heavy metals
The fact of having an overpressure in this room avoids Often derived from mineral sources, each origin/quarry
contamination coming from the factory. is different on these criteria. Some trace elements
come from recycling, so they tend to concentrate these
All vehicles used to transport of breeder feed should unwanted metals. Vegetable raw materials can also
be subjected to a risk based cleaning and sanitizing accumulate if they are present in the soil in a significant
programme to ensure they are maintained in a clean way. The risk goes from a more or less serious poisoning
state with no build-up of waste material. Ideally, separate to death.
vehicles should be designated specifically for breeder
feed but it is recognised that resources may not allow →Pesticides / Herbicides / Fongicides / Insecticides
this. Therefore, if vehicles are used for the carriage of All these «control» molecules during the life of a raw
other materials, they must be appropriately cleaned of material (culture as storage) can accumulate if dosages
organic matter, sanitised using approved disinfectant and rest periods are not well respected. Given the low
and procedures and dried before being used to transport doses often found, the impact is more diffuse but a
breeder feed. Organic matter reduces the effectiveness of disturbance of reproduction, a decrease in immunity are
disinfectants so scratching if needed and removal of dust always possible.
inside each truck’s compartments is essential. Schedule
of feed deliveries should give priority to the farms with →Genetical modified organism
the highest health rating to be the first in a sequence of Some customer specifications, such as organic production,
visits by the same truck. prohibit the use of raw materials (and additives) derived
from Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO). Consumer
Although some special supplements like organic acids demand is increasingly being developed in Europe and
are very useful to keep the feed salmonella-free until it North America for this type of product.
is consumed by the birds, the major problem is often the
storage and handling of the feed at the farms. →Medicines, anticoccidiens
These molecules, even at low doses, have an impact on
11.3 CROSS CONTAMINATION the animals that consume them. Ensure that there is no
Feed ingredients and premixes should meet acceptable incompatibility between species during manufacturing
and if applicable, statutory standards for levels of sequences at the feed mill (or transport). Multi-resistant
pesticides and undesirable substances. Excessive bacterial strains are emerging with all the difficulty
dosages, inappropriate use of feed additives and cross- of managing these «super-bacteria» in human health.
contamination of feed can pose a serious risk to breeder Some molecules are very resistant and can remain in the
flocks. environment of birds for years. It is therefore necessary
to use them at least and always wisely in order to avoid
It is generally acknowledged that under practical as much as possible the development of these «new
conditions during the production of mixed feeds, a certain super-bacteria».
percentage of a feed batch remains in the production
circuit and these residual amounts can contaminate →Melamine
subsequent feed batches including breeder diets. A few years ago, a fraud with this substance led to a
systematic control in Europe of protein-rich raw materials
Manufacturing procedures should be used to avoid such from certain Asian countries. When analysing protein with
cross-contamination (for example : flushing, sequencing common chemical methods, melamine looks wrongly to
and physical clean-out) between batches of feed and protein. It is therefore believed that a 50% protein soybean
feed ingredients containing restricted or otherwise meal is used whereas it actually has only 30% or less.
potentially harmful materials such as certain animal In addition, it is toxic to animals consuming it (mortality
co-product meals and veterinary drugs. These procedures observed on dogs and cats and even in humans).
should also be used to minimize cross-contamination
between medicated and non-medicated feed and other →Dioxins & Polychlorobiphenyls (PCB)
incompatible feed. In cases where the safety risk Dioxins are ubiquitous pollutants formed during
associated with cross-contamination is high and the combustion processes during many industrial activities
use of proper flushing and cleaning methods is deemed (waste incineration, metallurgy...). They also result from
insufficient, consideration should be given to the use of natural events such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires.
completely separate production lines, transfer, storage. The term «dioxins» comprises 210 different compounds
belonging to two families of chlorinated polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons : PolyChloroDibenzo-para-
Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide

Dioxins (PCDD) and PolyChloroDibenzoFuranes (PCDF). attention should be paid to sources of fat such as animal
17 have significant toxicological effects (carcinogenic and fats and oils. Animal products also tend to accumulate
teratogenic properties). these compounds (meat meal, fish meal, etc.).

PCB form another family of chlorinated aromatic →Sampling

hydrocarbons consisting of 209 compounds (or the like). It should never be overemphasized that in all cases
They have a different origin than dioxins. They were a representative sample (sample size, number of
produced intentionally by humans from the 1930s and elementary samples, sampling sites, etc.) must always
were used for example in electrical transformers, building be obtained. This is sometimes very difficult on mash
materials, etc. Their production and use has been banned feeds for undesirables like mycotoxins which by definition
since 1987, but they are still found today «everywhere». have a heterogeneous distribution in raw materials.
12 compounds have toxicological properties similar to There are official/recommended methods : for example,
those of dioxins and are referred to as «Dioxin-like PCB» for mycotoxins and for a single batch of raw material,
= «Dioxin-like». 20 minimum elementary samples must be taken to
reconstitute a coherent mean sample.
These pollutants can be found in all raw materials
(milk, meat, etc.), but these are compounds that tend Controlling all these undesirables improves not only the
to concentrate in the fat (they are lipophilic). Particular performances of our farms but also the quality of what
we humans, consume in the end.

THANKS
We hope that this guide will provide you with enough It is essential to always consult a local nutritionist who
insight into the nutrition of pullets and layers, even if it has a thorough understanding of the market context,
only raises a number of issues that are too long to develop available raw materials, potential contaminants, and
here. It is carried out with the objective of popularization other relevant factors. This ensures that our recommen-
so that it can be used everywhere around the globe, in dations are customized to your specific local situation,
climates contexts, raw materials ... very varied and in- field results, and, at times, to each individual customer
creasingly fluctuating. and their production goals.

This guide is meant to provide general information and

cannot address all possible situations or special cases. Novogen Team
For more detailed assistance and personalized nutrition
advice, please feel free to contact us, and we will adjust
and customize the recommendations based on your
specific needs.

Acting and succeeding

together
 Commercial & Parental Layers Nutrition Guide | 59

23-143 | © Photos : Sacha Drouart, Novogen D.R.

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